Module 1 : General Psychology

Theme : Psychology and Science

Concept 2 : Contemporary Psychology
Allotted Time : 3 hours

This is a continuation of Concept 1: What is Psychology? After being introduced to the

definition, goals and history of psychology, we are now ready to move toward an aspect of
psychology that you are probably more in touch with - contemporary approaches in understanding
behavior. Before we start, I hinted at a quiz that was supposed to check if you did the homework or
not. As promised, here it is:

TRY THIS:
Psychology uses different approaches in studying behavior and mental processes. Can you list
3 approaches?
1.__________________________________
2.__________________________________
3.__________________________________

As a scientific discipline, psychology uses a lot of methods of research. Aside from

introspection, which was mentioned in the previous learning guide, can you list 3 others?
1.__________________________________
2.__________________________________
3.__________________________________

Objective:
At the end of this module, you should be able to:
1. Explain behaviors by using different contemporary approaches in psychology.
2. Appreciate the different ways psychology has in order to scientifically study behavior;

Getting in the mood:

Why do your hands sweat during exams?

If you are like many other students, you probably experience some degree of test
anxiety. Test anxiety refers to a combination of physiological, emotional, and cognitive
components that are caused by the stress of taking exams and that may interfere with one's
ability to think, reason, and plan. For others, it is an unpleasant experience but doesn't
necessarily interfere with performance in exams. For other students, test anxiety is not just
unpleasant but also seriously interferes with test performance.

Adapted from Plotnik, Rod, Introduction

To Psychology, 5 ed., 1999

STO. NIÑO COLLEGE OF ORMOC Doña Feliza Mejia Village Ormoc City [email protected] 561-4338 Module 1.1: Psychology and Science 1
 Can you list previous subjects wherein exams were particularly anxious for you? Cite 2
subjects that have caused you anxiety during exams:
1.____________________________
2.____________________________
Were your exam results affected by test anxiety? ______________________.

This module will try to explain test anxiety through contemporary approaches in psychology. It
is important for us to know why students differ in their reactions to exams and probably, how to
minimize test anxiety.

DISCUSSION:
Contemporary Approaches in Understanding Behavior

Psychologists have many questions regarding human behavior and mental processes. In trying
to answer these questions, psychologists use a combination of different approaches. Each approach
has a different focus or perspective and may use a different research method or technique.
Approaches in understanding behavior include the biological cognitive, behavioral, psychoanalytic,
humanistic and cross cultural.

Biological Approach
The biological approach focuses on how our genes, hormones, and nervous system interact
with our environments to influence learning, personality, memory, motivation, emotions and coping
techniques.
You've probably experienced one component of test anxiety, called 'emotional component.'
This component includes a variety of physiological responses, such as increased heart rate, dry
mouth, and sweaty palms. As you take an exam - or even think about taking one - your stressful
thought triggers the emotional component, which can interfere with processing information and
increase your chances of making a mistake.
One way to reduce the emotional and physiological component of test anxiety is through
stress-reducing activities, By engaging in relaxation activities like breathing or imagining peaceful
sceneries, studies have shown that test anxiety can be reduced.

Cognitive Approach
The cognitive approach focuses on how we process, store, and use information and how this
information influences what we attend to, perceive, learn, remember, believe, and feel.
Students who experience test anxiety must deal with another component. This second
component is the cognitive component, which is excessive worrying, usually about doing poorly in
exams. Excessive worrying about how well you do in a test will interfere with your ability to read
accurately, understand what you are reading, and identifying important concepts.
If worrying cannot be avoided, it is suggested that the students should channel their worrying
into other activities. Studies have shown that students who transfer their worrying into complaining
how hard the exam will be perform poorly compared to students who transferred worrying into
studying and preparing for the coming exam. So the next time you are worried about the exam,
remember that complaining doesn't help, studying does!
STO. NIÑO COLLEGE OF ORMOC Doña Feliza Mejia Village Ormoc City [email protected] 561-4338 Module 1.1: Psychology and Science 2
Behavioral Approach
The behavioral approach analyzes how organisms learn new behavior or modify existing ones,
depending on whether events in their environments reward or punish these behaviors.
We discussed how excessive worrying, which is the cognitive component of test anxiety, can
improve test performance if you channel your worrying into studying for exams. One method to
channel worrying into studying more is to use a system of self-management based on a number of
behavioral principles.
Researchers found that the following management practices are related to increasing study
time and achieving better grades:
1. select a place that you use exclusively for study
2. reward yourself for studying
3. keep a record of study time
4. establish priorities among projects
5. specify a time for each task
6. complete one task before going on to another

Psychoanalytic Approach
The psychoanalytic approach is based on the belief that childhood experiences greatly
influence the development of latter personality traits and psychological problems. It also stresses the
influence of unconscious fears, desires, and motivations on thoughts and behaviors.
Research has found that students with high test anxiety are more likely to be procrastinators.
"Procrastination" refers to the tendency to always put off a task to the point of feeling anxious or
uncomfortable about one's delay. The psychoanalytic approach would look beneath obvious reasons
students give for procrastinating and look deeper into their unconscious. Based on personality tests,
researchers have concluded that students who are regular procrastinators may have low self esteem,
are too dependent on others, or have such strong fear of failure that they do not start the task. The
psychoanalytic approach would also look at childhood experiences to explain procrastination.
Research has shown that procrastinators tend to be raised by parents who stress over-
achievement, set unrealistic goals for their children, or link achievement to parental love and
approval.

Humanistic Approach
The humanistic approach emphasizes that each individual has great freedom in directing his or
her future, a large capacity for achieving personal growth, a considerable amount of intrinsic worth,
and enormous potential for self-fulfillment.
Psychologists have studied profiles of students whose academic performance range from good
to poor. Studies show that successful students feel competent about meeting demands of each class
they attend. They believe that they can handle test situations. They are very good at organizing their
study time and leisure activities. They prepare for tests and projects and do not procrastinate. The
humanistic approach would consider these students as having found ways to reach their academic
potential.

STO. NIÑO COLLEGE OF ORMOC Doña Feliza Mejia Village Ormoc City [email protected] 561-4338 Module 1.1: Psychology and Science 3
Cross-cultural Approach
The cross-cultural approach studies the influence of cultural and ethnic similarities and
differences on psychological and social functioning
This is a new approach. This approach started in the early 1970's and attempts to understand
behavior by comparing different cultures and establishing similarities and differences between them.

TRY THIS...
Filipinos use different terms to describe somebody who happens to be intelligent. Can you list
five Filipino terms that are equated with intelligence?
Example: mahusay
__________________ _____________________ _______________
__________________ _____________________ _______________
This illustrates that our culture is unique, and psychological concepts must always be taken in
the context of the culture that studies it.

Methods of Research in Studying Behavior in Psychology

Studying behavior and mental processes cannot be achieved by a single method. It is like
saying that there is a single definition of love, or one direction in going to school. These methods can
be used in tandem or as required by the phenomena being studied. Let's take a look at some major
research methods in psychology:
1. Survey. A survey is a way to obtain information by asking many individuals either person to
person, by telephone, or by mail to answer a fixed set of questions about particular subjects or
events.
2. Case study. The case study is an in-depth analysis of thoughts, feelings, beliefs,
experiences, behaviors, or problems
3. An experiment is a method for identifying cause-and of a single individual. effect
relationships by following a set of rules and guidelines that minimize the possibility of error, bias, and
chance occurrences.
4. Questionnaire and Interviews. An interview is a technique for obtaining information by
asking subjects to read a list of written questions, ranging from open-ended to structured, about a
subject's behaviors and attitudes, usually in a one-on-one situation
5. Standardized tests. A standardized test is a technique to obtain information by
administering a psychological test that has been standardized, which means that the test has been
given to hundreds of people and has been shown to reliably measure thought patterns, personality
traits, emotions, or behaviors.
6. Observation. Researchers gather information by looking at a certain behavior and
attempting to explain it by studying it in detail, recording it and finding patterns.
These are just some of the methods psychologists use. You may find other methods but those
mentioned are considered as the major ones.
To illustrate the method called standardized tests, please answer the following exercise:

STO. NIÑO COLLEGE OF ORMOC Doña Feliza Mejia Village Ormoc City [email protected] 561-4338 Module 1.1: Psychology and Science 4
 Circle one letter for each pair of items, in accordance with your beliefs:
1. a. Many of the unhappy things in people's lives are partly due to bad luck.
b. People's misfortunes result from the mistakes they make.
2. a. Unfortunately, an individual's worth often passes unrecognized no matter how
hard he tries.
b. In the long run, people get the respect they deserve.

3. a. Without the right breaks one cannot be an effective leader.

b. Capable people who fail to become leaders have not taken advantage of their
opportunities.

4. a. I have often found that what is going to happen will happen.

b. Trusting in fate has never turned out as well for me as making a decision to take a
definite course of action.

5. a. Most people don't realize the extent to which their lives are controlled by accidental
happenings.
b. There really is no such thing as "luck."

6. a. In the long run, the bad things that happen to you are balanced by the good ones.
b. Most misfortunes are the result of lack of ability, ignorance, laziness, or all three.

7. a. Many times I feel I have little influence over the things that happen to me.
b. It is impossible for me to believe that chance or luck plays an important role in my
life.

If you answered mostly A you have an external locus of control. If you answered mostly B,
you have an internal locus of control. Now what does that mean?

What’s your result? __________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________

Locus of Control
During the 1950's and early 1960's, J.B. Rotter, a personality theorist became intrigued by the
observation that many people did not increase their feelings of personal control after experiencing
success and that others did not lower their expectancies after repeated failure. In other words, some
people tended to explain away successful outcomes as luck or chance, whereas others retained a
high sense of personal control even after their behaviors were reinforced. These tendencies also
occur in ambiguous or novel situations.

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 "Internal locus of control' refers to the perception of an event as dependent upon one's
behavior or one's personal circumstances. External control, in contrast, indicates that rewards or
punishments are results of luck, fate or chance or it may be perceived as outside the control of the
person involved.
References:
Edgar Bautista, Miriam Grace Aquino, & Cipriano Magnaye. Modules on General Psychology
Plotnik, Rod. Introduction to Psychology, 5th ed. Wadsworth Publishing Company, 1999.
Sdorow, Lester M. Psychology, 3rd ed. Addison: Brown Rechmark, 1990.
Sternberg, Robert J. Introduction to Psychology. Philadelphia: Harcourt Brace, 1997.

For the next module, we will focus on the first approach in psychology. Here you need
to at least know the diagram of the nervous system. Please read up!

Disclaimer: The School and the teachers do not claim any rights or
ownership of the information found in the learning material or
module. It is a compilation from different resources which are listed in
the reference section this is solely for educational purposes only.

STO. NIÑO COLLEGE OF ORMOC Doña Feliza Mejia Village Ormoc City [email protected] 561-4338 Module 1.1: Psychology and Science 6