HAOL, Núm.

7 (Primavera, 2005), 93-105 ISSN 1696-2060

MALAYSIAN PERCEPTIONS OF CHINA

Ibrahim Abu Bakar

National University of Malaysia, Malaysia. E-mail: [email protected]
Recibido: 27 Febrero 2005 / Revisado: 20 Marzo 2005 / Aceptado: 09 Mayo 2005 / Publicado: 15 Junio 2005

Resumen: Malaysia consisting of Malaya, Politically and historically Malaysia was

Sabah, Sarawak and Singapore gained her created on 16 September 1963 after Malaya,
independence from the British on 16 September Singapore, Sabah and Sarawak had agreed to
1963. Malaya gained her independence from form the Federation of Malaysia. Singapore,
the British on 31 August 1957. In 1965 Sabah and Sarawak gained their independence
Singapore was independent from Malaysia. from the British Government through the
Malaysia is a parliamentary democratic and Federation of Malaysia. However, Singapore
capitalistic nation. Moreover, Malaysia is a withdrew from the Federation of Malaysia in
multi-religious and multiracial nation. Malaysia 1965 and since then Singapore has been an
has been populated by the Malays, Chinese, independent nation in the southern part of
Indians and others. The Malays are Muslims Malaysian Peninsula.
and Islam is the religion of the Federation of
Malaysia. Malaysia has a very long history with Malaya is the English name for the Malay name
China but China never colonizad certain areas Tanah Melayu (the Malay land) or
in Malaysia and then the British colonized the Semenanjung Tanah Melayu (the Malay
whole Malaysia. Malaysian perceptions of peninsula). Malaya gained her independence
China are influenced by many internal and from the British Government on 31 August
external factors such as the politico-ideologies, 1957 after the Malayans demanded the
economic development as well as the national, independence of Malaya. The Malayan three
regional and international relations and ethnic groups namely the Malays, the Chinese
diplomacies. This short article presents and the Indians formed three exclusive ethnic
Malaysian perceptions of China from the political parties namely the United Malays
cultural, political and economic perspectives. National Organization (UMNO), the Malayan
Palabras clave: China, cultural, economic, Chinese Association (MCA), and the Malayan
international relations, Islam, Malaysia, Indian Congress (MIC) to negotiate for the
political, Singapore. independence of Malaya. The Malay, Chinese
_____________________ and Indian leaders of the three political parties
were united and determined to demand the
INTRODUCTION independence of Malaya. The Malay political
leader Tunku Abdul Rahman, the President of

G eographically Malaysia is located in UMNO, led the Malayan political leaders in

Southeast Asia. Malaysia is divided their meetings and negotiations with the British
into two different geographical Government officers in Malaya as well as in
locations namely Malaysian Peninsula located Britain for the independence of Malaya. Tunku
between Thailand in the northern part and Abdul Rahman became the first Prime Minister
Singapore in the southern part, and Sabah and of Malaya on 31 August 1957.
Sarawak located in northwestern Borneo. Sabah
was known as North Borneo before becoming On the independent day, 31 August 1957, the
part of Malaysia. Borneo is an island in Federation of Malaya consisted of eleven states
Indonesia. The larger portion of Borneo belongs namely Perlis, Penang, Kedah, Perak, Selangor,
to Indonesia. Another state located between Negeri Sembilan, Malacca, Johor, Pahang,
Sabah and Sarawak is Brunei, an independent Terengganu and Kelantan. Each state has a
Malay monarchy state. Malay ruler or sultan except two states namely
Penang and Malacca. The Malay ruler is the

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 Malaysian perceptions of China Ibrahim Abu Bakar

head of Islamic religion and the Malay custom The idea to form the Federation of Malaysia
in his respective state. The Federal Constitution came from Malayan political leaders led by
of Malaya clearly explains the rights and duties Tunku Abdul Rahman. He proposed the idea to
of Malayan citizens, the rights and duties of the the British Government and to the leaders in
Prime Minister and his cabinet ministers and Singapore, Sarawak, Sabah and Brunei. Brunei
ministries, the Malayan sultans and the did not favor the idea of Malaysia. One of the
Malayan King known in the Malay legal terms main political reasons was to prevent
as Yang di-Pertuan Agong, Parliamentary Communism of Communist China from
system, legal and juristic system for the infiltrating into those colonized states in order
independent Malaya. In the Malayan to gain their independence from the British
constitution, Islam is the religion of the Government. Singapore was considered the first
Federation of Malaya. The constitution states target of Communism because of her most
that the Malay rulers or sultans are the heads of dominant Chinese population in Southeast Asia.
Islamic religion and Malay custom in their "Therefore, instead of having nothing to do
respective states. Constitutionally and with Singapore it might be better for the
politically, Malaya is a political democratic Malayan government to prevent the spread of
parliamentary nation. Her federal constitution Communism by associating with her."2
provides for the formation of the political
parties to take part in the federal and state In November 1961 the proposal to form the
general elections and the Malayan voters can Federation of Malaysia was agreed upon by the
vote for their political candidates who become governments of Malaya, Singapore and Britain.
their representatives in the Malayan Parliament The Commission chaired by Lord Cobbold was
and in the State Legislative Assemblies. The set up to interview the inhabitants of Sarawak
Malayan constitution provided for the Malayan and North Borneo if they wanted to join
Government to call for the general elections for Malaysia for their independence. "There were
the Parliament and the State Legislative certainly more in favour than were against and
Assemblies every five years. The Malayan as a result of the Cobbold Report the Malayan
constitution also provides for the establishment and British governments agreed in July 1962
of Islamic courts known in Malay as that the new state of Malaysia would come into
Mahkamah Syariah for Muslims in dealing with being on 31 August 1963."3
the Islamic rituals and doctrines, the family
laws and the law of inheritance. The Presidents of Indonesia and the Philippines
objected to the idea of Malaysia consisting of
The democratic independent Malaya had been Sarawak and North Borneo and demanded the
politically ruled by the Alliance Party (or in United Nations to make sure that the inhabitants
Malay Parti Perikatan) consisting UMNO, of Sarawak and North Borneo were free to
MCA and MIC, and the Malay political leader decide either to join Malaysia, Indonesia or the
who was the President of UMNO had been Philippines because both Indonesian and the
appointed the Prime Minister of Malaya. For Philippine Presidents claimed that Sarawak and
example, in the federal and state elections of North Borneo were part of their historical
1959, the Alliance Party led by Tunku Abdul territories before the British came to the areas
Rahman won 74 seats in the Malayan and colonized Sarawak and North Borneo. "In
Parliament, the Pan-Malayan Islamic Party August 1963 a team from the United Nations
(PMIP) won 13 seats, the Socialist Front Party carried out the investigation of public opinion
won 8 seats and the People's Progressive Party in Sarawak and North Borneo and they reported
(PPP) won 4 seats. In the elections for the State back to the Secretary-General that, in their
Legislative Assemblies, the Alliance Party won view, the majority of the people were in favour
all the state seats in the nine states and lost to of joining Malaysia." The Philippines and
PMIP in the states of Terengganu and Indonesian Presidents did not recognize the
Kelantan1. PMIP had been the most influential report made by the United Nations. The
Malay political opposition party in Malayan political leaders of Sarawak, Malaya, Singapore
political history. PMIP is able to rule at one and North Borneo welcomed the report made
time or another the states of Kelantan and by the United Nations and the new state of
Terengganu in Malayan and Malaysian political Malaysia comprising Malaya, Singapore,
history. PMIP has been unable to rule other Sarawak and Sabah came into existence on 16
states in Malayan and Malaysian political September 1963. "And on that same day the
history since 1957 until the present, 2005. governments of Indonesia and the Philippines

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Ibrahim Abu Bakar Malaysian perceptions of China

broke off diplomatic relations, while the Malaysians from Indonesia), 2,552,276
Indonesian campaign to crush Malaysia began Chinese, 772,880 Indians and Pakistanis, and
in earnest."4 122,897 others"8. Other Malaysians in Malaya
from Indonesia were known as Javanese,
On the independent date and on the states in the Boyanese, Minangkabau, Banjarese and Bugis.
Federation of Malaysia, Hooker writes,
"Federation of Malaysia: 16 September 1963: The economic development in Malaya under
all states of the Federation of Malaya with the British rule had attracted many Chinese
Sarawak, British North Borneo thereafter called from China to work in the tin mines in Perak
Sabah, and Singapore. Singapore left the and Selangor, and many Indians from southern
federation in 1965."5 part of India to work in the rubber estates and
railways and roads constructions. "After the
Hence politically and historically on 16 British had established their protectorate
September 1963, Malaysia became an system, the population of Malaya increased by
independent nation-state. The Federal leaps and bounds. In 1911 it was about 2.3
Constitution of Malaya becomes the Federal million, in 1931 3.8 million, in 1947 4.9
Constitution of Malaysia with some new million, and in 1957 6.3 million."9
articles amended and added to include Sabah,
Sarawak and Singapore. Islam remains the Regarding the number of Indian and Chinese
religion for the Federation of Malaysia even immigrants in Malaya during the British rule,
though many Malaysians in Sabah and Sarawak Purcell states, "The Indian community had
were not Muslims when Malaysia was declared increased from 445,000 in 1921 to 582,000 in
independence. After 1965, Singapore was no 1931, but had fallen to 545,000 in 1947. But the
longer in the Federation of Malaysia. Mr. Lee most numerous immigrants were from China.
Kuan Yew, the Prime Minister of Singapore, on The Chinese community grew from 1.17
the independent day of Malaysia led the million in 1921 to 1.7 million in 1931, 2.6
independent republic of Singapore. The million in 1947, and 3.8 million in 1960."10
Malaysian Prime Minister Tunku Abdul
Rahman and his cabinet ministers decided to Like Malaya, Malaysia is the multiracial and
grant Singapore independence for political, multicultural nation with the addition of the
racial and business reasons. According to Ryan, indigenous peoples known collectively as
"The Malay States of the Peninsula had been Bumiputera (the sons of the land) from Sabah
cautious of association with Singapore because and Sarawak. Some of them are known as
of the latter's overwhelming Chinese Ibans, Kadazans, Bajau, Murut, Bisayau and
population," Singapore was not included in the Melanao. The Malays are often included in
Federation of Malaya due to the political and Bumiputera in Malaysian political and
racial reasons6. According to Hooker, economic terms. The Malaysian population in
"Singapore's entry to Malaysia was not 2000 was estimated 23.27 million peoples. "The
wholeheartedly welcomed by Chinese and Population and Housing Census 2000", reports
Malays on the Peninsula. Some members of the that "The total population of Malaysia,
Malayan Chinese Association (MCA) viewed according to the 2000 Census, was 23.27
their colleagues in the PAP as potential rivals million compared to 18.38 million in 1991 thus
for Chinese votes and feared Singapore giving an average annual population growth
competition in the Chinese business world of rate of 2.6% over the 1991-2000 period."11
the Peninsula. The very conservative members
of the United Malays National Organisation On the ethnic composition of Malaysian
(UMNO), who jealously guarded the special citizens, the 2000 Census reports that
position of the Malays, were suspicious of the "Bumiputera comprised 65.1%, Chinese 26.0%
multiracial platform of the PAP"7. PAP is the and Indians 7.7%, and the ethnic composition
acronym for People's Action Party led by Lee being 60.6%, 28.1% and 7,9% respectively in
Kuan Yew. 1991. In Sarawak, the predominant ethnic group
in Census 2000 was the Ibans, which accounted
Malaya is a multiracial and multicultural nation. for 30.1% of the state's total Malaysian citizens
Her population in mid- year 1960 was estimated followed by the Chinese (26.7%) and Malays
6,909,009 peoples and "The breakdown of the (23.9%). Similar data for Sabah showed the
population into races was 3,460,956 Malaysians predominant ethnic group being the Kadazan
(comprising indigenous Malays and other

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 Malaysian perceptions of China Ibrahim Abu Bakar

Dusun (18.4%) followed by Bajau (17.3%) and Empire took a very keen interest in the events
Malays (15.3%)."12 of South- East Asia."14

On the Malaysian religious adherents, the Ryan is of the view that Malaysian
Census 2000 expresses that "It was observed geographical position has made her known in
that religion is highly correlated with ethnicity. world history in the past, present and future.
Islam was the most widely professed religion in Ryan states, "Malaysia owes her historical
Malaysia; its proportion increasing from 58.6% importance to her geographical position.
in 1991 to 60.4% in 2000. Malaysia, being a Because of this position she has long had
multi-religious nation, also had a fair share of contact with India and China, contact both
those embracing other religions such as political and cultural which has continued into
Buddhism (19.2%), Christianity (9.1%), the present century. Chinese influence on
Hinduism (6.3%) and Malaysia had been fairly slight in comparison
Confucianism/Taoism/other traditional Chinese with that of India, at least until the nineteenth
religion (2.6%) as revealed in Census 2000."13 century"15.

MALASYAN PERCEPTIONS OF CHINA Culturally China had established her contact

with Malaya and then Malaysia during the
Based on the Census 2000, the Malaysian main Neolithic or New Stone Age. The Proto-Malays
citizens are the Malays, the Bumiputera, the who are considered among the earliest
Chinese, the Indians and others. According to inhabitants in Malaya are said to be from China
the Federal Constitution of Malaysia, the especially from the Yunnan province in
Malays in Malaysia are Muslims. Other southern China. Ryan writes about the Proto-
Muslims in Malaysia are Chinese, Indians, and Malays who migrated from China to the Malay
Bumiputera. As shown in the Census 2000, Peninsula saying, "The newly-arrived Proto-
60.4% of Malaysian citizens are Muslims. From Malays had their origin in southern China and
this Islamic religious prevalence in Malaysia, between 2500 and 1500 B.C. forced their way
Malaysian perceptions of China can be seen as southward through the Peninsula and on to the
Malaysian Muslim perception of China. islands beyond. The Proto-Malays were also a
However, from Malaysian political perspective, stone-age people, but because their stone
Malaysia has been ruled by the political parties implements were better than those of the
not based on the religious adherence or Negritos, this period is called the Neolithic or
affiliation but based more on the ethnic New Stone Age."16
preference in the Parti Perikatan (the Alliance
Party) consisting UMNO, MCA and MIC and Another immigrants from Yunnan in southern
then in 1974 the Alliance Party was named the China arrived in the Malay Peninsula in 300
Barisan Nasional (the National Front) B.C. and they are known as the Deutero-
consisting UMNO, MCA, MIC and other Malays. They overcame the Proto-Malays. Both
political parties in the Peninsular Malaysia, the Proto-Malays and the Deutero-Malays were
Sabah and Sarawak. Hence, Malaysian basically Mongoloid from Yunnan. The Deutro-
perceptions of China are based on cultural, Malays were more advanced than the Proto-
political and economic perceptions. Malays because the Deutro-Malays "had
acquired the knowledge of metals, using iron
MALAYSIAN CULTURAL PERCEPTION weapons and tools [...] Thus the final wave of
OF CHINA immigrants, who together with the Deutero-
Malays later formed the Malay population of
It is agreed that since her earliest history, Malaysia, came to the Peninsula and Borneo
Malaya and then Malaysia has established her from the islands of Java and Sumatra in the
cultural relations with India and China. In the centuries that followed, especially when the
words of Ryan, "THROUGHOUT history area was part of the island-Empire of
Malaysia has been influenced by both India and Srivijaya"17. The island-Empire of Srivijaya
China. This influence has in some periods been was from 700 A.D to 100018.
very strong, especially from India, from where
Malaysia received much of her early culture The Deutero-Malay settlers were not nomadic.
and her religions. Chinese influence was always They were farmers and fishermen living in the
less direct but a certain times, [...] the Chinese villages near the rivers and the seas. Their
religion was animism and they were animists

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Ibrahim Abu Bakar Malaysian perceptions of China

because they believed in the existence and Some Malaysian Chinese received their
widespread of spirits dwelling in trees, stones, educational trainings and academic
animals and other objects19. Religiously, it is qualifications in Chinese educational
probably not wrong to assert that the Deutero- institutions of higher learning using the Chinese
Malays, the ancestors of the Malays in Malaya language. They come back to Malaysia to teach
and Malaysia, were the worshippers of the at the Chinese schools in Malaysia especially
spirits and after the Malays converted to Islam the Chinese language. The graduates from the
in the 13th or 14th century A.D, they have Chinese educational institutions also serve in
become of the worshippers of Allah. However, Malaysia in other occupations or professions,
the inherited animism still strives in certain not limited to the teaching profession.
cases especially when the Malays turn to the
Malay bomohs or the traditional medicine men The Chinese cultural groups have no legal
to cure some illnesses. The Malay bomohs often problems or restrictions to visit and perform
call upon the unseen spirits to help them to cure their cultural shows in Malaysia on their own
the sick Malay men. initiatives or on the initiatives from the Chinese
cultural groups and non-government groups
During the Malacca Malay Sultanate, (NGOs) in Malaysia.
1398/1400-1511 A.D., the Malay rulers in
Malacca established the cultural relationship MALAYSIAN DIPLOMATIC AND
with China. The Malay rulers and their POLITICAL PERCEPTION OF CHINA
followers visited China many times. They
brought with them the gifts and presents to the The earliest political relation between the
Chinese emperors and in return they also Malay Peninsula and China was in the 3rd
received the gifts and presents from the Chinese century A.D. The Wu dynasty (222-280 A.D)
emperors. sent Shun Quan and Zhu Ying to Southeast
Asian including the Malay Peninsula. During
The voyages made many times by the Chinese the 5th and 6th centuries, China continued to
admiral Zheng Ho or Cheng Ho (1371-1433) to send her envoys to Southeast Asian including
Malacca and other countries in Southeast Asia the Malay Peninsula. Then the Tang dynasty
and Asia and Africa established the cultural (618-907), the Song dynasty (960-1274) and the
relations between China and Malacca. He also Yuan dynasty (1206-1368) continued their
held to spread Islam outside China20. Zheng Ho political and friendship relations with the Malay
was reported to visit Malacca seven times Peninsula23.
starting in 1405 until 1433. He also visited
Pahang in 1405 and 1412, Johor in 1409 and In the 15th century the diplomatic and political
Kelantan in 1412 and other areas in the Malay relation between China and the Malacca Malay
Peninsula or Malaya21. After the Malacca Sultanate was well known and recorded in
Malay Sultanate lost their political power and many Malay and Chinese sources. The Malay
state to the Portuguese who conquered Malacca rulers or sultans in Malacca looked up to
in 1511, there was no more cultural relation Chinese emperors to protect them from being
between Malacca and China in the name of the attacked by and subjected to the Siamese kings
state and government. The Dutch defeated the who ruled Thailand, the northern part of the
Portuguese in Malacca in 1641 and ruled Malay Peninsula or Malaya. The Malacca
Malacca until the British took over Malacca Sultanate was from 1398/1400 until 1511 A.D.
from the Dutch in 1799. The British ruled "In the fourteenth century the greater part of the
Malacca until the independence of Malaya on Malay Peninsula was under the influence of the
31 August 1957. Siamese (Thais), while the most powerful state
in Borneo and the Indonesian islands was the
After the independence of Malaya and Malaysia Javanese Kingdom of Majapahit. However, not
in 1957 and 1963 respectively, the cultural all the Peninsula was subjected to the Thais."24
relations with China have been resumed since
May 1974 until the present day. Tun Abdul One of the geographical areas in the Malay
Razak, the second Malaysian prime minister, Peninsula not subjected to the Thais was the
visited China or People's Republic of China Malacca Sultanate because of her continuous
(PRC) on 31 May 197422. and persistent efforts to establish and strengthen
the diplomatic and political relations with
China. "China was the dominant political power

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 Malaysian perceptions of China Ibrahim Abu Bakar

because she was generally a united empire.. It was farther away and more powerful than Siam.
was to the Chinese Emperors that embassies "If Parameswara could obtain China's
and gifts were sent; it was to China that almost protection it would be a useful counter- weight
all the states of South- East Asia, at one time or to hold against the Siamese if they became
another, looked for protection. China was the aggressive. Probably because of these
overlord rather than India. She did not directly considerations Parameswara sent envoys to
interfere very much in South-East Asian affairs China almost as soon as he had established
but she was always there in the background"25. himself in Malacca. This was the time of the
That sort of Chinese diplomatic and political Ming dynasty (1368-1644) in China."29
mode towards the states in Southeast Asia
explains why the Malacca Malay sultans were The Chinese Emperor, Chu Ti (1403-1424), the
very willing to have the diplomatic and political third emperor of the Ming dynasty (1368-1644),
relations with the Chinese Emperors. "was interested in the world outside China, and
his reign was a time of most unusual Chinese
The Malay rulers of Malacca consisting Sri maritime activity [...] The Chinese Government
Parameswara (1400-1414), Megat Iskandar was not averse, therefore, to accepting
Shah (1414-1424), Sri Maharaja Mohammad Parameswara's request for protection. In 1403 a
Shah (1424-1445), Sri Parameswara Dewa Shah Chinese feet led by an admiral named Yin
(1445-1446), Sultan Mudzaffar Shah (1446- Ching arrived in Malacca from China bringing
1459), Sultan Mansur Shah (1459-1477), Sultan presents and also confirming Paramewara as the
Alauddin Riayat Shah (1477-1488), and Sultan ruler of the settlement. In return further envoys
Mahmud Shah (1488-1511)26. were sent to China in the same year and again
in 1407."30
Another source or reference mentions that the
Malay rulers of Malacca Sultanate consisting Another source states that in 1403 Yin Qing
Parameswara Iskandar Shah (1394-1414), was sent by the Chinese emperor of the Ming
Megat Iskandar Shah (1414-1424), Muhammad dynasty to Malacca with the presents and gifts
Shah (Raja Tengah) (1424-1444), Abu Shahid and acknowledged Parameswara as the ruler of
(Raja Ibrahim) (1445-1446), Muzaffar Shah Malacca. In 1405 Yin Qing returned to China
(Raja Qasim) (1446-1456), Mansur Shah (1456- and Parameswara sent his envoy and delegates
1477), Alauddin Riayat Shah (1477-1488), and with the presents and gifts to the Chinese
Mahmud Shah (1488- 1511)27. emperor. The Malacca's envoy sailed on Yin
Qing's ships to China. Parameswara
Parameswara was a Hindu prince from acknowledged the Chinese protection of
Palembang in Sumatra, Indonesia. He was a Malacca31.
rejected prince and he fled to Tumasik or
Temasik, the classical old name for Singapore. Another Chinese envoy sent by the Chinese
He killed the ruler of Tumasik and ruled it for emperor of the Ming dynasty (1368- 1643)
few years before the Siamese in 1398 or 1400 many times to Malacca and other states in
sent out their armed forces to suppress the Southeast Asia and Asia was Zheng He (known
pirates in the Straits of Malacca and to demand also as Zheng Ho, Cheng Ho or Sam Po Kong
allegiance of Tumasik that was known for the (1371-1433). The name Cheng Ho is known
pirating activities. From Tumasik, Parameswara and found in the Malay historical records. It is
and his followers went to Muar in Johor and to recorded in Chinese historical records that
Malacca, a small fishing settlement at that time. Zheng He, the Chinese admiral and envoy,
He established himself as the ruler there and visited Malacca seven times starting in 1405
under his leadership the fishing settlement was until 1433. Through his frequent visits to
turned to the known seaport in the early Malacca, Zheng Ho affirmed, confirmed or
fifteenth century28. strengthened the Chinese political protection of
Malacca kingdom32. According to Ryan, Cheng
For diplomatic and political reasons, Ho, the Chinese admiral, "made seven voyages
Parameswara had to seek the protection of the to the West between 1408 and 1431. His main
strong powers since his kingdom could not purpose seems to have been to enforce Chinese
grow bigger and more powerful if he was not suzerainty and to collect tribute."33
protected by the strong powers. The two strong
powers in the fifteenth century in the states of Parameswara visited Chinese emperor on the
Southeast Asia were Siam and China. China ships led by Admiral Cheng or Zheng Ho in

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Ibrahim Abu Bakar Malaysian perceptions of China

1411. Ryan states that in 1411 Cheng Ho "took (PRC). PRC was declared and created in
Parameswara with him to China so that the ruler October 1949 by Mao Zedong and Communism
of Malacca could hand over his tribute in was the ideological and political system of
person. Parameswara was accompanied by five PRC.
hundred and forty followers,. This visit in effect
confirmed Parameswara's new status as an The Tunku did not want to have the political
independent king owing suzerainty to China and diplomatic relations with PRC due to his
alone. In 1413 Cheng Ho was accompanied on anti-communism as well as the communist
his visit to Malacca by a Chinese Muslim called threats to the newly independent Malaya. His
Ma Huan."34 anti-communism was expressed in 1958 in the
following words, "We must not deceive
Parameswara converted to Islam. From ourselves that communism is merely local.
"northern Sumatra that the religion of Islam was Communism we know is an intrinsic part of an
introduced to Malacca. Islam came to South international conspiracy for world domination
East Asia from India and became established in and so all countries, which believe in
northern Sumatra sometime towards the end of democracy and human rights and liberty, must
the thirteenth century.(Ryan 1974: 19). "By the rally together and fight it. We have to face up to
time Parameswara died in 1414 there was a the threat of communism. This is why we in
fairly numerous Muslim trading community in Malaya who value our freedom cannot be
the city. Malacca itself was now firmly neutral about communism38. Tunku Abdul
established with the support and protection of Rahman was an arch opponent of communism
the Ming emperors and there is little doubt that either coming from the Soviet Union or from
Parameswara had been successful in his last China. For Purcell, "The Tunku was a Malay
venture."35 and an uncompromising enemy of Communism,
the USSR, and Communist China."39
Megat Iskandar Shah who succeeded
Parameswara visited China in 1414-1415 and About the communism and communist guerillas
then 1419 for Chinese political protection in Malaya before and after her independence,
against the Siamese. The Malacca ruler named they were mainly among the Malayan Chinese,
Sri Maharaja or Muhammad Shah or Raja not the Malayan Malays. "The twelve-year long
Tengah, the third Malay ruler of Malacca, battle with the Chinese Communist guerillas in
visited Chinese emperor in 1424 and 1433. the jungle had left behind a legacy of suspicion
"Admiral Cheng Ho made one more visit to in the minds of the Malays." The PRC had
Malacca during his reign, but soon after his given moral support to the Chinese communist
death the Chinese interest in overseas voyages insurgents in Malaya on the pretext that they
stopped, and China withdrew again into her were against the Western imperialism. In
policy of seclusion"36. It is well acknowledged addition, there was no guarantee that the
by both the Malay and the Chinese historical Chinese communists in Malaya would not rebel
records that the political and diplomatic against the independent Government of Malaya
relations established between the Ming dynasty if they saw the opportunity was opened to them.
and the Malacca Malay kingdom were Hence, the Alliance Government led by the
beneficial and useful for both nations or states Tunku showed "definite hostility" towards PRC
during the 15th century37. and refused to diplomatically recognize PRC40.
The hostile relationship between Malaya and
During the British rule in Malaya, the foreign PRC in the late 1950s encouraged Tunku Abdul
diplomatic and political relations were under Rahman, the first Malayan prime minister, "to
the direct control of the British Government. side warmly with India over the Sino- Indian
The Malay rulers in Malaya had no power over frontier war which reached its climax in
the foreign affairs. The Malay rulers were the 1962."41
heads of Malay customs and the religion of
Islam in their respective states. Communalism and communism among the
Chinese in Malaya were considered more
After the independence of Malaya in August dangerous than the extremism among the
1957, the Malayan Government led by Tunku Malays to the Malayan political and racial
Abdul Rahman did not establish the political stability. Malayan Communist Party (MCP)
and diplomatic relations with China or to be which was banned by the British and Malayan
more accurate the People's Republic of China Governments exploited the Malayan Chinese

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 Malaysian perceptions of China Ibrahim Abu Bakar

who refused to be "Malayans in heart and struggled against the British and then against
spirit', and the Malayan Malays who were the independent Malaya. In July 1960 the
attracted by socialism and extremism42. independent Malayan Government officially
declared the end of the Emergency that was
In June 1948 when the Malayan communists declared in June 1948 by the British to fight
came out in rebellion, the British Government against the MCP and its terrorized activities and
in Malaya declared the state of emergency. armed struggles in Malaya47. The MCP was still
"The Communists were opposed by a perceived as an internal threat to the Malaysian
considerable force of British and Malay troops, security up to 1989. In that year the members of
and about 60,000 Malay police and (later) about MCP agreed to abandon their communist
40,000 Home Guard." The state of emergency ideology and surrendered their weapons to the
in Malaya went on for more than twelve years Malaysian Government48.
to fight against the communists in Malayan
jungles and urban Chinese secret societies43. The Malayan and Malaysian Prime Minister
The Malayan Emergency, 1948-1960 is "best Tunku Abdul Rahman (August 1957- 1970) did
remembered as a period of tension, instability not agree to establish the diplomatic and
and totalitarianism". The Malayan communists political relations with China or the PRC due to
were able to kill Sir Henry Gurney, the British the communist internal threat to Malayan and
High Commissioner in October 1951. "The Malaysian security and stability as well as his
Emergency got its name largely from the anti-communism. Hence during his Malayan
Emergency Regulations" introduced to wipe out premiership he did not attempt to have the
the communists in Malaya44. political and diplomatic relations with the PRC.

Since the 1930s the Malayan Communist Party However, his successor Abdul Razak (1970-
(MCP) had been active and they struggled 1976) decided to establish the diplomatic and
against the Japanese occupation in Malaya political relations with the PRC in May 1974
during the Second World War 1941-1945. The although the communists in Malaysia were still
MCP was able to attract members from the seen dangerous to Malaysian security and
Chinese and Indian workers to resist the British stability. Despite the establishment of the
colonialism after the end of the Second World formal diplomatic ties between Malaysia and
War when the British returned to Malaya and the PRC in May 1974, "suspicions lingered for
resumed their rule over Malaya. Due to its another two decades. Only in the 1990s did ties
terrorized activities and armed resistance begin to fully bloom when the interests of both
against the British rule in Malaya, the MCP was sides converged."49
banned since July 1948 after the murder of
three British estate managers in Perak in mid- The suspicious relations between Malaysia and
1948 and the British declared the State of the PRC from 1974 to the 1990s covered the
Emergency in Malaya in June 194845. The reigns of the second, third and fourth Malaysia's
Malayan Chinese Chin Peng led the MCP. "By prime ministers namely Tun Abdul Razak
1957, the official casualties as the result of (1970-1976), Tun Hussein Onn (1976-1981)
MCP actions were 2890 police, 3253 civilians and Dr. Mahathir Mohamad (1981-2003)
and 518 military, emphasizing the `success' of respectively. There were many reasons for
British policy to manage the conflict as a Malaysian prime ministers to be suspicious
police, rather than military action." In 1951, the about the PRC such as the cold war between the
members of MCP were estimated about 8000 United States and the USSR and the
persons but by 1958, its members were less Vietnamese wars against the communists and
than 1000 and they moved with Chin Peng into the US took part in the war against the
the jungles bordering Malaysia and Thailand46. communists in Vietnam as well as Malaysian
pro-Western foreign policy.
In December 1956, Tunku Abdul Rahman, the
political leader of UMNO and the Alliance Shee Poon Kim writes about the disapproval
Party consisting MCA and MIC, and the MCA Malaysian view of the PRC stating, "During the
leader Tan Cheng Lock met Chin Peng at cold war period i.e. from the 1950s to the 1970s
Baling, Kedah and asked him to stop his armed Malaysia perceived China as an ideological and
struggle against the British rule. Chin Peng did security threat, mainly because of Maoist
not agree and he and his men remained in the support of the communist revolutionary
jungles and advocated communism and movements in Southeast Asia. In 1982,

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Ibrahim Abu Bakar Malaysian perceptions of China

Mahathir openly criticized China's continued the Spratly Islands. In 1993 the dispute over the
links with the Malaysian communist insurgency Spratly Islands or Spratlys still unsettled.
and by implication that Beijing could pose a However, Dr. Mahathir claimed that China was
potential security threat to Malaysia."50 willing to talk over the issue with Malaysia55.

Tun Abdul Razak became the Malaysia's Dr. Mahathir decided to improve the diplomatic
second prime minister in September 1970 after and political relations with China for several
"the race riots of May 1969" in Kuala Lumpur reasons such as for his looking east policy and
especially between the Chinese and Malays in his strange relation or stand with the Western
Malaysia. He differed from his predecessor nations. "For Mahathir, improved political
Tunku Abdul Rahman in their looking at the relations with China enabled him to draw
PRC. He moved towards "rapprochement with Malaysia away from reliance on the West and
China" to stabilize the relations between the fulfill his goal of achieving greater East Asian
Chinese and Malays in Malaysia and deal with political and economic cooperation, thus
the Malaysian communist insurgency staking his claim as the architect of an
movements. Tun Abdul Razak hoped that the independent and dynamic Malaysian foreign
PRC would stop providing any assistance the policy."56 In August 1999 Dr. Mahathir visited
Malaysian Communist Party (MCP) after the Beijing and held talks on bilateral relations with
diplomatic relation was established between Chinese President Jiang Zemin and Chinese
Malaysia and China51. "Finally, in May 1974, Premier Zhu Rongji. The two nations again
Prime Minister Tun Razak visited China and agreed that "the South China Sea dispute should
paved the way for the formal establishment of be resolved through peaceful negotiations
bilateral diplomatic relations. The Joint without the involvement of external parties."57
Communique, which was signed by Tun Razak
and Zhou Enlai, became the basis for the Dr. Mahathir did not believe that the Chinese
bilateral relationship."52 leaders wanted to expand their territories like
the Western nations did. Moreover, he was in
However, what was expected by Tun Abdul favor of having good relations with China due
Razak from China related to the communist to the United States' plan to build their military
insurgency movements in Malaysia was below base in Singapore. For him, the Westerners who
the expectation. They had increased their projected the China threat to Southeast Asian
activities including "a number of high profile nations for their own greed and hegemonic
attacks", they assassinated "the inspector tendencies over other nations including China.
general of police" in the city of Kuala Lumpur
and bombed "the National Monument that As seen above, Dr. Mahathir was pragmatic
symbolized the country's victory against the towards China because of her great number of
communists during the Emergency"53. Hence population and her becoming a great power. For
the Malaysian diplomatic relation with China him, Malaysia could not ignore China. There
had remained weak and suspicious from 1974 was no way for Malaysia to "get rid of China. It
up to 1990s even though Deng Xiaoping, the is a big country with 1.3 billion very
Chinese leader, visited Malaysia in November hardworking and intelligent people. No matter
1978 and honored by Tun Hussein Onn who what you do, they will be there. You cannot
succeeded Tun Abdul Razak in 1976 after the eliminate 1.3 billion people. So you have to
demise of the latter. In December 1979 learn how to live with China. It will become a
Malaysia began to confront China over the great power, even if it will not be able to
Spratly Islands dispute. In April 1980 dominate the whole world. So, we have to find
Malaysia's "Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) of ways to live with China, as a neighbour and
200 nautical miles" included certain parts of the fellow member of the planet."
Spratly Islands. The PRC, Taiwan, Vietnam and
the Philippines also claimed their rights over Abdullah Ahmad Badawi who succeeded Dr.
the Spratly Islands54. Matahir in late October 2003 continued Dr.
Mahathir's favorable and friendly diplomatic
When Dr. Mahathir succeeded Tun Hussein in and political relations with China. In May 2004
July 1981, the dispute over the Spratly Islands Abdullah visited China where he visited Beijing
was still there. In June 1983, the Chinese and Shanghai to boost bilateral ties between
Foreign Ministry protested against Malaysia's Malaysia and China in conjunction with the
deployment of commandos to some islands in 30th anniversary of Malaysia-China bilateral

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 Malaysian perceptions of China Ibrahim Abu Bakar

relations. It is reported in People's Daily Online Statement on Framework for the Future
that "On his first visit to China as prime Bilateral Cooperation between China and
minister of Malaysia, Badawi praised China as Malaysia signed in Beijing on 31 May 1999.
a country of growing importance, one that is They reaffirmed the significance and relevance
promoting world peace and development. He of the two Documents in guiding the future
pledged that Malaysia will strengthen its development of China-Malaysia relations. Both
cooperation with China on the international and leaders stressed that they would intensify efforts
regional arena."58 to implement the various cooperation
programmes outlined in the Documents"60
In Beijing, on May 29, 2004, "China and
Malaysia issued a joint communiqué on From Malaysian historical point, the first
bilateral relations". It is stated in that joint document on the establishment of the
communique that "At the invitation of H.E. diplomatic relations between Malaysia and
Wen Jiabao, Premier of the State Council of the China was signed by Abdul Razak, Malaysian
People's Republic of China, H. E. Dato' Sri second prime minister. The second document
Abdullah Ahmad Badawi, Prime Minister of on the bilateral cooperation between Malaysia
Malaysia paid an official visit to China from 27 and China was signed by Dr. Mahathir,
to 31 May 2004. The visit was also to mark the Malaysian fourth prime minister. Abdullah
30th anniversary of the establishment of Ahmad Badawi, Malaysian fifth prime minister,
diplomatic relations between the People's signed the joined communiqué between China
Republic of China and Malaysia. During the and Malaysia on 29 May 2004. Hence, the three
visit, Prime Minister Abdullah met with H. E. official documents on Malaysia-China bilateral
Hu Jintao, President of the People's Republic of relations are signed by the three different
China, held official talks with Premier Wen Malaysian prime ministers namely Abdul
Jiabao, and together with Vice Premier Huang Razak in May 1974, Dr. Mahathir in May 1999,
Ju, attended the commemorative reception of and Abdullah in May 2004 respectively.
the 30th anniversary of China-Malaysia
diplomatic relations. The two sides had an in- From Malaysian political and diplomatic point
dept exchange of views on bilateral, regional of view, since May 1974 all Malaysian prime
and international issues of mutual interest in a ministers have agreed to establish and enhance
friendly and cordial atmosphere, the leaders of the bilateral relations with China or People's
both countries reached broad consensus on the Republic of China for Malaysian internal and
issues discussed."59 external interests as well as for Malaysian
regional and international interests.
The Joint Communique between China and
Malaysia dated 29 May 2004 is the third THE MALAYSIAN ECONOMIC
document on bilateral relations between the two PERCEPTIONS OF CHINA
countries. It acknowledged the existence and
importance of the two earlier documents on The economic relations between China and
bilateral relations namely the communiqué on Malaysia is said to have taken place as early as
the establishment of diplomatic relations the first century A.D. The Chinese traders from
between Malaysia and China signed in May China had traded with the population areas in
1974 Malaysian and Chinese leaders, and the the Malay Peninsula such as in Johore in the
joint statement signed by Malaysian and first century A.D. In the third century the
Chinese leaders on 31 May 1999. The two Chinese traders came to Kelantan and
earlier documents are both acknowledged as the Langkasuka and in 10th up to 13th century to
basis for the joint communiqué signed by the Langkasuka, Perlis, Kedah, Perak and
Malaysian and Chinese leaders on 29 May Kelantan61. During the 15th century, the
2004. Chinese traders came to trade in the Malacca
Malay Sultanate62.
Regarding the existence and importance of the
two earlier documents, the joint communiqué of Since the independence of Malaya in 1957 and
29 May 2004, recorded, "The leaders recalled Malaysia in 1963, the economic relations
the principles enshrined in the Communiqe on between Malaysia and China has taken many
the Establishment of Diplomatic Relations forms depending on the political relations
signed in 1974 and further reiterated their full between the two countries. Shee Poon Kim has
endorsement and support for the Joint written on Malaysia-China economic relations

102 © Historia Actual Online 2005

Ibrahim Abu Bakar Malaysian perceptions of China

and Shee has divided the economic relations was due to the downturn of economic growth in
between the two countries into three different Malaysia from 1980-1985."65
periods with three different forms of economic
relations and perceptions namely, "first, the pre- «The third period in Malaysia-China trade
diplomatic recognition period: 1957-1973; began after 1988. The impetus came after
second, the recognition era: 1974-1984 and Mahathir's first official visit to Beijing in
finally, the period since 1985, after Mahathir's November 1985. The trade data showed that the
first important official visit to Beijing on 20 volume jumped from around US$289 million
November 1985."63 from 1981 to US$557 million in 1987 and again
to US$877 million in 1988, and finally to
During the first period, 1957-1973, the US$1183 million in 1990.»66
economic relations between Malaysia and
China were carried out by the private sectors According to Shee Foon Kim who was the
through the Chinese middlemen in Singapore visiting professor at International University of
and Hong Kong because Malaysia under Tunku Japan in 2003/2004, "Malaysia-China bilateral
Abdul Rahman refused to establish the political trade has continued to grow rapidly since the
and diplomatic relations with China. In other post-cold war era. In 1991, the total trade was
words, there was no direct trade missions and US$1.33 billion and in 1998 it jumped to
connections between Malaysia and China due to US$4.26 billion. Thus bilateral trade expanded
the Tunku's policy of non-recognition of China more than six-fold from US$1.475 billion in
(1957-1970) as well as due to the communist 1992 to US$7.6 billion in 2001 [...] Thus
ideology of China and the Malayan Communist between 1996 and 2002, Malaysia's trade with
Party (MCP) in Malaysia. Since MCP was China grew about four times, i.e. from US$3.6
banned and illegal in Malaysia, the Tunku did billion to US$14.3 billion in 2002."67
not want MCP to receive any support from
China. Moreover, it was difficult for Malaysia The bilateral economic relation between
to have a direct economic relations with China Malaysia and China was able to increase
after the United States (US) imposed the rapidly because China started open her
economic embargo against China and the US economy to outsiders starting from 1978. "One
started the cold war against the Soviet Union or can date the rise of China from 1978 when
USSR. Both countries, Malaysia and China China launched an open door policy which
were in the state of mutual suspicion from 1957 began the integration of the Chinese economy
up to 197364. into the international system. This has led to
impressive Chinese economic growth ever
During the recognition era, 1974-1984, the since."68
trading relation between Malaysia and China
was direct and active. Abdul Razak who In the joint communiqué signed by Malaysian
succeeded the Tunku in September 1970 had and Chinese leaders on 29 May 2004, the
adopted pragmatic policy toward China- importance of bilateral trade and business was
Malaysia relations. In 1971 China directly recorded. It is recorded, for example, "To
purchased 40,000 tons of Malaysia's natural recognize China's full market economy status
rubber and marked the direct trade between the by the Malaysian side" as well as "To exploit
two countries. After the establishment of the the comparative economic advantages of their
diplomatic relations between Malaysian and respective economies in order to strengthen and
China in May 1974, the total trade between deepen economic cooperation".69
China and Malaysia in that year was valued at
US$159.17 million from US$27.8 million in From economic and trading perspective, all
1971. In 1976 the total trade volume between Malaysian prime ministers since May 1974
Malaysia and China was down to US$136.41 until the present have agreed to develop and
million but it increased to US$424.40 million in increase the volumes and values of trading
1980. From 1971 up to 1987, the trade volume activities between Malaysia and China.
between Malaysia-China and China-Malaysia
was still small and insignificant. "Thus China
CONCLUDING REMARKS
was not an important trading partner for
Malaysia, and neither was Malaysia that
Malaysian perceptions of China depend on the
important for China. One of the reasons why
policies and tendencies of Malaysia and of
Malaysia-China trade ties did not get stronger

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 Malaysian perceptions of China Ibrahim Abu Bakar

China. In addition, they also depend on the have agreed to the bilateral relations and
regional and international policies and interests between Malaysia and China as stated
tendencies of the Western super powers towards in the written documents signed by Abdul
China and Malaysia during and after the cold Razak in May 1974, and by Dr. Mahathir in
war between the United States and the USSR. May 1999, and then by Abdullah in May 2004
respectively. The Chinese leaders also have
For example, during the Malacca Malay agreed and signed those written documents
Sultanate in the 15th century A.D, Malacca was respectively. Malaysian leaders Abdul Razak
able to grow economically, politically and and Hussein needed China for economic
religiously under the protection of the Chinese bilateral relations rather than political relations.
dynasty whose political and economic policies However, Malaysian leader Dr. Mahathir
were open and pragmatic. China did not impose needed China for both the economic and
her rules and governances on Malacca. Malacca political bilateral relations because he wanted
became the most important center for spreading China to support his views on the international
Islam although the Chinese emperor was a non- politico-economic issues against the stance
Muslim. When Malacca was attacked and taken by the United States. Although
subjugated by the Portuguese in 1511, China Dr.Mahathir was pragmatic towards China but
was not there to protect and defense Malacca he was ambivalent towards China's communist
because China's open and pragmatic political ideology and its link with the MCP in Malaysia
and economic policies were no longer in as well as the dispute over the Spratly Islands
existence. China withdrew herself from being between Malaysia and China.
the regional and international political and
economic player after 15th century. Abdullah who succeeded Dr. Mahathir in
October 2003 visited China in May 2004 to
During the reign of Tunku Abdul Rahman enhance the political and economic bilateral
(1957-1970) as the first prime minister of relations with China. He also needs China for
Malaya and then Malaysia, his political and politico-economic interests of Malaysia.
economic policies were hostile towards China However, the dispute over the Spratly Islands is
because he was greatly influenced by the there for Abdullah to handle diplomatically and
Western nations especially the United States peacefully.
and the Great Britain. They all opposed
communism of China and of the USSR. Both Malaysia was able to establish and enhance the
China and the USSR were against capitalism politico-economic bilateral relations with China
and democratic system advocated by the United after China opened its economic door to
States and the Great Britain. The Tunku thought outsiders starting in 1970s. Since then Malaysia
that it was better for Malaysia to be with the has officially established the diplomatic and
Western powers, the US and the Great Britain, politico-economic ties with China starting in
since Malaysia needed their political and May 1974. Since 1974 Malaysia has seen China
economic supports against the Malayan as great nation politically and economically.
Communist Party in Malaya and Malaysia as The bilateral relations are useful for Malaysia in
well as against international and regional many areas and both countries have agreed to
communism. settle any dispute between them through
negotiations. So far Malaysia has claimed her
During the reigns of Abdul Razak (1970-1976), rights over Spratly Islands in the South China
Hussein (1976-1981), Dr. Mahathir (1981- Sea since December 1979 and China also has
2003) and Abdullah (October 2003 to the claimed her rights over the same islands. The
present), Malaysian perceptions of China were dispute between Malaysia and China over
ambivalent and pragmatic for political, Spratly Islands has so far not disturbed the
economic, regional and international interests of bilateral economic and political relations
Malaysia. The four Malaysian prime ministers between Malaysia and China.

NOTAS
3
Ibid., 163.
1 4
Ryan, N. J., The Making of Modern Malaysia and Ibid., 267.
5
Singapore A History From Earliest Times to 1966. Hooker, V. M., A Short History of Malaysia Linking
London, Oxford University Press, 1974, 260-261. East and West. Australia, Allen & Unwin, 2003, 284.
2 6
Ibid., 262. Ryan, N. J., The Making., op. cit., 261.

104 © Historia Actual Online 2005

Ibrahim Abu Bakar Malaysian perceptions of China

7
Hooker, V. M., A Short., op. cit., 223-224. Institute Working Paper 2004-6 Asia-Pacific Series
8
Purcell, V., Malaysia. New York, Walker and [document on-line] Avalaible from Internet at:
Company, 1967, 39. <http://www.iuj.ac.jp/research/wpap04-6pdf>, 6.
9 51
Ibid., 89. Razak Baginda, A., "Malaysian Perception.", op.
10
Ibid., 89. cit., 234-235.
11 52
Department of Statistics Malaysia. 2004. Ibid., 235.
53
Population and Housing Census 2000 [document on- Ibid., 236.
54
line] Avalaible from Internet at: Ibid., 236-237.
55
<http://www.statistics.gov.my/English.census/pressd Ibid., 238.
56
emo.htm> Ibid., 243.
12 57
Ibid. Ibid., 244.
13 58
Ibid. "President Hu meets Malaysian PM". People's
14
Ryan, N. J., The Making., op. cit., 1. Daily Online, 30 May 2004. See
15
Ibid., 4. <http://english.people.com.cn/200405/30/print20040
16
Ibid., 5. 530_144799.htm1> [with access 13-04-2005].
17 59
Ibid., 6. Ibid.
18 60
Ibid., xii. Ibid.
19 61
Ibid., 6. Kong, Y., Pelayaran,., op. cit., 58.
20 62
Kong, Y., Pelayaran Zheng He dan Alam Melayu. Ibid., 60-70.
63
Bangi, Penerbit Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Shee Poon, K. 2004. "The political economy.", op.
2000, 108-109. cit., 1.
21 64
Ibid., 9. Ibid., 1 and Purcell, V., Malaysia., op. cit., 190-
22
Ibid., 15. 193.
23 65
Ibid., 58-60. Shee Poon, K. 2004. "The political economy.", op.
24
Ryan, N. J., The Making., 12. cit., 2.
25 66
Ibid., 13. Ibid., 2.
26 67
Ibid., 15. Ibid., 2.
27 68
Kong, Y., Pelayaran., op. cit., 67. Poh Ping, L., Facing the Dragon Asean and Japan;
28
Ryan, N. J., The Making., 15-17. and the Rise of China. Bangi, Malaysia, Penerbit
29
Ibid., 18. Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 2005, 19-20.
30 69
Ibid., 18. "President Hu.", op. cit.
31
Kong, Y., Pelayaran., 62.
32
Ibid., 62-68.
33
Ryan, N. J., The Making., op. cit., 18.
34
Ibid., 19.
35
Ibid., 21.
36
Ibid., 21.
37
Kong, Y., Pelayaran., op. cit., 68-73.
38
Razak Baginda, A., "Malasyan Perceptions of
China: From Hostility to Cordiality", in The China
Threat: Perceptions, Myths and Reality., London,
RoutledgeCurzon, 2004, 227-247.
39
Purcell, V., Malaysia., op. cit., 192.
40
Ibid., 129.
41
Ibid., 130.
42
Ibid., 140.
43
Ibid., 109-110.
44
Cheah, B. K., "Some Aspects of the Malayan
Emergency: 1948-1960", in The History of the South-
East, South and East Asia. Kuala Lumpur, Oxford
University Press, 1977, 111.
45
Hooker, V. M., A Short., op. cit., 192-193.
46
Ibid., 197.
47
Ibid., 205-206.
48
Sivamurugan, P., Legasi Mahathir. Kuala Lumpur,
Utusan Publications, 2005, 234.
49
Razak Baginda, A., "Malaysian Perceptions”, op.
cit., 227.
50
Shee Poon, K. 2004. "The political economy of
Mahathir's China policy: economic cooperation,
political and strategic ambivalence". IUJ Research

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