Unit e - Space Exploration

UNIT
366
In this unit, you will cover the following sections:
1.0 Human understanding of both Earth and space has changed

over time.
1.1 Early Views About the Cosmos
1.2 Discovery Through Technology
1.3 The Distribution of Matter in Space
1.4 Our Solar Neighbourhood
1.5 Describing the Position of Objects in Space
2.0 Technological developments are making space exploration

possible and offer benefits on Earth.
2.1 Getting There: Technologies for Space Transport
2.2 Surviving There: Technologies for Living in Space
2.3 Using Space Technology to Meet Human Needs on Earth
3.0 Optical telescopes, radio telescopes, and other technologies

advance our understanding of space.
3.1 Using Technology to See the Visible
3.2 Using Technology to See Beyond the Visible
3.3 Using Technology to Interpret Space
4.0 Society and the environment are affected by space exploration

and the development of space technologies.
4.1 The Risks and Dangers of Space Exploration
4.2 Canadian Contributions to Space Exploration and
Observation
4.3 Issues Related to Space Exploration
367
Exploring
The first major step in the human journey to explore space occurred on
When humans walked on
the Moon for the first time, July 20, 1969. That was the date when two U.S. astronauts, Neil
the world watched. Armstrong and Edwin “Buzz” Aldrin, walked on the Moon, becoming the
first people to visit a body in the solar system other than Earth. It also
marked the first time that people on Earth could look up at the Moon and
know that there were people on its surface looking back at them!
SHORT EXCURSION TO THE MOON

It took four days for the lunar module Eagle to make the trip from our
planet to the Moon’s surface. When it touched down, only a few seconds’
worth of the budgeted fuel for landing remained. If the process of landing
had taken longer, the Eagle would have started using up the fuel rationed
for getting the spacecraft and its crew home.
The most sophisticated technology of the time was used to carry the
astronauts safely to the Moon and back to Earth, a journey that, in total,
took a little over eight days. Future journeys into space may take months,
even years in travel time, but such is the nature of exploration. Leaving
the safety of Earth’s atmospheric bubble will always pose one of the
ultimate challenges to our ingenuity. That is the reason that humans
continue to search, stretching the limits of their imaginations to create the
technology that will take us ever farther into space.
368 Unit E: Space Exploration

G I V E I T A TRY
CRATER PATTERNS ON THE MOON

The surface of the Moon is covered with “impact craters” of every size. These are Materials & Equipment
depressions made when meteoroids (small pieces of rock in space) and asteroids • two large plastic or
(much larger rocky bodies) strike the ground with a tremendous force. Most aluminum trays
meteoroids and asteroids encountering Earth burn up in Earth’s atmosphere and • newspaper
never reach the ground. The Moon does not have an atmosphere and, therefore, • flour (one 3.5-kg bag)
any meteroid or asteroid caught in the Moon’s gravity ends up hitting the surface. • cocoa powder (about
This activity gives you an idea of how crater patterns are caused by these impacts. 250 mL)
• rocks or marbles of
1 Place the trays on a newspaper-covered table or floor area. different sizes
2 Pour the flour into the trays to a depth of about 5 cm.
3 Gently sprinkle the cocoa powder over the flour so that a mostly brown layer
is visible on the surface.
4 Drop the rocks and marbles from a variety of heights onto the flour-and-cocoa
surface. Sketch the different impact patterns left by the dropped “meteors.”
5 Experiment with letting the rocks and marbles hit the surface at an angle. How
does this change the impact pattern?
Focus SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

On
As you learn in this unit about the advances humans have made in
exploring and understanding the nature of space, you will be given many
opportunities to solve problems using your knowledge of both science
and technology.
Science provides an orderly way of studying and explaining the
nature of things. Technology tries to find solutions to practical problems
that arise from human needs. As you will discover in working through
this unit, there are often many possible solutions to the same
technological problem. To guide your reading as you study how science
and technology interact and support each other, keep the following
questions in mind:
1. How much do humans know about space?
2. What technologies have been developed so that space can be studied?
3. How have space technologies contributed to the exploration and use
of space, and how have they benefited our life on Earth?
Exploring 369
1.0 Human understanding of both Earth
and space has changed over time.
Key Concepts
In this section, you will learn
about the following key
concepts:
• technologies for space
exploration and observation
• reference frames for describing
the position and motion of
bodies in space
• distribution of matter through
space
• composition and
characteristics of bodies in
space
Learning Outcomes
When you have completed this
section, you will be able to:
• identify different perspectives
on the nature of Earth and
space Imagine that your teacher brings to class a meteorite that is about the
• investigate and illustrate the size of a grapefruit. Meteorites are pieces of rocky space debris that hit
contributions of technological Earth. Your teacher asks you to study and describe the meteorite’s
advances to a scientific surface. With your unaided eye, you would be able to see many of the
understanding of space object’s characteristics, such as its colour, lustre, and texture. With a
• describe the distribution of magnifying glass, you would see even more detail, perhaps the colour
matter in space and shape of the surface particles.
• identify evidence for, and Now, think how your description would change if you could use a
describe characteristics of, high-powered microscope that greatly magnifies a chip from the
bodies that make up the solar
meteorite. Details you could never have noticed before would become
system and compare their
visible. As a result, your understanding of the meteorite’s composition
characteristics with Earth’s
would improve.
• describe and apply techniques
In this section, you will learn how human understanding of Earth
for determining the position
and motion of objects in space and the universe has changed over thousands of years, boosted each step
• investigate predictions about of the way by advances in technology. You will also learn that the role of
the motion, alignment, and observation in guiding scientific understanding of space remains as
collision of bodies in space important today as it was to early astronomers. Only the capacity to see
more is constantly expanding.
370 For Web links relating to 1.0, visit www.pearsoned.ca/scienceinaction

info BIT
1.1 Early Views About the Cosmos
One-Mitt Measure
Objects in the sky have fascinated humans throughout history. Many of Inuit in the high arctic
these objects you have certainly seen yourself, such as the Sun, the Moon, traditionally used the
stars and constellations, and planets, such as Venus, Mars, and Jupiter. width of a mitt held at
Maybe you have also been fortunate to see an eclipse, a comet, a meteor arm’s length to gauge
shower, or the aurora borealis. All of these celestial bodies and events the height of the Sun
have been watched in wonder for thousands of years. They fuelled the above the horizon. When
human imagination, marked the passage of time, and foretold the changes the Sun rose to a height
in seasons. Early knowledge of them was passed from generation to of one-mitt width, it
generation and from culture to culture, often as legends and folklore. meant that seal pups
would be born in two
lunar cycles.
Figure 1.1 The First Nations peoples of the Pacific Northwest thought the night sky was a pattern
on a great blanket overhead. The blanket, they believed, was held up by a spinning “world pole,” the
bottom of which rested on the chest of a woman underground named Stone Ribs.
G I V E I T A TRY
E V O LV I N G I D E A S A B O U T P L A N E TA RY M O T I O N
In this subsection, you will be learning how our early understanding of space and
Earth’s place in it have developed through history.
1 Make a time line that shows when key ideas about space were proposed and
who proposed them. Start your time line at 3000 B.C. and add to it as you read
through this subsection. End at the heliocentric model of the solar system. For
each idea, be sure to include the observations the person made that led to the
idea.
2 Compare your time line with that of other students in the class. Add to your time
line any ideas you might have missed.
3 Discuss with the class the main technologies that were used by people in
developing each key idea on your time line.
Human Understanding of Both Earth and Space Has Changed over Time 371
TRACKING COSMOLOGICAL EVENTS
Two very special annual events for our ancestors were the summer and
winter solstice. The word “solstice” comes from the Latin sol meaning
sun, and stice meaning stop. In the northern hemisphere, the summer
solstice occurs near June 21. It marks the longest period of daylight in the
year and represents the start of summer. The winter solstice occurs near
December 21. It marks the shortest day of the year and the start of winter.
(The conditions are the reverse in the southern hemisphere.)
Prediction of the approach of summer and winter was important to
early peoples, and many ancient civilizations built huge monuments to
honour their beliefs about the change. While they may have had only the
power of the unaided eye, their observations of the position and path of
the Sun throughout the year were highly accurate. More than 3500 years
Figure 1.2 The origins of ago, for example, a people (possibly the ancient Celts) erected the
England’s Stonehenge remain
megaliths of Stonehenge, still standing in southern England. Arranged in
an archeological puzzle.
concentric circles, the enormous stones mark the summer and winter
solstices. Ancient African cultures also set large rock pillars into patterns
that could be used to predict the timing of the solstices.
Another phenomenon honoured by early cultures was the equinox,
one in the spring (about March 21) and one in the fall (about September 22).
The word “equinox” comes from the Latin equi meaning equal, and nox
meaning night. At the equinox, day and night are of equal length. The
Mayans of Central America built an enormous cylinder-shaped tower at
Chichén Itzá in about A.D. 1000 to celebrate the occurrence of the two
equinoxes.
The ancient Egyptians built many pyramids and other monuments to
align with the seasonal position of certain stars. The entrance passage of
Khufu, the Great Pyramid at Giza, once lined up with Thuban (a star in
the constellation of Draco). At the time the pyramid was built, starting
about 2700 B.C., Thuban was the closest star showing true north. Two
thousand years ago, aboriginal peoples of southwestern Alberta used large
rocks to build medicine circles in which key rocks aligned with the bright
stars that rose in the dawn, such as Aldebaran, Rigel, and Sirius.
Figure 1.3 The designs of the

pyramids at Giza, Egypt, and in
Chichén Itzá, Mexico, were
influenced by celestial
observations.

re SEARCH
MODELS OF PLANETARY MOTION
For as long as people have been watching the nightly promenade of stars Legends of the Sun
and planets, they have sought ways of explaining the motions they The Sun played a
observed. The religions, traditions, myths, and rituals of ancient cultures prominent role in the
mythology of many
all reveal different interpretations of how the universe works. Seen from
ancient cultures.
Earth, everything in the sky appears to be in motion. The Sun rises and
Research the beliefs,
sets. The Moon, in its ever-changing phases, travels across the sky. Planets
ceremonies, and legends
shift against a background of stars. Even constellations (groupings of stars) that three of the
appear to change position in the sky throughout the year. Our ancestors following groups held
had to make sense of this constant pattern of change by using the science about the Sun: North
and technology of the day. American First Nations,
Australian Aborigines,
Geocentric Model Aztecs, Chinese,
About 2000 years ago, the Greek philosopher Aristotle proposed a Egyptians, Greeks, Inuit,
geocentric, or Earth-centred, model to explain planetary motion. In the Japanese, and Norse.
model, he showed Earth at the centre, surrounded by a series of Compare your findings
concentric spheres that represented the paths of the Sun, Moon, and five with those of others in
the class. Begin your
planets known at the time (see Figure 1.4). To explain why the distant
search at
stars did not move, Aristotle hypothesized that they were attached firmly
www.pearsoned.ca/
to the outermost sphere (what he called the “celestial sphere”) where they scienceinaction.
stayed put as though glued to an immovable ceiling.
Little optical technology is believed to have existed in Greece during
the time Aristotle was making his observations about the cosmos.
However, he was aided by the mathematics and geometry of Pythagoras
and Euclid, which he used to calculate the size and shape of the spheres.
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Earth &
Water Figure 1.4 Aristotle’s
Jupiter
geocentric model of our solar

M oo
n system explained much—but
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not all—about planetary

Ma
motion. In this model, Earth

was the centre of the
universe.
S aturn
The geocentric model allowed early astronomers to forecast such

events as the phases of the Moon, but it still could not explain many other
observations. For example, why did Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn sometimes
seem to loop back opposite to their usual movement across the sky?
Heliocentric Model
The Earth-centred model of our solar system lasted for almost two
thousand years. Then, in 1530, Polish astronomer Nicholas Copernicus
proposed a dramatically different model, one that explained planetary
motion much more simply than did the complicated geocentric model.
Copernicus suggested that the Sun was at the centre and Earth and the
other planets revolved in orbits around it. This is called the heliocentric
model (Figure 1.5).
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Sun
Jupiter
Moon Ve
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Figure 1.5 The heliocentric model of our solar system put the Sun at the centre of the universe. It
was considered, at the time, to be a revolutionary idea.
A little less than 100 years later, a new generation of scientists—with

the help of a major technological invention, the telescope—provided solid
evidence for Copernicus’s theory. Notable among these scientists was the
renowned Galileo Galilei of Italy. In the 1600s, using a telescope not much
stronger than the standard binoculars you might use today, he was the first
person to view mountains on the Moon, a “bump” on either side of Saturn
(later found to be the outer edges of the planet’s rings), spots on the Sun,
moons orbiting Jupiter, and the distinct phases of Venus.
Even though Galileo’s discoveries added credibility to the Copernican
ideas, the model could still not predict planetary motion very accurately.
A German mathematician, Johannes Kepler, came up with the next
solution to the puzzle. Using detailed observations of the movement of the
planets (observations carefully recorded by the great Danish astronomer,
Tycho Brahe), Kepler discovered what was missing from the Copernican
ideas. The orbits of the planets, he realized, were ellipses and not circles.
Today, the Sun-centred model of our solar system is used as a guide when
we study other solar systems.

Figure 1.6 Once
astronomers realized that
Planet’s path planets orbited the Sun in
elliptical paths, not circular
paths, they were better able
to predict planetary motion.
Sun’s position
Q U I C K LAB
ELLIPTICAL LOOPS
Materials & Equipment
Purpose • sewing thread (30 cm long),
To draw a series of ellipses and investigate their properties with ends tied to make a loop
• paper (letter-size)
Procedure • ruler
1 Draw a straight line, about 20 cm long, down the middle of the paper. Position • pencil
• cardboard (30 cm by 30 cm)
the paper on top of the cardboard and set the cardboard on a firm, flat surface
• 2 straight pins or tacks
such as your desk top.
2 Position the pins 5 cm apart along the drawn line and push the pins through
the paper and into the cardboard so they are standing upright.
3 Place the loop of thread around both pins. Then, with the pencil
point resting inside the loop, pull gently until the thread is taut
and the pencil point is touching the paper (see Figure 1.7).
4 While keeping a slight outward pressure with the pencil
against the thread, start drawing a line in a circular
motion around the pins. You will see an ellipse (an
oval shape) start to form. A circle is formed around
one focal point. An ellipse is formed around two focal points.
Figure 1.7 Step 3
5 Repeat steps 3 to 5 two more times, once setting the pins closer together and
once setting them farther apart. Observe how the ellipse changes.
Questions
6 Describe what happens when the pins are moved different distances apart. How
does the position of these focal points change the shape of the ellipse?
7 Imagine that one of the pins is the Sun and the pencil point is a planet. What
controls the shape of the elliptical path?
8 What shape would you expect if both pins were at exactly the same point?
CHECK AND REFLECT
Key Concept Review
1. Define solstice. What are the significant dates associated with the
solstices in the northern hemisphere?
2. What was the ancient monument of Stonehenge believed to be used
for?
3. What word is used to describe the times when the length of day equals
the length of night? When do these occur?
4. List and describe three monuments built by ancient people to honour
celestial bodies.
Connect Your Understanding

5. What did the summer and winter solstices indicate to ancient people?
6. Explain the main difference between the heliocentric model of the
solar system and the geocentric model.
7. Why was the change from a geocentric model to a heliocentric model
considered such a revolutionary idea?
Extend Your Understanding

8. Johannes Kepler used hundreds of years’ worth of historical data
collected by many astronomers (notably Tycho Brahe) and his own
precise measurements to modify the Copernican model. How did the
change proposed by Kepler make the model more realistic?
9. The velocity at which a planet travels does not remain constant
throughout its orbit. As it gets closer to the Sun in its orbit, a planet
tends to speed up a little. Why do you think this occurs? Use Figure
1.6 to assist you with answering this question.
Figure 1.8 The Caracol,

a 3000-year-old Mayan
observatory located at
Chichén Itzá on the
Yucatán Peninsula in
Mexico

1.2 Discovery Through Technology
Step by step, our understanding of space and Earth’s place in it has info BIT
progressed, thanks in large part to the improvement of the tools available
to observe, record, measure, and analyze what we see. This process of Fasten Your Seat Belts
discovery boosted by technological advance is going on all the time. The Sun lies about
149 599 000 km from Earth.
Compared to other
distances in the universe,
that is not very far.
Figure 1.9 State-of-the-art However, if you could fly in
technology today will be a 747 airliner from Earth to
thought of as old- the Sun (travelling at about
fashioned to the next
965 km/h), the flight would
generation of science
last close to 17 years.
students.
Q U I C K LAB
TELLING SUNDIAL TIME

Purpose Materials & Equipment
To make a model sundial and plot shadow patterns • a sheet of polar graph
paper (circular graph paper)
Procedure • a golf tee
1 Go to an area of your classroom or another room in the school where the Sun • adhesive tape
is shining in. (If you must leave the classroom to do this activity, be sure to ask • a pencil
your teacher’s permission first.)
2 Tape the paper on a flat surface in the sunlight. Stand the golf tee upside down
in the centre of the graph paper.
3 With your pencil, plot the shadow cast by the golf tee on the graph paper and
make a note of the time. Repeat this step at regular intervals during the day.
Figure 1.10 Step 2
Questions
4 Describe the pattern you see in the shadow plots you have drawn during the
day. Sketch the pattern in your notebook.
5 If you were to repeat this activity every day for a year, would the same pattern
result each time? Explain your answer.
THE ASTRONOMER’S TOOLS
Humans are very inventive, and have worked hard over the centuries to
develop tools to help them better understand the sky and its mysteries.
Sundials, for example, have been used for more than 7000 years to
measure the passage of time. Ancient Egyptians invented a device called a
merkhet to chart astronomical positions and predict the movement of
stars. About the 2nd century A.D., the Egyptian astronomers also designed
a tool called a quadrant to measure a star’s height above the horizon.
Arabian astronomers used the astrolabe for centuries to make accurate
charts of star positions. In the 14th century, astronomer Levi ben Gurson
invented the cross-staff to measure the angle between the Moon and any
given star. With each of these technological innovations, astronomers
made new discoveries and gained more knowledge about what they were
seeing.
quadrant astrolabe cross-staff early telescope
Figure 1.11 Many early tools Then came the telescope. Invented in the late 16th century, it
were invented to study and revolutionized astronomy. Suddenly, astronomers such as Galileo could
predict celestial motion.
see more in the night sky than had ever been possible. Telescopes
Sailors and other explorers
tested these instruments in
revealed exciting details about Earth’s closest planetary neighbours, and
their travels to uncharted showed the existence of other neighbours in our solar system. We learned
places of the globe. that the size of what lay beyond Earth was greater than anything we could
have imagined.
With each new improvement, the optical telescope pushed astronomy
ahead. As our viewing ability got better, the vast distance between objects
in space became obvious.
Today, almost 500 years after the telescope’s invention, super-powerful
optical and radio telescopes operating from Earth, satellites orbiting
around Earth, and sophisticated space-based telescopes have shown us
the immensity of objects in space and of distances across the universe.
(You will learn more about space technologies in Section 3.0.) We have
discovered that our Sun is only an average star, lying in a small corner of
an average galaxy that is one among billions of other galaxies.

THE IMMENSITY OF DISTANCE AND TIME IN SPACE
If you were asked to measure the size of your school, you probably would
not do so using millimetres. Neither would you use centimetres to
describe the distance from your school to home. Finding the appropriate
unit of measurement is important when describing distances.
In the case of measuring distances in space, not even kilometres are
practical to use. To have a practical means of describing such enormous
distances, astronomers devised two new units of measure.
Astronomical Units
The astronomical unit (AU) is used for measuring “local” distances, those
inside our solar system. One AU is equal to the average distance from the
centre of Earth to the centre of the Sun (149 599 000 km). Astronomers
use this when describing positions of the planets relative to the Sun.
Venus
n
Earth
Jupiter
p
Saturn
Uranus
Np
Neptune
Pluto
5 100 15 20 25 30 35 40
Figure 1.12 The relative

Light-years distances of the nine planets
The vast distances beyond the solar system, out to stars and galaxies, are from the Sun. Note that the
so great that even astronomical units are too tiny as measures. Instead, the bodies are not to accurate
light-year is used. It equals the distance that light travels in one year. scale in this figure. If they
were, the Sun would have to
Light travels at a speed of 300 000 km/s. In a year, that adds up to
be shown with a diameter of
about 9.5 trillion km. If you wanted to wind a string 1 light-year long about 57 mm.
around Earth’s equator, you would have enough string to wrap it around
236 million times! The distance to Proxima Centauri, the next nearest star
to Earth after the Sun, is a little over 4 light-years.
info BIT
Big, Bigger, Biggest
Earth is about 1/1000 the volume of Jupiter, our solar system’s largest planet.
Jupiter is about 1/1000 the volume of the Sun. The Sun is about 1/300-millionth
the volume of the star Betelgeuse (located in the constellation of Orion).
ACTIVITY E-1
HOW BIG IS THE SUN?

Inquiry
The Question
Can we accurately measure the diameter of the Sun by using an indirect method?
Procedure
1 Working with a partner, tape a piece of cardboard to each end of the metre-stick.
Then tape the piece of aluminum foil over the square opening in one piece of
• metre-stick
cardboard, and tape the white paper in the middle of the other piece of cardboard.
• 2 pieces of cardboard,
approximately 15 cm by 15 cm
each (one piece of cardboard
will have a 5 cm by 5 cm
opening cut into its centre)
• 1 piece of aluminum foil,
approximately 8 cm by 8 cm
• 1 piece of white paper, 10 cm
by 10 cm
• masking tape
• drawing compass
• ring stand (optional)
• ruler
• calculator
Figure 1.13 Step 1
2 Using the compass point, poke a small hole (about 1 mm in diameter) in the
aluminum foil. Be careful not to make the hole any larger than that.
3 Take your apparatus and a pencil outside. (This procedure can be carried out even on
a slightly cloudy day, as long as the Sun can still cast a shadow.)
4 One partner holds the metre-stick horizontally with the
aluminum piece pointing toward the Sun. He or she
should move the end of the metre-stick around until the Caution!
Sun shines through the pinhole and forms a circular Never look at the
image on the piece of white paper. (Note: The person Sun directly.
holding the apparatus should try to steady it by resting it
against his or her chest. Another option is to steady the
metre-stick by resting it on a ring stand.)
5 The other partner marks the diameter of the circle with two pencil lines on the paper
(see Figure 1.14).
Figure 1.14 Step 5 6 Carry out steps 4 to 5 again, obtaining a pinhole image of the Sun and marking its
diameter on the paper. Repeat a third time.

Analyzing and Interpreting
7 Calculate the average diameter of the Sun’s image. Measure the marks you made on
the white paper and find the average diameter (d) for your three measurements
(in centimetres).
8 Use the following ratio to determine the diameter of the real Sun:
d
______ _____________
D
100 cm 150 000 000 km
Where: d is in centimetres
D is in kilometres
100 cm is the distance between the cards
150 000 000 km is the distance between the Sun and Earth
Sun’s image
pinhole Sun
Figure 1.15 Step 8
d D
100 cm 150 000 000 km
9 In a reference book or on the Internet, look up the actual diameter of the Sun. Use
that figure in the equation below to calculate the accuracy of your measured value.
The “percent error” shows how far from (or close to) the real value your measured
value is.
(actual value measured value)

percent error __________________________ 100
actual value
10 What did you find? How accurate was your measured value of the Sun’s diameter?
Forming Conclusions
11 Describe the possible sources of error that might make your measurement
inaccurate.
12 Do you agree or disagree that the diameter of the Sun can be accurately measured by
using an indirect means? Explain.
Applying and Connecting

13 Could you use this method of measurement to obtain the diameter of another distant
body such as Jupiter? Could you use it to measure the diameters of bodies outside
our solar system?
14 Why must all measurements of size and distance in space be made indirectly?
G I V E I T A TRY
TAKE A WALK THROUGH THE SOLAR SYSTEM

How has our knowledge of the solar system improved as technology has
Planet Number of
advanced? One way is that we have a better understanding of the vast distances steps from
between the planets. the Sun
Purpose Mercury less than 0.4

To create a scale model of the solar system Venus 0.75
Earth 1
Procedure
Mars 1.5
1 Organize into groups of 10. Each member in the group chooses to represent
Jupiter 5
the Sun or one of the nine planets. Go outside to a large playing field.
Saturn 9.5
2 The “Sun student” stands in place at one side of the field. He or she calls out
each planet name in turn, plus the number of steps that the “planet student” Uranus 19
must take from where the Sun is standing. (Refer to the table on the right, Neptune 30
which shows the planet distances from the Sun at a footstep scale representing Pluto 39.5
the actual distance.) Each step should be about 1 m long.
Questions
3 In a class discussion, share what you learned about distances in the solar system.
What did you notice about the positions of the planets relative to the Sun?
4 How do the distances between the inner planets compare with the distances
between the outer planets?
Looking into the Past

When you look at an object in space, you are seeing it as it was at an
earlier time. That’s because it takes time for the light from the object to
travel to Earth across the great distance in space. Gaze at the Moon and
you see it as it was about a second before. Light from the Sun takes about
8 min to reach Earth. Light from the planet Pluto, visible with the aid of a
telescope, takes an average of about 5 h to reach Earth. Images of stars in
the centre of our galaxy take 25 000 years to reach us.
The farther out into the universe we are able to look, the deeper into
the past we see. Today’s modern telescopes, for instance, are capable of
collecting light that has travelled from distant galaxies. Even more
astonishing are the images that the Hubble Space Telescope, launched in
1990, has captured. (You will learn more about this space-based telescope
in subsection 3.1.) Astronomers believe that what the Hubble Space
Telescope is viewing reaches back some 12 billion years.

Figure 1.16 Some of these stars may no longer exist, but we are only receiving their light now.
CHECK AND REFLECT

Key Concept Review
1. Name three instruments used throughout history to observe the
motion of the planets and stars.
2. Explain how a sundial works.
3. What term is used to describe the distance between Earth and the
Sun?
4. How far does light travel in one second?

5. Before the development of any technology for observing the sky, how
did people map the motion of objects in the night sky?
6. Why were dependable navigation instruments important to the
explorers who were crossing oceans to find new lands?
7. How did the telescope change human understanding of space?

8. What is the general relationship between the size of a planet and its
distance from the Sun?
1.3 The Distribution of Matter in Space
When you look at the night sky from a city or town, you can see many of
the brighter stars. Journey into the countryside, away from the light
pollution of the city, and the night sky will appear to be completely full of
stars. All of those bright points of light in space are separated by
unimaginably large distances.
Figure 1.17 Using modern

telescopes, astronomers
have been able to study
starlight from faint, remote
stars, such as those in the
Milky Way galaxy shown
here.
WHAT IS A STAR?
A star is a hot, glowing ball of gas (mainly hydrogen) that gives off
tremendous light energy. The number of stars in the universe is in the
billions of billions.
Stars vary greatly in their characteristics. Our Sun has a mass 300 000
times greater than Earth, with an average density of 1.4 times that of
water. In diameter, Betelgeuse is 670 times larger than our Sun, but only
1/10-millionth as dense. Stars vary greatly in their colours as well. The
colour of a star depends on its surface temperature. Very hot stars look
blue. Cooler stars look red.
In the 1920s, two scientists, Ejnar Hertzsprung and Henry Norris
Russell, began comparing the surface temperature of stars with the stars’
brightness (luminosity). When they plotted their data, Hertzsprung and
Russell discovered that the distribution of star temperature and brightness
is not random. Instead, as the “Hertzsprung-Russell diagram” shows (see
Figure 1.18), the stars fall into several distinct groupings. Part of this
pattern has since been accounted for by the current theory of how stars
evolve and change over very long periods of time.

Figure 1.18 The results of
supergiants graphing data from
giants
thousands of stars was the
Hertzsprung-Russell
(H-R) diagram. Our Sun
belongs in the middle of the
diagram in a grouping of
stars called the main
Increasing brightness
sequence. Ninety percent of

main sequence all stars fit into this grouping.
Sun
white dwarfs
Decreasing temperature
Q U I C K LAB
WHAT COLOUR AND TEMPERATURE TELL US ABOUT ELEMENTS

(Teacher Demonstration)
Purpose • 8 test tubes (75 mm by
100 mm)
To observe the colour and temperature associated with different elements
• test-tube rack
Procedure • wood splints
• Bunsen burner
1 Light the Bunsen burner.
• closed fume hood
2 Place 10 drops of the LiCl(aq) in a test tube. • solutions of LiCl(aq),
3 Dip a wooden splint into the test tube containing the LiCl(aq), moistening the KCl(aq) , NaCl(aq)),
splint tip. CuCl2(aq) , BaCl2(aq) ,
4 Remove the splint from the test tube and hold the moistened end in the hottest SrCl2(aq), CaCl2(aq)
part of the burner flame. Students should observe the colour and record what
they see. Often the colour disappears quickly, so repeat the procedure if
necessary.
5 Repeat steps 2 to 4 for each of the other solutions. In each case, students Caution!
should record what they observe. The materials in
this demonstration
Questions
can be hazardous if
6 What was responsible for the different colours you saw? inhaled. Observe
7 What can the colour of the flame reveal? the reactions from
8 How would this information be useful for astronomers studying the spectrum a safe distance.
of a star?
info BIT THE BIRTH OF A STAR
Just as every living thing on our planet is born, lives, and dies, a star has a
Meet a Really Big Star life cycle, too. Stars form in regions of space where there are huge
Our Sun is a very average accumulations of gas and dust called nebulae. Each nebula is composed of
star in the middle part of
about 75% hydrogen and 23% helium. The other 2% is oxygen, nitrogen,
its life. How average is it?
carbon, and silicate dust. Some of this interstellar matter came from
Stand 1 m away from the
exploding stars.
wall. This distance
represents the Sun’s The attraction of gravity acting between the atoms of gas and grains of
diameter. At this scale, dust can cause a small area of the nebula to start collapsing into a smaller,
the diameter of the rotating cloud of gas and dust. As more material is drawn into the
largest star now known spinning ball, the mass at its core increases and the temperature climbs. If
would be 2300 m the core gets hot enough, it will start to glow. This is a protostar, the first
(2.3 km). stage in a star’s formation. As the process of “star-building” continues, the
interior of the protostar gets hotter and hotter. When the core reaches
10 000 000°C, hydrogen starts to change to helium. This process, known
as fusion, releases great quantities of energy and radiation. A star is born.
main sequence red giant
Sun-like stars white dwarf black dwarf
nebula
neutron star
massive stars red supergiant supernova black hole
Figure 1.19 From nebular material, stars form with a variety of masses. The life cycles of massive
stars differ from those of Sun-like stars.

THE LIFE AND DEATH OF STARS info BIT
Depending on the mass of the star formed from a particular nebula, the
star will be Sun-like (in terms of mass) or massive. Both types of stars Too Much to Swallow
Some stars become
spend most of their lives in this main sequence, converting hydrogen to
neutron stars when they
helium in their cores. The outward pressure of radiation on the stellar
collapse. A teaspoon of
material is counteracted by gravity, so the stars are in a stable state. All
material from a neutron
stars remain in this state for millions to even billions of years. star is so dense it would
Just as fuel in the gas tank of a car eventually runs out, so does the have a mass of 100 000 t.
fuel in a star. When the hydrogen in the core has been used up, the stable-
state star shrinks in size, heating the helium core so that it first starts
fusing to carbon, then to other elements. As gravity causes the star to
contract, further nuclear reactions occur, leading to expansion of the outer
layers. In this way, the star becomes larger, turning into a red giant if it is
a Sun-like star, or a red supergiant if it is a massive star. Our Sun will
become a red giant in about 5 billion years. At that time, the Sun’s
diameter may extend out past the present orbit of Mars.
The final stage in a star’s life occurs when the fusion reaction stops.
For a Sun-like star, fusion ends when the core temperature in the star is
no longer hot enough to keep the reaction going. With no heat input from
fusion, the decreasing pressure is unable to prevent gravity from causing
the star to collapse slowly on itself. The Sun-like star continues to shrink,
gradually becoming a white dwarf, no larger than Earth. Eventually, the
star will fade completely until it evolves into a cold, dark black dwarf.
According to physicists, it takes so long for a white dwarf to cool that no
black dwarf may yet have had time to form in the universe.
In a massive star, the fusion reaction stops when the star runs out of
fuel. The lack of heat input into the core from fusion enables gravity to get
the upper hand. In this case, gravity causes the star’s core to collapse
rapidly on itself. The collapse ends suddenly with an outgoing shock
wave. This in turn causes the outer part of the star to explode in a
catastrophic event known as a supernova. If the star is not destroyed
entirely by the explosion, the core is left as a neutron star or a black hole.
A neutron star is a rapidly spinning object only about 30 km in diameter.
A black hole is a highly dense remnant of a star in which gravity is so
strong that not even light from the radiation going on inside the remnant
can escape.
Figure 1.20 The giant

galactic nebula NGC 3603.
At the upper left of the
image is the blue supergiant
star, Sher 25. Near the
centre is a star cluster
dominated by young hot
stars. The enormous pillar of
gas is sculpted by the stellar
outflow winds created as the
new stars form.
re SEARCH Black holes are themselves invisible to telescopes. Astronomers only
know about their existence indirectly because of how material near a
Black Holes black hole becomes very hot and bright.
Astronomers are
discovering that black
holes are more common
than was first expected.
Research how black
holes form and where
they can be found.
Begin your search at
www.pearsoned.ca/
scienceinaction.
Figure 1.21 Occasionally, massive stars collapse on themselves with such violence that they
become super-dense. The gravity around these bodies is so intense that even light cannot escape
being pulled inward. These bodies are called black holes.
Figure 1.22 A supermassive black hole in the galaxy M87. The inset image shows stars and gas
orbiting the galaxy's bright nucleus. By calculating the speed of the orbiting material,
astronomers have concluded that the nucleus contains a black hole about 3 billion times the
mass of our Sun. The large image shows a bright band of material that may be super-heated gas
ejected from the black hole.

G I V E I T A TRY
CLASSIFYING STARS BY SIZE
The great variety of stars in the sky can be grouped in any number of ways, including
by colour, temperature, and age. Another way to classify stars is by their size.
1 The list below contains information about a number of imaginary stars. In your
notebook, make four columns with the headings: Red Supergiants, Giants, Main
Sequence Stars, and White Dwarfs. Categorize each of the stars under the
appropriate heading.
Star Radius (Sun=1) Density (Sun=1) Mass (Sun=1)
Beta Brittanee 40.0 0.00014 6.0
Krueller’s Star 0.7 6.3 0.5
34 Pygmi A 2.3 1.8 2.0
Von Wendle’s Star 0.018 71 000 0.41
Shecky 776.0 0.000003 20.0
15 Ashlee Pi 35.0 0.00018 7.0
Scorpo-3 0.022 90,000 0.73
Prilcyon 1.5 0.9 1.8
R Schminky-5 999.0 0.0000005 18.0
Iaetapi 87.0 0.00006 5.0
2 When you have completed your classification, answer the following questions.
a) What did you base your classifications on?
b) What did you notice about the very small stars?
c) What did you notice about the densities of the giants and supergiants?
d) Black holes form when certain types of stars collapse on themselves. There are
two stars on your list that have the potential to become black holes. Using the
data in the table, explain which two stars you think could become black holes.
info BIT
Human Star Power
“We are stardust” is a line in the chorus of a popular song carbon making up our bodies was created inside ancient
from the 1970s. It sounds like a far-fetched idea, but in stars that exploded, distributing their elements in our
fact it’s true. Humans are carbon-based life forms. The region of the galaxy.
STAR GROUPS
Constellations are the groupings of stars we see as patterns in the night
sky. Officially, there are 88 constellations recognized by the International
Astronomical Union. As well, there are many unofficially recognized star
groupings. These are asterisms. One of the most famous asterisms visible
from the northern hemisphere is the Big Dipper, which is part of the
constellation Ursa Major. The ancient Greeks saw the stars that make up
Ursa Major as a bear. The early Black Foot nation of North America also
saw a bear. Ancient Europeans saw a variety of different patterns
including a chariot, a wagon, and a plough. Figure 1.23 shows two
common star patterns and their associated constellations as we know
them today.
a b
Figure 1.23 (a) The constellation of Orion, a Figure 1.23 (b) The Big Dipper forms part of
figure in Greek mythology who was thought the constellation of Ursa Major, or the Great
of as a great hunter. Note the three bright Bear.
stars making “Orion’s Belt.” Betelgeuse is the
star at Orion’s right shoulder.
GALAXIES
A galaxy is a grouping of millions or billions of stars, gas, and dust. It is
held together by gravity.
The galaxy we live in is a spiral galaxy called the Milky Way. It is
shaped like a flattened pinwheel, with arms spiralling out from the centre.
Viewed from the side, a spiral galaxy looks a little like a compact disc
with a marble in the middle sticking out evenly on either side. Our galaxy
is believed to contain from 100 billion to 200 billion stars. There are two
other main types of galaxies: elliptical and irregular. Astronomers have
estimated there may be a billion billion galaxies in the universe.

Figure 1.24 Viewed from above or below Figure 1.25 An elliptical galaxy has a Figure 1.26 An irregular galaxy has no
the plane, a spiral galaxy appears to have shape similar to that of a football or egg notable shape and tends to be smaller than
long curved arms radiating out from a and is made up mostly of old stars. This the other two galaxy types. A mixture of
bright central core. Young stars provide picture shows many elliptical galaxies. old and young stars is found in irregular
most of the light in the arms. Older stars galaxies.
provide most of the light in the central
region.
CHECK AND REFLECT

Key Concept Review
1. What is the main chemical element in a star?
2. What is the connection between a supernova and a black hole?
3. What is the term used to refer to a group of millions of stars?
4. Explain the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram in your own words.

5. True or false: “Stars exist with every combination of brightness
(luminosity) and temperature. No specific patterns exist when star
data with these characteristics are plotted.” Explain your answer with
reference to the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram.
6. Why are nebulae sometimes referred to as “stellar nurseries”?
7. Create a word sequence that correctly summarizes the life cycle of
massive stars. Use the words: red supergiant, nebula, supernova,
massive star, neutron star. Connect each word with an arrow (→).
8. Considering the number of stars in space, why don’t astronomers see
greater numbers of dwarf stars?

9. Imagine two stars in a galaxy. Both are at the end of their life spans.
One star ends up as a white dwarf, the other ends up as a black hole.
Describe the conditions that led to these stars having different
outcomes.
10. The light we see from the planets in our solar system is just the light
reflected from the Sun. Why do planets appear brighter than the vast
majority of stars we see?
math Link 1.4 Our Solar Neighbourhood
The Power of the Sun
A watt (W) is a In Section 1.3, you learned that stars are born in stellar nurseries called
measure of power. A nebulae. The formation of our solar system, including the Sun and nine
megawatt (MW) is a planets, occurred in much the same way.
million watts. Most The “protoplanet hypothesis” is a model for explaining the birth of
household items do solar systems. The process can be described in three steps:
not require that much
1. A cloud of gas and dust in space begins swirling.
power. For example, a
2. Most of the material (more than 90%) accumulates in the centre,
typical light bulb
forming the Sun.
requires 100 W to
work. The Sun releases 3. The remaining material accumulates in smaller clumps circling the
380 billion billion centre. These form the planets.
megawatts every
second. How many
100-W light bulbs
could the Sun power? Swirling gas
ga and dust
Remaining
gas and
dust form
planets
Most gas and

nd dust
accumulates in the
middle, forming a star.
Figure 1.27 The three stages in the formation of a solar system, according to the protoplanet
hypothesis (sometimes known as the “nebular theory”)
THE SUN
At the centre of our solar neighbourhood sits the Sun. For thousands of
years, we learned all we knew about the Sun from looking at it, and that
wasn’t easy to do. After telescopes were invented it wasn’t long before
filters were designed to allow observers to gaze directly at the Sun.
Satellites have offered an even closer look. The Sun is almost 110 times
wider than Earth. If the Sun were a hollow ball, almost a million Earths
would be required to fill it.
The temperature at the surface of the Sun, which is constantly
bubbling and boiling, is about 5500°C, while the core is close to
15 000 000°C. The Sun releases charged particles that flow out in every
direction. This solar wind passes Earth at an average speed of 400 km/s.
Earth is protected from the solar wind by its magnetic field.

solar flares
corona
core
Figure 1.28 The Sun, like

most stars, is made up of
two main gases, hydrogen
sunspots and helium. They are packed
very densely at the core, held
together by gravity.
THE PLANETS
The planets that make up our solar system are as different as the people
that make up a family. Every planet has its own unique features and
characteristics. The solar system can be divided into two distinct
planetary groups: the inner planets, also called terrestrial, or Earth-like,
planets; and the outer, or Jovian (in reference to Jupiter), planets. The
terrestrial planets tend to be smaller, rockier in composition, and closer to
the Sun than the Jovian planets. The Jovian planets are large and gaseous
and are located great distances from the Sun.
Technology has enabled us to learn a lot about our nearest neighbours
in space. All the planets except Pluto have been visited by orbiting space
probes. Mars and Venus have had robots land on their surface.
S K I L L PRACTICE
BUILDING A PLANETARY SPREADSHEET

In this subsection, you will learn about many of the characteristics of the bodies that
make up our solar system.
As you work through this section, prepare a single spreadsheet to compare and contrast
all the information provided on pages 394–396 about the planets. You may choose to
organize your spreadsheet with the planets down the left-hand column and
characteristics across the top, or planets across the top and characteristics down the
left-hand column. A sample characteristic could be “Atmosphere” and the data could be
a simple yes or no answer.
With a small group, think up eight questions that could be used to test a person’s
knowledge of how the planets compare to one another. For example: Which planet has
the smallest mass? Does Jupiter complete its orbital revolution faster or slower than
Saturn? As a class, exchange your questions.
Mercury
Most of what we know about Mercury has been determined by telescopes and satellite data.
Mercury is the closest planet to the Sun. Its surface is very similar to that of the Moon. Like the Moon,
Mercury has no atmosphere and therefore no protection from the bombardment of meteroids, asteroids, and
comets. The scars of millions of years of impacts can be seen. Other parts of Mercury’s surface are smooth,
probably due to lava flowing through cracks in the rocky crust. The temperatures on Mercury vary greatly,
from over 400°C on the sunny side to –180°C on the dark side.
Distance Radius Mass Density Number of Average Period of Number of Period of

from the (Earth=1) (Earth=1) Earth=1 Moons Surface Rotation Rotations per Orbital
Sun (AU) Temp. (°C) Earth Day Revolution
0.39 0.38 0.06 1 0 180 59 days 0.017 88 days
Venus
Venus is similar to Earth in diameter, mass, and gravity, and is often called Earth’s twin. A closer look at
conditions on Venus’s surface shows where the similarities end. Venus would be horrific for humans to visit.
Surface temperatures are kept hot due to a greenhouse effect caused by thick clouds. Temperatures can be
over 450°C—hot enough to melt lead. The atmospheric pressure is about 90 times that on Earth. The surface
of Venus cannot be seen by telescope because of its thick cloud cover. The permanent clouds are made of
carbon dioxide, and it often rains sulfuric acid (the same acid found in a car battery). Russians landed a probe
on Venus in 1982, but it only lasted there for 57 min. In 1991, the spacecraft Magellan mapped Venus using
radio waves (radar). It found huge canyons, extinct volcanoes, and ancient lava flows. Venus is one of the only
planets in the solar system to rotate from east to west—opposite to the other six.

from the (Earth=1) (Earth=1) (Earth=1) Moons Surface Rotation Rotations per Orbital
0.72 0.95 0.86 0.96 0 480 243 days 0.004 225 days
Earth
Earth is unique in the solar system for several reasons. It is the only planet where water exists in all three
phases: solid, liquid, and gas. It is also the only planet that is at the appropriate distance from the Sun to
support life as we know it. As well, Earth’s atmosphere provides protection from cosmic rays and ultraviolet
radiation that would otherwise harm life. Seventy percent of the planet’s surface is covered in water. Earth is
one of the few places in our solar system that has active volcanism.

1 1 1 1 1 15 23.93 h 1 365.25 days

Mars
Mars has been studied by telescope for centuries. Two missions have successfully landed robotic probes on
the surface of the planet: Viking in 1976 and Mars Pathfinder in 1997. Mars is often referred to as the “red
planet,” though it is actually more orangey. This is caused by the iron oxides on the planet’s surface. Mars has
two polar ice caps, one made up of frozen carbon dioxide and water, the other of just carbon dioxide. The
atmosphere is very thin and composed mainly of carbon dioxide. Although the average surface temperature is
extremely cold, temperatures at Mars’s equator can reach 16°C in the summer. Like Venus and Earth, Mars has
canyons, valleys, and extinct volcanoes. Mars also has two small moons, Phobos and Deimos.

1.52 0.53 0.11 0.71 2 –53 24.6 h 0.98 607 days
Jupiter
Jupiter has been observed through telescopes since the 1600s. The Voyager probes visited Jupiter and many
of its 16 moons in 1979, followed by the Galileo probe in the mid-1990s. Jupiter is the largest of all the planets
in the solar system, and contains more than twice the mass of all the other planets combined. It is a gas giant
composed mainly of hydrogen and helium, and scientists speculate that if Jupiter were only 10 times larger
than it is, it may have formed into a star. The Great Red Spot on Jupiter is a huge storm in its atmosphere.
Jupiter has three very thin rings.

5.27 11.25 318 0.24 28 –108 9.85 h 2.4 11.9 years
Saturn
Galileo saw Saturn’s rings with his primitive telescope in 1610, though he initially thought they were a group
of planets. Voyager 1 and 2 flew by Saturn in 1980 and 1981, respectively. In late 2004, the Cassini
spacecraft will reach Saturn and drop a probe onto Titan, the largest of the planet’s 19 moons. Saturn is the
second largest planet in our solar system and has the most distinctive ring system of all the nine planets.
Over a thousand rings exist, composed of pieces of ice and dust that range in size from grains of sand to
house-sized blocks. Saturn’s composition is similar to Jupiter’s—mostly hydrogen and helium. Because of
the planet’s quick rotation, wind speeds at Saturn’s equator have been estimated at over 1800 km/h.

9.54 9.45 95 0.13 19 –180 10.38 h 2.3 29.5 years
Uranus
Voyager 2 has given us most of our close-up information about Uranus, last sending data back to Earth
in 1986 before it left the solar system. Satellite and telescope analyses have provided other interesting
details. Uranus has one of the most unusual rotations in the solar system: its axis of rotation is tilted
toward the plane of its orbit, making it appear to roll during its orbit. Another gas giant, Uranus is
composed mainly of hydrogen and helium. Methane in its atmosphere gives the planet a distinctive blue
colour. Uranus has a large ring system, and 17 moons.

19.19 4.01 15 0.21 17 –214 17.4 h 2.2 84 years
Neptune
When scientists observed the orbit of Uranus to be different from what they had calculated, they searched for
an eighth planet. In 1846, they found Neptune. About a century and a half later, Voyager 2 flew to Neptune to
collect more information. The composition and size of Neptune make it very similar in appearance to Uranus.
Another gas giant composed of hydrogen, helium, and methane, Neptune (like Uranus) is bluish in colour.
Very little of the Sun’s energy reaches the eighth planet. Neptune gives off about 3 times more energy than it
receives. It boasts the fastest wind speeds in the solar system, at 2500 km/h. Like all the other gas giants,
Neptune has its own ring system, as well as eight moons.

30.06 3.96 0.17 0.27 8 –220 16.2 h 1.6 165 years
Pluto
Pluto was discovered by telescope in 1930. Since then, the most useful information about it has come from
the Hubble Space Telescope. One of the greatest debates among planetary astronomers currently is whether
Pluto is a planet or not. It is a frozen ball of methane smaller than our moon. It doesn’t fit the pattern of the
outer planets, which tend to be large and gaseous, and it isn’t rocky like the terrestrial planets. Pluto’s orbit is
raised 17.2° from the plane of the other planets and is more elliptical than that of other planets. Like Venus
and Uranus, Pluto rotates from east to west. Between 1979 and 1999, Pluto was closer to the Sun than
Neptune. Some astronomers believe that Pluto and its moon, Charon, are comets captured by the Sun’s
gravity from the area of debris on the outer edge of the solar system called the Kuiper Belt.

39.5 0.19 0.002 0.36 1 –230 6.39 days 0.17 248 years

OTHER BODIES IN THE SOLAR SYSTEM
Asteroids
Between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter lies a narrow
belt of small, rocky or metallic bodies travelling in
space. These are called asteroids. They can range in
size from a few metres to several hundred kilometres
across. The largest asteroid, called Ceres, is over
1000 km wide. Scientists aren’t certain where the
asteroids came from.
Figure 1.29 The asteroid Eros is only 33 km long and
13 km wide. This image was taken in March 2000 by NEAR
Shoemaker, the first spacecraft to orbit an asteroid. In
February 2001, the spacecraft landed on Eros.
G I V E I T A TRY
HOW CAN COLLISIONS OCCUR IN ALL THAT SPACE? Materials & Equipment
• ball (such as tetherball or
The motion of the planets in our solar system is generally regular and volleyball) with ring
predictable. Even the motion of many smaller bodies in the solar system, such attachment
as asteroids and comets, has been charted and calculated. Every once in a while, • 3-m piece of cord
however, the gravitational force of a planet or a moon can affect the path of a • small, soft projectiles (such
smaller object and send it on a course toward the Sun. Even though Earth’s orbit as beanbags or marshmallows),
may be in the way of that new path, chance plays an important role in 2–3 per student
determining whether a collision between Earth and the object will occur or not.
1 Out on the school grounds, your teacher will stand in place and swing a
Caution!
tetherball, volleyball, or similar type of ball in a slow circle overhead. The
ball will be attached to a 3-m piece of cord. The ball represents Earth in its When throwing any
orbit around the Sun (your teacher). object, do so gently
2 Your teacher will provide you with one or two small soft projectiles, such as and aim only at the
beanbags or marshmallows. intended target.
3 Stand at least 1 m outside the arc made by the swinging ball. Using a gentle
underhand lob, throw your projectile toward the moving target—orbiting
“Earth.” If you succeed in hitting Earth, you will hear the impact or see the
projectile deflect off the ball.
4 After everyone in the class has had a throw or two, add up the number of
hits that occurred. Are you surprised by the number? Why? What made this
challenge difficult? What would increase the chances of making contact with
the ball?
5 Back in your classroom, write a paragraph describing how your
observations in this activity might be related to the occurrence of collisions
between Earth and other small objects in the solar system.
Comets
Comets, often described as “dirty snowballs,” are objects made up of dust
and ice that travel through space. Their long tails and bright glow only
appear when they get close to the Sun. When that happens, the Sun heats
the materials on the comet and gases are released. These gases then get
pushed away from the comet by the solar wind. The tails of some comets
can be millions of kilometres long.
Comets spend most of their time slowly orbiting in the outer reaches
of the solar system. Only when an event, such as the close passing of
another body, occurs might a comet’s path be pushed toward the inner
solar system. Then a comet can end up in a regular orbit around the Sun.
Comets that orbit the Sun will make a predictable appearance because
their paths are large ellipses. One of these is Halley’s comet, which is
visible from Earth every 76 years. The last time it was seen was in 1986.
Meteoroids, Meteors, and Meteorites

Small pieces of rocks flying through space with no particular path are
called meteoroids. Meteoroids can be as small as a grain of sand or as
large as a car. Practically invisible to most telescopes, we are usually only
aware of meteoroids as they hurtle through our atmosphere. When one
gets pulled into the atmosphere by Earth’s gravity, the heat of atmospheric
friction causes it to give off light and it is known as a meteor. These are
the so-called “shooting stars” that can often be seen streaking across the
night sky. If a meteor lasts long enough to hit Earth’s surface, it is called a
meteorite. Some meteor showers are predictable, such as the Leonids.
CHECK AND REFLECT

Figure 1.30 Meteorites
are rocky or metallic in
composition. The largest
known meteorite weighs
more than 60 t. It lies
where it fell at Hoba West
in Namibia.
Figure 1.31 Two impact craters left by a meteorite
in northern Quebec
info BIT
Halley’s Comet’s Elliptical Path
The path of a comet around the Sun is elliptical. Knowing its shape allows
astronomers to predict when the comet will return to pass by Earth again.
Halley’s comet has an average 76-year orbit. Shortly after its last visit in
1986, observers saw it brighten unexpectedly. That might mean it
collided with something. We will have to see what happened when it
makes its scheduled return visit in 2062.
Figure 1.32 Halley’s comet

TRACKING OBJECTS IN THE SOLAR SYSTEM re SEARCH
As you have learned in previous sections, the paths of the major bodies in
the solar system are ellipses. Because astronomers understand the nature Other Solar Systems
Several dozen planets
and geometry of elliptical orbits, as well as of celestial motion, they now
have been discovered
understand the paths of planets and their moons. This means that a
orbiting other stars in
variety of events can be accurately predicted, including both solar and
our galaxy. With each
lunar eclipses. Recall from earlier studies that a solar eclipse occurs when discovery, astronomers
the Moon, passing between the Sun and Earth, casts a shadow on Earth. A are learning that our
lunar eclipse occurs when Earth passes between the Sun and the Moon, solar system is not the
casting its shadow over the Moon. same as every other one.
Knowing so much about orbital paths and speeds, astronomers can Investigate the latest
predict eclipses well into the future. Some enthusiasts make it a hobby to research on new planets
plan trips wherever they can around the world to witness eclipses. and find out how
different they are from
the ones in our solar
neighbourhood. Begin
your search at
www.pearsoned.ca/
scienceinaction.
Figure 1.33 During a total solar eclipse, the Sun’s corona is visible.
Understanding of orbits has also led to the discovery of many different

comets. The paths of comets are elliptical, too, but larger and longer than
planetary paths. Through careful observation and the use of some basic
mathematics, astronomers are able to calculate the paths of some known
comets and predict when they will next be close enough to Earth to be
seen. Halley’s comet is one example.
Tracking and discovering comets is a job shared by sky-watchers at all
levels, from astronomers who work for the National Aeronautics and
Space Administration (NASA) to backyard enthusiasts. NASA also has a
system for tracking meteors.
Figure 1.34 The predictable
path of Comet
Shoemaker–Levy allowed
astronomers to anticipate
and monitor the comet’s
collision with Jupiter in 1994.
CHECK AND REFLECT

Key Concept Review
1. List the names of the inner, or terrestrial, planets.
2. Name three ways in which the outer, or Jovian, planets are alike.
3. Explain the main ways in which the inner planets differ from the
outer planets in our solar system.
4. Describe what an asteroid is.
5. Why are comets sometimes referred to as “dirty snowballs”? Why are
their tails visible?
6. What is the name for a meteoroid that survives its journey through our
atmosphere and hits Earth?

7. Describe in your own words how the solar system formed.
8. On the upper surface of Jupiter’s atmosphere, the attractive force of
gravity is 2.5 times that on Earth. What would a bathroom scale show
if a 50-kg person were weighed on Jupiter?
9. For about 20 years, from 1979 to 1999, Pluto was closer to the Sun
than Neptune was. Explain why this was possible.

10. Why would it be unreasonable to expect Saturn-like rings around any
of the inner planets?
11. Explain how it is possible for an asteroid or a comet to cut directly
across Earth’s orbital path but not strike Earth.
12. Suppose a gaseous planet half the size of Saturn were discovered.
Where in the solar system do you think it would be located? Give a
reason for your answer.

1.5 Describing the Position of Objects in Space
Suppose you were talking on the phone to your friend who lives in the
house beside you. From your windows you are looking at the night sky.
Your friend finds an interesting stellar object and wants you to look at it.
How can you be sure you are both looking at the same thing?
To locate the position of an object in space, two questions must be
answered: “How high in the sky is it”? and “In which direction”? This
problem can be solved with only two measurements. The first is the
compass direction, called the azimuth. With due north as 0° and going
clockwise, the azimuth will tell you which direction to point. For
example, 180° from 0° would have you pointing due south;
270° would have you pointing west. The second Zenith Altitude
measurement shows how high the object is in the sky.
This is called altitude. The altitude ranges from 0 at
N (o˚)
the horizon to 90° straight up. With these two Azimut
h
measurements, stargazers can pinpoint objects in
space. Zenith refers to the highest point directly
overhead.
W (270˚)
Observer
Figure 1.35 The imaginary dome that allows us to describe the
on
position of a celestial object H o riz
S (180˚)
G I V E I T A TRY
ESTIMATING POSITIONS IN SPACE

In this activity, you will investigate how accurately you Then, using both arms, count the number of times
can estimate the position of an object above you by you have to place one fist on top of the other until
using a simple tool, your fist. you “climbed” to the object’s position. For
example: 6 fists 10° = 60°. Record your
1 From your desk, select a small object that is high
“altitude” estimate in your notebook.
up on a classroom wall. Choose the wall that is
farthest from your desk. The object can be a clock, 4 Next, estimate the compass direction of the object.
a tack, or even just the upper corner of the room. Your teacher will tell you where due north is.
Imagine that point to be 12 o’clock in a clock face.
2 Extend one arm out in front of your body and
Describe the direction in which your object lies
make a fist. Close one eye and look down your
from north (12 o’clock) by reference to its position
arm, as though you were taking aim at something.
on the imaginary clock face (e.g., 2 o’clock).
The height of your fist as you see it this way
Combine this with the first measure of elevation.
represents about 10° of altitude.
5 Compare the accuracy of your results with that of
3 From a standing position beside your desk, and
some of your classmates. What similarities or
using your fist as described in step 2, estimate the
differences do you notice in your results? Explain
height (in degrees) of the object you have chosen.
why these might have occurred.
Start with one arm held out horizontal to the floor.
ACTIVITY E-2
Problem WHERE DO WE LOOK?

Solving
Recognize a Need
To find a particular star in the night sky is not as simple as pointing and saying, “There it
is!” To find the specific location, a set of rules must be followed and accurate directions
given. A star’s position is like an address to a house: no two are exactly alike. How is the
position determined, and how can another person find the exact same star?
• cardboard The Problem
• circle protractor
Searching the night sky, you have discovered a bright star that wasn’t visible before—a
• pen
supernova perhaps. To claim your fame as the star’s discoverer, you have to confirm its
• scissors
position with the Astronomical Society. The Society requests that you send the star’s
• string
• small weight (such as a bearing (azimuth) and altitude. You have a telescope, but no way of knowing the exact
washer or rubber stopper) position of the star in the sky. The challenge is to build a device, find the star, and
• straight drinking straw correctly identify the coordinates. The only way to solve the problem is to construct an
• adhesive tape astrolabe.
• thin straight object (such as a
souvlaki stick or a straight Criteria for Success
piece of wire) • Build a functioning astrolabe with materials provided.
• Locate the star with the astrolabe.
• Use the correct technique to identify the coordinates with the astrolabe.
Build a Prototype
1 Draw a semicircle about 20 cm in diameter on the cardboard. Using a protractor,
mark the 10° increments on the cardboard and label them (see Figure 1.36). Cut out
the cardboard protractor.
90 90
80
70 90
80 90
60
50 70
40 60
50
30
40
20
30
10
20
0
10
Figure 1.36 Steps 1–3
2 Tie one end of the string to the weight and attach the other end to the centre of the
cardboard. The weight should be able to swing freely, as shown in Figure 1.36.
3 Tape the straw to the cardboard as shown in Figure 1.36. The angle you read from
the string on your new astrolabe indicates the angle your target is above the
horizontal.

Test and Evaluate
Note: For this part of the activity, your teacher will have
hung a sphere (representing your star) from the ceiling.
4 Sitting at your desk, locate the “star” in the sky using
the straw as a telescope. The weight should be
hanging straight down (Figure 1.37).
5 Once you have found the star, hold the astrolabe as
steady as possible and read the altitude off the
cardboard scale (or have another student read it for
you). Write this number down as “altitude” (for
example: 45°).
6 Your teacher will tell you where due north is. Lay the
circle protractor on your desk and align the 0° with
due north. Tape the protractor on your desk to hold it
in place.
7 Place the thin straight object on the circle protractor
with one end at the centre of the protractor and the
other end pointing in the direction of the star. The
azimuth is always measured clockwise from the north
in degrees. Read the angle measured clockwise from
due north. This is the azimuth of the star.
Communicate Figure 1.37 Step 4

8 Imagine that, after locating the position of the star, you
send the coordinates to the Astronomical Society. A week later they call to say they
followed your directions exactly, but could not find the star. You are certain you were
careful. What might have happened that would make your coordinates incorrect?
9 Do your coordinates match those of any of your classmates? Explain why they might
not.
10 If it were a real star you were looking at and you took coordinates every night for one
full year from the same location, would the coordinates change or remain the same?
Explain your answer.
Extension
You can record the altitude of the Sun with an astrolabe. Point the straw at the Sun with Caution!
one hand, and hold your other hand, palm up, to the other end of the straw. Move the Do not look
straw around until you see a small circle of light on the palm of your hand. Read the angle directly at the
on your cardboard scale. This shows you the altitude of the Sun. Make three Sun through the
measurements and calculate an average. Try this at the same time for five days in a row. straw.
Does the Sun’s altitude change or does it stay the same? Explain..
re SEARCH DETERMINING THE MOTION OF OBJECTS IN SPACE
Because they are at such enormous distances from Earth, the stars appear
Star-studded Flags to stay in one place in the sky. Only when viewed over extremely long
Stars are part of the
periods of time can some stars be seen to move very slightly.
design of the national
When observing planetary motion, however, a person needs to wait
flags of Australia, Brazil,
and New Zealand and only a few days or weeks to see a planet change its position against the
the state flag of Alaska. background of stars. “Planet” comes from the ancient Greek word for
Find out which stars the “wanderer.” The movement of these wandering celestial planets mystified
flags depict and explain early people. Sometimes the planets seemed to speed up over time in their
why you think that is. movements across the sky. Other times they appeared to stand still. The
Begin your research at path in the sky along which the Sun appears to move is called the ecliptic.
www.pearsoned.ca/ In section 1.1, you read about how astronomers such as Aristotle and
scienceinaction. Copernicus tried to explain the motions of the planets which, when
viewed from Earth, seemed very complex. Different interpretations of the
available information eventually led to new theories being proposed. An
example of this was Kepler’s suggestion that the planets’ paths were
ellipses and not circles.
north
celestial
celestial ecliptic
pole
sphere
summer
solstice
autumnal
equinox
23.5°
vernal
equinox
winter solstice
south
celestial
pole
Figure 1.38 The celestial sphere is the name given to the very large imaginary "sphere of sky"
surrounding Earth. (Think of Earth lying within a large hollow ball.) The celestial equator is the
imaginary line around that sphere of sky directly above Earth's equator. The ecliptic—the apparent
path of the Sun through the sky during the year—crosses the celestial equator at the vernal (spring)
and autumnal (fall) equinoxes. The Sun's most northerly position on the ecliptic marks the
summer solstice. Its most southerly position marks the winter solstice.

CHECK AND REFLECT
Key Concept Review
1. What name is given to the compass direction when we are trying to
locate an object in the night sky?
2. Define altitude.
3. What is the point directly overhead called?
4. Explain what the ecliptic is.

5. Why did the Greeks call the planets “wanderers”?
6. Why must two coordinates, azimuth and altitude, be given to specify
the location of an object in the night sky?
7. The table below has two incorrect entries.
a) Identify each error and correct it.
b) Explain why each of the two entries is incorrect.
Reading Azimuth Altitude

1 30° 93°
2 364° 45°

8. Is it ever possible to specify the location of an object in the sky
knowing only the altitude? Explain your answer.
9. Imagine two friends, one in Calgary and the other in Edmonton,
observing the same body in space. Describe how their coordinates
would be different for the same object.
10. a) Does the rotation of Earth affect azimuth and altitude
measurements of stars? Explain why or why not.
b) What can be done to ensure someone using your measurements
would be able to find the object you located?
Figure 1.39 If you know the altitude and

azimuth coordinates of an object in the sky,
you can accurately describe its position to
someone else.
SECTION REVIEW
Assess Your Learning
Key Concept Review
1. Why was it necessary for ancient people to develop technology to
better understand the motions of bodies in space?
2. Define a) astronomical unit and b) light-year.
3. What two characteristics of stars are plotted on the Hertzsprung-
Russell diagram?
4. What name do we give the nuclear reaction that produces helium from
hydrogen?
5. Explain the difference between a constellation and an asterism.
6. Is the Sun likely to become a neutron star? Explain your answer.
7. Imagine that you observe two stars in the night sky. One is an old star
and one is a young star. What differences between the two might you
observe?
8. What prevents a neutron star from collapsing under its own gravity?
9. What type of galaxy is the Milky Way? Sketch what this type of galaxy
looks like.
10. a) In what way are Mars and Earth similar?
b) In what ways are they different?
11. Compare the general characteristics of the inner planets with those
of the outer planets. Copy the table below into your notebook and fill
it in.
Feature Inner Planets Outer Planets

Composition
Number of moons
Ring systems
Size
Surface temperature
12. Which planet has surface features that most closely resemble Earth’s?
Briefly describe those features.
13. The speed of light is 300 000 km/s. The Sun is about 150 000 000 km
from Earth.
a) How long does it take light to get from the Sun to Earth?
b) The distance around Earth at the equator is about 40 000 km. How
long would it take light to go around the world once?
14. Explain why distances to stars are not measured in kilometres or
astronomical units.
15. Describe the protoplanet hypothesis of how a solar system forms. Use
sketches to support your answer.

SECTION REVIEW
16. Explain why it is necessary on Earth to have a leap year (one extra
day, February 29) every four years.
17. Figure 1.40 shows the orbital paths of Neptune and Pluto. As you
know from this section, Pluto’s path cuts across the path of Neptune.
Give two reasons why it is unlikely their orbital paths will ever
collide.
Figure 1.40 Question 17
18. The greater the mass of an object, the greater its gravitational
attraction. The object with the largest mass in our solar system is the
Sun. Because of its large mass, it not only holds the planets in their
orbits, but it also attracts great amounts of space debris from the far
reaches of the solar system. On occasion, large chunks of debris have
even hit Earth, but not as many as astronomers have predicted could
hit Earth. What might be some explanations for Earth’s apparent
“luck” in not being hit by more space debris?

On
Our understanding of space and the universe around us is directly connected
to the technology we use to make observations. As the technology has
improved, so has our ability to find answers to our questions. Consider the
following questions and use examples from your work in this section to
support your answers.
1. How has technology affected the way humans look into the universe?
2. How have technological advances over time improved our understanding
of space?
3. Why has distance in space proven to be such a challenging factor to
overcome?
Technological developments are
2.0 making space exploration possible
and offer benefits on Earth.
Key Concepts
In this section you will learn
concepts:
exploration
• life support technologies
• communication technologies
Learning Outcomes
• analyze space environments,
and identify challenges that
must be met in developing
life-supporting systems
• describe technologies for
“From space, if you look back just a few degrees away from Earth, you see the black void of the universe—
life-support systems, and the cold vacuum of space. But when you look back at the Earth, bathed in sunlight, you see where we all
interpret the scientific live. We are all voyagers in space together.”
principles on which they are —Roberta Bondar, Canadian astronaut, quoted in the Canadian Space Agency’s “Canada in Space:
based Destination Earth” (1993)
• describe technologies for

space transport, and interpret The lure of leaving Earth to explore other planets and beyond is the
the scientific principles same lure that has always drawn humans to explore what lies over the
involved horizon. The urge to venture into uncharted seas, distant countries, and
• identify materials and extreme environments, such as the Arctic and Antarctica, is no different
processes developed to meet than the urge to venture into space.
needs in space, and identify From the earliest unmanned rockets to the re-useable space shuttles
related applications of today, the biggest challenges of exploring space have been finding
• describe the development of ways: 1) to go fast enough to achieve orbit around Earth or break free of
artificial satellites, and Earth’s gravity and travel to other planets; 2) to keep equipment
explain the major purposes operating in the extreme environment of space; and 3) to transport
for which they are used
people out and back safely. In searching for solutions to these problems,
scientists have used technology and technologists have used science.
In this section, you will learn about technologies developed to send
objects into space and to make life support and transport in space
possible. You will also learn about the spin-offs from such innovations
that are being used here on Earth.

info BIT
2.1 Getting There: Technologies for Space
Transport The First Rocketeer
A legend from 16th
century China suggests
Humans have come a long way since their early experiments with
that the first rocket-
rocketry to propel objects high into the sky. Today, hundreds of satellites assisted flight was
circle Earth. They transmit non-stop information for use in attempted by Wan-Hu,
communications, navigation, research, and weather forecasting. Robotic a Chinese official.
space probes have investigated all the planets of our solar system except Forty-seven rockets
Pluto. As well, manned spacecraft—notably the Russian Mir space station, were attached to a
the American space shuttle, and the International space station—have chair that was
conducted studies while in Earth’s orbit. connected to two kites.
Getting an object into “space” (outside Earth’s atmosphere) first After all the rockets
required figuring out what speed an object needed to overcome the force were ignited, there was
of gravity pulling the object back toward Earth. That speed, it was found, a massive explosion.
No traces of Wan-Hu,
had to be at least 28 000 km/h.
the chair, or the kites
were ever found.
Q U I C K LAB
THE POWER OF STEAM Materials & Equipment

Note: This may be done as a teacher demonstration. Caution! • plastic pinwheel
Be careful around • test-tube clamp
Purpose the heating tray to • thermometer clamp
To observe the power of steam propulsion • plastic funnel to fit beaker
avoid getting a
• one 250-mL beaker
burn.
Procedure • water
1 Set up the apparatus as shown in Figure 2.1. • heating tray
• pencil and notepaper
2 Fill the beaker until it is about half full of water.
3 Turn on the heating tray to boil the water.
pinwheel
4 When the water starts boiling, record your observations.
5 After you have completed the activity, turn off the power thermometer
to the heating tray. DO NOT touch the apparatus until it clamp
has had sufficient time to cool down. test-tube
funnel clamp
Questions
6 What made the pinwheel turn? water in
beaker
7 Why was the funnel put over the beaker upside down?
ring stand
8 Would the pinwheel have turned if no funnel were used?
heating plate
9 How could you improve this set-up to make the pinwheel
spin faster? Figure 2.1 Step 1
Technological Developments Are Making Space Exploration Possible and Offer Benefits on Earth 409
THE ACHIEVEMENTS OF ROCKET SCIENCE
Figure 2.2 Space exploration really started once large rocket boosters were developed. Cape
Canaveral in Florida is the major launch facility of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration
(NASA).
The first step in space exploration has been figuring out a way to get off
the planet. The sophisticated rockets used today to transport unmanned
and manned craft into space are tributes to human technological ingenuity
and achievement. These complex rockets have far simpler origins than
you might imagine. Around 400 B.C., the Greek mathematician Archytas
used escaping steam to propel a model pigeon along wires. In the 1st
century A.D., the Chinese were using gunpowder to make rocket-propelled
arrows for battle.
On October 4, 1957, the Soviet Union became the first country in the
world to launch an artificial satellite. It was called Sputnik, the Russian
word for satellite. A month after Sputnik was put into orbit around Earth,
Figure 2.3 Archytas’s the Soviet Union launched a second space capsule. This one carried an
“pigeon” is said to be the occupant, a small dog named Laika, who survived for seven days as the
first rocket ever recorded. capsule orbited Earth. The event marked the first time any living creature
had been sent into space. The valuable information gained from that
mission set the path for human space travel.
Figure 2.4 Sputnik I was only about as Figure 2.5 On September 29, 1962, Canada became
large as a basketball, but its launch the third nation in the world (after the Soviet Union and
marked the beginning of the satellite age. the United States) to launch its own satellite, Alouette I.

Q U I C K LAB
STABILIZING ROCKET FLIGHT

Have you ever wondered why rockets have fins? Materials & Equipment
• a sheet of paper
Purpose • scissors
To test the effects of fins in stabilizing a rocket for flight • a pencil (at least 14 cm
long)
Procedure • tape
1 Cut a strip about 13 cm long and 3 cm wide from the paper. Roll the strip • a drinking straw
snugly around the pencil and tape it closed to create a long tube (your (a little narrower than
“rocket”). Twist the end of the paper around the pencil point to make the nose the pencil)
cone.
2 Slip the pencil out the other end of the tube. Gently blow into the open end of
the tube and feel for leaks along its length. If air is escaping, seal the leaks with
more tape.
3 Test Flight 1: Insert one end of the straw into your rocket. With the other end of
the straw in your mouth, tilt your head back slightly and blow a quick puff of air Caution!
into the rocket. Observe how the rocket flies. Point your rocket
4 Retrieve the rocket. From the left-over paper, cut out two sets of fins. Tape in a safe direction
[CATCH
these FIG.
to the 2.6
tube ART: DIAGRAM
as shown SHOWING
below. (Hint: Adding tabs to the fins makes them only, away from
SIZE AND POSITION OF
easier to tape to the tube.) FINS ON THE other people.
MODEL ROCKET; NO CAPTION.]
5 Test Flight 2: Again, launch your rocket with the straw and observe the rocket’s
flight.
fins
straw
nose cone
Figure 2.6 Model rocket
Questions
6 How does the rocket’s performance in the first test compare to that in the
second test? Write a brief conclusion about how fins affect a rocket in flight.
7 Do you think that fins would have much effect on a rocket’s performance
outside Earth’s atmosphere?
info BIT THE SCIENCE OF ROCKETRY
Rocketry relies on a fundamental law of physics: for every action, there is
Space Travel Tip: Pack an equal and opposite reaction. An inflated balloon is similar to a simple
Lightly rocket. A balloon filled with air is confining gas under pressure. Release
When preparing a the mouth of the balloon and it will be propelled in a direction opposite
manned spacecraft for a
to the path of the escaping gas. Rockets also use gas under pressure
long trip, engineers try to
confined in a chamber or tank. An opening in the chamber allows the gas
organize the mass of the
to be released, producing thrust (push) and causing the rocket to be
load as follows: 3% as
machinery (tanks, propelled in the opposite direction.
engines, and fins); 6% as
payload (including air,
water, food, satellites, (b) (c)
reaction
crew quarters, and the
astronauts), and 91% as
(a) reaction
fuel.
action
action
payload
air rushing out

air confined
under exhaust gases
pressure
oxidizer
Figure 2.7 In an inflated balloon (a), the air pressure pushes equally in all directions. When the air is
allowed to escape, the action causes a thrust reaction (b). Rockets are propelled in a similar way (c).
liquid
fuel
There are three basic parts to a rocket: the structural and mechanical
combustion
chamber elements, the fuel, and the payload.
• The structural and mechanical elements are everything from the
rocket itself to engines, storage tanks, and the fins on the outside.
• The fuel can be any number of materials, including liquid oxygen,
gasoline, and liquid hydrogen. The mixture is ignited in a combustion
nozzle chamber, causing the gases to expand and leave as exhaust.
• The payload refers to the materials needed for the flight, including
Figure 2.8 A modern rocket
crew cabins, food, water, air, and people.
in cross-section

THE FUTURE OF SPACE TRANSPORT TECHNOLOGY re SEARCH
If humans are to visit other bodies in our solar system, technology still has
a long way to advance. Ion drives and solar sails are two new devices It’s Always Sunny—
being considered for propelling spacecraft between the planets. Above the Clouds
In August 2001, NASA
launched Helios, the
Ion Drives
first remotely piloted,
Ion drives are engines that use xenon gas instead of chemical fuels. In the solar-powered “flying
spacecraft engine, the xenon is electrically charged, accelerated, and then wing” that can fly
emitted as exhaust. This action pushes the spacecraft in the direction more than 30 000 m
opposite to the emission. above Earth. Find out
The thrust generated by an ion drive is 10 000 times weaker than the more about the design
thrust achieved by today’s chemically fuelled rocket engines. Can you feel of the craft, the science
the force created by the page of this textbook resting on your hand? That behind the design, and
force is roughly equal to the force an ion drive would exert against your how NASA hopes to
hand. However, the thrust from an ion drive lasts an extremely long time. apply the technology
In space, that little bit of force applied over a long period of time results to explore space. Begin
your search at
in a very fast vehicle. For great distances, the amount of fuel required is
www.pearsoned.ca/
about 1/10 of what would be used by a typical spacecraft.
scienceinaction.
ion source
reaction action
Figure 2.9 Ion drives may be an option for powering spacecraft that could take the first
astronauts to Mars. Imagine a car getting about 19 000 km/L of fuel. That is the potential
benefit of an ion drive.
Solar Sails
The idea of propelling spacecraft using solar sails is similar to the idea
of propelling boats using wind sails. Instead of harnessing air currents
for energy, solar sails would use the Sun’s light. The Sun emits
electromagnetic energy in the form of photons. The solar sails being
tested are made of carbon fibre. When the photons hit the sail, the
energy transmitted causes the spacecraft to move. Proposals for solar Figure 2.10 Some scientists estimate
sails suggest that they might be made from material that could be that a spacecraft powered by solar
spread as thin as plastic wrap and extend over 400 m2. Use of solar sails could travel about 5 times as fast
sails is expected by 2015. as a current spacecraft.
ACTIVITY E-3
Problem DESIGNING A S O L A R S A I L -P O W E R E D S PA C E C R A F T
Solving Recognize a Need
The solar sail holds great promise for interplanetary flight. With the Sun as an energy
source, the potential for economical power seems limitless. Yet, what is the best design
for such a sail? Logically, one might think that the larger the sail, the faster and farther a
craft could go. In this activity, you will learn that many details must be considered in
Materials & Equipment designing any spacecraft.
• for the sail: a variety of Note that in this activity you will be simulating solar power and its effects on the
materials (such as thin cloth, design of solar sails. Instead of using the Sun’s light to power your craft, you will be
paper, plastic wrap, wax paper,
using wind currents.
aluminum foil)
• for the wheels: a variety of The Problem
pieces of cardboard of varying
With the materials provided, you are to design a sunlight-powered spacecraft that will
thickness
take a specified payload (the washer) to a set destination. The craft must be able to travel
• scissors
straight to hit its destination, make the trip in the shortest time possible, and arrive at the
• for the spacecraft body: small
piece of wood (about 10 cm destination with the payload intact.
long, 3 cm wide, 1.5 cm thick)
Criteria for Success
• thumbtacks
• small gauge, rigid wire • Produce a set of scale drawings of your craft and label them. Briefly describe the
• masking tape scientific principles met by your design, and justify the choices you made.
• washer (about the diameter of • Use simple materials to build a functioning model spacecraft powered by a sail. The
a quarter) craft must be able to travel the minimum design distance to the destination, without
• electric fan dropping its payload.
• stopwatch
Brainstorm Ideas
1 Working in a small group (your “design team”), discuss which of the materials you
have available would be most suitable for a solar sail.
2 Consider the options for the overall design of the craft, including: size of the body;
size, thickness, and position of the wheels; size and shape of the sail; and position of
the payload.
3 Make a labelled sketch of your proposed model before you build it; modify the design
if necessary.
Build a Prototype
4 Cut the wheels from the cardboard provided.
5 Use the thumbtacks to fasten the wheels to the piece of wood.
6 Cut the sail from the material of your choice.
7 Use the wire to form a support, or mast, for the sail. Tape the end of the wire to the
wood.
8 Tape the washer to the wood as your payload.
Test and Evaluate

9 Perform a preliminary test on your spacecraft by blowing on the sail. (No testing is to
be done with the fan yet.) Adjust your design as necessary.
10 Predict how far your spacecraft will travel in your official test.

11 After all modifications have been made, run the official test on a smooth, hard
surface.
12 Place your model at the designated starting position, with the target destination
(about 1 m wide) 2 m away. Set the fan on the floor, about 30 cm behind the craft.
Note: Be careful when using an electric fan.
13 As soon as you release the craft, start the stopwatch to time the journey to the target.
Repeat your test three or four times and calculate the average speed.
14 Now, without a fixed destination, test the maximum distance your craft will travel.
Communicate
15 Write a brief summary describing the relationship between the speed of your
spacecraft and: (i) the size of the sail; (ii) the size of the wheels; and (iii) the material
of the sail. Also explain how the position of the payload affected the balance and
speed of your craft.
16 What problems did you experience with your prototype? Explain how you might
correct these, and invite suggestions from other design teams.
17 Was the maximum distance you predicted your craft could travel close to the actual
distance you found in your test? Explain how you arrived at your prediction and why
your model performed or did not perform as predicted.
18 In which ways does your model operate like a solar sail? In which ways does it not?
Figure 2.11 Brainstorm ideas and build a prototype.
SHUTTLES, SPACE PROBES, AND SPACE STATIONS
In the decades since the first simple satellites, the science of rocketry has
sent humans on round-trips to the Moon and sent robots to investigate our
neighbouring planets. It has also launched the Hubble Space Telescope to
let us look far out into the universe and back in time to the birth of the
universe—generally thought now to be some 12 to 15 billion years ago.
There are three main types of spacecraft in use. Shuttles transport
personnel and equipment to orbiting spacecraft. Space probes contain
instrumentation for carrying out robotic exploration of space. (These are
described in more detail in section 3.2.) Space stations are orbiting
spacecraft that have living quarters, work areas, and all the support
systems needed to allow people to live and work in space for extended
periods.
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 2.12(a) American space shuttle, (b) Voyager space probe, and (c) International space station
THE NEXT STEP

info BIT A manned interplanetary space journey would be much easier if the
spacecraft did not not have to begin by fighting Earth’s gravity or
Ticket to the Moon
travelling through its atmosphere. Scientists believe that the best place to
A Japanese company is
already taking
start an interplanetary flight is from an orbiting space station or even from
reservations for trips to the Moon.
the Moon in 2010. In a The International Space Station, orbiting Earth at an altitude of
recent North American 350 km, provides such a place. It is a joint project of 16 nations, including
survey, more than 60% of the United States, Canada, Japan, Russia, Brazil, and 11 nations of the
the people who European Space Agency. The station will serve as a permanent laboratory
responded said they in space, as well as a command post for building and launching
would like to take a interplanetary rockets. Construction of the International Space Station is
vacation in space. Of well under way, with modules (subsections of the craft) being made and
those people, most said sent up from Earth. When it is completed, it will have a living and
they would not hesitate to working space equal to the size of three average-sized Canadian houses.
spend three months’ pay
Almost certainly, more space stations will be established in the future.
for a two-week vacation
As well, several private companies are planning to develop hotels and
off the planet.
amusement parks in space or on the Moon.

Figure 2.13 Humans are ready for the next step in leaving Earth and living for extended times in space.
CHECK AND REFLECT

Key Concept Review Extend Your Understanding
1. Archytas’s model pigeon is the first rocket 9. The force of gravity on the moon is 1/6th of
ever recorded. What method did he use to that on Earth. Imagine you had a summer
propel his pigeon? job as a chef’s assistant at a hotel on the
2. Who were the first people to use Moon. Describe the challenges you would
gunpowder to propel arrows with the aid of face doing each of the following activities
rockets, and when? inside the hotel, and how you would
overcome those challenges.
3. Which was the first country to launch an
a) washing dishes
artificial satellite?
b) cooking pancakes
4. Describe the three basic parts of a rocket, c) climbing stairs
and draw and label a sketch showing the d) having a swim in a pool
parts.
10. Imagine a luxury hotel located on the
5. Name two alternatives to rocket engines bright side of the Moon. Describe three
that scientists are studying as a means of hazards that might face a structure located
propelling spacecraft on long journeys. there.
Connect Your Understanding 11. Every planet in our solar system except
6. Explain what would happen if a rocket’s Pluto has been explored either remotely (by
payload were greater than the allowed probe) or on its surface (with a microwave
percentage. oven-sized robotic “lander”). Research the
technology that has been used to study
7. What is the main attraction for using an ion
each planet, and investigate why a space
drive for powering spacecraft?
probe has not yet been sent to Pluto.
8. Besides savings in fuel costs, what is the
other main advantage to using a solar sail?
info BIT
2.2 Surviving There: Technologies for Living
All-Occasion Pen
NASA spent close to
in Space
$2 million designing a
Only a thin atmosphere encircling our planet holds all we need for life on
pen that would work in
Earth. Outside that bubble is the “cold vacuum of space” that Canadian
space. It had to be able
to write in a vacuum, astronaut Roberta Bondar referred to in the introduction to this section. It
upside down in is an environment that is hostile to human life in numerous ways.
microgravity conditions,
and in temperatures
that range from +200˚C in
full sun to -200º˚C in the
shade.
Figure 2.14 Canadian astronaut Julie Payette played an active role in assembling the International
Space Station.
G I V E I T A TRY
SHARING A SMALL PLACE IN SPACE

Using a piece of cord 16 m long, lay out a square on the floor that measures
4 m 4 m. Imagine that this outlines the size of the spacecraft that will be your home
for 12 months during a trip to Mars.
Stand in the square with five other classmates. For about 1 min, move around with your
fellow astronauts as best you can in the space provided.
Return to your desks and, with your group, think about all the problems that could arise
during a long trip in this type of confinement. Some of the aspects to consider include
work space, room for exercise, and issues of privacy. In your notebook, list all the
potential problems you identify. Beside each problem, write a solution that you and your
group can suggest. When you are finished, compare the problems and solutions you
identified with those that other groups noted.

HAZARDS OF LIVING IN SPACE
People travelling and working in space do not need an Earth-like
environment simply for comfort. It is a matter of survival. Humans have
orbited Earth, flown far into space, landed on the Moon, and returned
safely to our planet. We are now aiming to put a human—not just a
robotic machine—on another planet for the first time. Scientists believe
we now have the technology to send a group of astronauts to Mars and
back. This will not be a typical week-long mission for space shuttle
astronauts, nor will it be a few months as experienced by astronauts in the
International Space Station. Astronauts going to Mars will be gone for two
to three years.
Environmental Hazards
Space is a vacuum, with no air or water. It also contains many hazards for
the spacecraft and its occupants, including the damaging effects of cosmic
rays and solar radiation and the risk of being hit by meteoroids. There is
no atmosphere so temperatures can range from unimaginably cold in
shadows to extremely hot in the full sun. The gases in the atmosphere that
keep us alive on Earth do not exist in space. Neither does the pressure of
the atmosphere, which helps regulate our heartbeats.
Psychological Challenges to Confined Living

Long trips in a confined living space may also lead to psychological
problems. Imagine spending every minute of every day with one person
for two years. Now imagine spending that two years in an enclosure not
much bigger than your classroom. Stepping outside for a breath of fresh
air is strictly prohibited!
Figure 2.15 The space in

which astronauts live and
work is extremely cramped.
info BIT The Body and Microgravity
Before astronauts can travel to distant planets in our solar system, there is
Record-Holder for Space much to be learned about how the human body adapts physically to
Living living in space. A particular problem is living in microgravity. Recall
In 1995, Valery Polyakov, from earlier studies that gravity is the force of attraction between masses.
a Russian cosmonaut (the On Earth, gravity gives us our feeling of weight. Microgravity is the
Russian term for condition in which the gravitational forces that act on mass are greatly
astronaut) returned to reduced. For example, a person would weigh only one-third on Mars of
Earth after living for a what he or she would weigh on Earth. That’s because on Mars the force of
record 437 days in space. gravity is weaker (only one-third) than on Earth. In space, that person is
He suffered loss of bone almost completely weightless, as are the spacecraft and all of its contents.
mass, but by exercising In conditions of weightlessness, the body undergoes many changes.
strenuously for two hours
Bones have much less pressure on them than normal and so they expand.
every day, he stayed
The heart does not have to pump as hard to circulate blood. Muscles used
physically fit and was
for walking and lifting do not get used as much, and therefore weaken.
able to walk away from
his spacecraft unassisted Even a person’s visual depth perception is affected. These and other
after he arrived back on concerns will be extensively studied on the International Space Station in
Earth. preparation for interplanetary travel.
Figure 2.16 There are several

problems for the human
body when it has been in
space for long periods of
time. Bones lose their
calcium and become more
brittle. Muscle mass starts
shrinking. Exercising in space
helps keep the muscles fit.
THE SPACE SUIT

When walking or working outdoors on Earth, we usually try to dress
appropriately for the conditions, wearing a warm jacket if it is cold and
rain gear if it is wet. When taking a walk in space, however, we would be
faced with a more difficult environment. Once astronauts leave their
spacecraft, everything they need to survive must be brought with them:
air, water, a heating system, a cooling system—even a portable toilet.

In addition, the suit must be flexible enough to allow the astronaut to
grasp a wrench or twist a bolt. Each space suit is custom-designed for the
man or woman who will wear it, from the size of the shoes to the size of
the gloves.
Figure 2.17 A space suit is

a mini-Earth system that
allows the wearer to work
freely outside the
spacecraft. The Apollo suits
cost about $400 000 (U.S.)
each. Today’s space suits
cost about $20 000 (U.S.).
Figure 2.18 The first astronauts to walk in space were connected to their spacecraft with a hose
that supplied oxygen and a means of communication. Modern astronauts use a suit that is
completely self-contained, enabling them to work outside their crafts for up to 9 h at a time.
A HOME IN SPACE
Outside Earth’s atmosphere, none of the life-support systems that humans
must have for survival exist. If people are planning to move out to space
colonies in the coming years, their space station homes will have to come
with several important features. First, clean water, breathable air, and
comfortable temperatures and air pressure must be provided. As well, the
station must carry its own source of power to provide the energy
necessary to run the life-support systems and other equipment at all times.
Recycling Water
The International Space Station will be using devices that can recycle
almost 100% of the water in the station. This includes waste water, water
used for hygiene, and moisture in the air. Careful recycling of water on the
space station will keep a crew of seven comfortable for several months.
re SEARCH Recycling is also essential in the day-to-day life in a space station.
Because there is so little room for storage, as much of the materials carried
Technology for Life as possible must be recyclable or reuseable. Consider, for example, the
Choose one of the challenge of how best to use the limited supply of water carried in a
technologies necessary spacecraft. Researchers have developed the technology to filter, purify,
for providing life and recycle the same water again and again on long space flights. This
support to humans technology is now also being used on Earth to provide environmentally
during space travel and safe sewage treatment for houses.
research the history of On the International Space Station, the Environmental Control and
its development. Begin Life Support Systems are designed to ensure life support. The functions of
your search at the life-support system include:
www.pearsoned.ca/ • recycling wastewater (including urine) to produce drinking water;
scienceinaction.
• using recycled water to produce oxygen;
• removing carbon dioxide from the air;
• filtering micro-organisms and dust from the air; and
• keeping the air pressure, temperature, and humidity (air moisture)
stable.
Air
e
ensat Temperature Air
nd & Humidity Retu
Co rn CO2
Waste Control CO2 Overboard
Management Removal Venting
Cabin Cabin
Air Return
Waste Products
Fire Detection & Contaminant
Urine Suppression Control
Recovery Subassembly
Urine Air
Processed Oxygen
Urine H2
O2/N2 Oxygen Overboard
Potable Control Generation Venting
Crew System Water
Product Processing
Water Nitrogen
Potable
Waste
Water Hand Shower Water
Dispenser Wash/ Product Water
Shaving
Figure 2.19 The water recycling system aboard the International Space Station
Producing Oxygen
Scientists have also come up with a simple but effective way of producing
oxygen in space. As you may recall from past studies, the process of
electrolysis uses electricity to split water molecules into their component
elements: hydrogen and oxygen. Applied in a spacecraft, this process can
supply most of the oxygen a crew needs. The hydrogen is vented into
space.

ACTIVITY E-4 DESIGNING AND BUILDING
Experiment on your own A WAT E R F I LT E R
Before You Start

There are many challenges to living in space. One is how to
maintain a good supply of useable water for drinking,
washing, and other activities. As humans plan ever-longer
space voyages, the need for safe recycling of the precious
water carried on a spacecraft or space station becomes of
the utmost importance.
In this activity, you will investigate how well different
materials filter water. You may wish to use Toolbox 2: The
Inquiry Process of Science to help you plan your
experiment.
The Question
How effective are various materials for filtering water and
improving its clarity?
Figure 2.20 Planning your procedure
Design and Conduct Your Experiment
1 Write a hypothesis about which common substances 4 Write up your procedure and include a design. You
(such as pea gravel, sand, cotton balls, and charcoal may wish to use Toolbox 8: Diagrams to Help with the
chips) would make suitable materials for a water filter. Design. Ask your teacher to approve the procedure
2 Decide which materials and equipment you will need before you begin.
to test your hypothesis. For example: 5 Conduct your experiment.
a) What types of filtering materials will you use? 6 Compare your results with your hypothesis. How
b) What will you use as the main part of the filter to accurate was your hypothesis? If your findings did not
contain the filtering materials? support your hypothesis, suggest reasons why.
c) What type of material are you attempting to filter 7 Share and compare your procedure, set-up, and
out of the water? results with those of your classmates. How do the
3 Plan your procedure. For example: results compare? Is there anything you could do to
a) What evidence would you get from your improve on the design of your experiment?
experiment that would prove your hypothesis? 8 What type of controls did you use to ensure that your
How will you know your filter worked? data was valid?
b) What are the manipulated, responding, and control
variables?
c) What steps will you take to produce the data you
need? Caution!
d) How will you collect and organize the materials and Do not drink or taste any of
observation data you collect for each trial? the water samples.
e) How will you assess the effectiveness of the
different filtrates?
ACTIVITY E-5
Problem S PA C E S TAT I O N D E S I G N : T H E V A L U E OF TEAMWORK

Solving
Recognize a Need
To design an orbiting space station requires millions of dollars. To transport the materials
into space and construct such a station requires billions of dollars. No country can afford
to build a space station on its own. A better idea is a cooperative team effort, one that
uses a great variety of expertise and shares the costs.
• box (shoe box or similar) The Problem
• pieces of cardboard
You and two or three other classmates represent a country that has been assigned the
• a variety of small household
task of designing a module for the new Pangea space station. First, you will work with all
items (film canisters, match
the other teams (as a class) to design a space station for a crew of 20 men and women.
boxes, wire, toothpicks, etc.)
• scissors Then, your team will design and build a model of one of the modules of Pangea.
• tape
Criteria for Success
• glue
To be successful, the final assembled space station must (1) show close fit and (2) match
the original plan agreed to by all teams.
Brainstorm Ideas
1 As a class, brainstorm ideas for how many and what type of modules the new space
station needs. Agree on an overall plan and make a general sketch of it.
2 Organize into small groups, each representing the design team for a country. (The
number of groups depends on the number of modules chosen in Step 1.) Your
teacher will randomly assign a module to each group. With your team, brainstorm
ideas for your module, keeping in mind the criteria for success.
Build a Prototype
3 Using your choice of box, cardboard, and small household items, construct your
scale model. Label the parts clearly.
Test and Evaluate

Figure 2.21 Step 2 4 Present your module on the due date set by your teacher. This should be the first
time that teams see the other models.
5 Connect the modules on a large table or on the floor, using the original sketch for the
space station as a guide.
6 Evaluate the results. How well does the final space station match the original plan?
Are the modules to the same scale? Do they fit together well?
Communicate
7 As a class, discuss problems that arose during module construction. In a brief
written summary, make recommendations about how the design and construction
process for the space station model could be improved.
8 Think about how cooperating countries must overcome problems in building a space
station together. Brainstorm a list of ways that communication is achieved.

CHECK AND REFLECT
Key Concept Review
1. Briefly describe how working on the International Space Station might
affect a person psychologically.
2. How does living in a microgravity environment for a long period of
time affect the human body?
3. Why must a space suit be flexible?
4. How many people are there in a typical crew on the International
Space Station?

5. Name four necessities of an astronaut, in order to work outside a
spacecraft.
6. Explain why a regular ballpoint pen will not work in space.
7. What problems do astronauts encounter when trying to eat and
swallow their food?

8. The following table shows the problems that the human body
encounters when it is in space for a long time. Copy the table into
your notebook and write a recommended solution to each problem.
This may require some out of class research.
Problems of Living in Space Recommendations

1. Loss of body mass
2. Decrease in the production
of red blood cells
3. Loss of bone mass and
density
4. Loss of calcium, electrolytes,
and plasma with excretion
of body fluids
5. Loneliness, isolation,
depression
9. Imagine you were going to spend 3 months in the International Space

Station. Make a list of all the items you would like to bring for
recreation during that period. Remember the storage and mass
limitations.
10. Adjust your list in question 9 so that the total mass of the items equals
1 kg (your allowed limit). Explain which item is the most important
item to you and why.
and
Careers Profiles Astronaut
Few people have ever looked out a window and had a

view of the entire country of Canada, from coast to coast
to coast. One of those who has, however, is Dr. Roberta
Bondar. In January 1992, Dr. Bondar became Canada's
first female astronaut when she was assigned to be a
payload specialist on NASA's shuttle flight STS-42.
Dr. Bondar grew up in Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario. From the
time she was eight years old, she was fascinated with
building model rockets, space stations, and satellites, and
inspired by the idea of exploring space. As she grew up,
her interest in space research increased. Pursuing her
dream of a career in the area meant choosing a field of
study that she thought would be valuable in space
research. She turned to medicine, specializing in
neurology, the study of the nervous system.
Also important in helping her succeed in her chosen

career have been Dr. Bondar's many non-academic
interests. She has a pilot's license and is an Figure 2.22 Dr. Roberta Bondar
accomplished photographer. She also enjoys exploring
the outdoors. Anyone thinking of pursuing a career in
space research and exploration, she says, should develop Dr. Bondar offers the following advice for students
a wide variety of interests related to his or her goals. interested in becoming involved in the space field. Keep
your focus, develop a wide range of interests, and never
Dr. Bondar identifies three main characteristics of a
lose your sense of wonder and curiosity. Start by being
good astronaut. First is self-discipline. The second is the
explorers of your own planet. Learn as much as possible
ability to be team player. Third is the ability to work
about the great diversity Earth has to offer. In this way,
alone. Good astronauts must have confidence in their
even if you never go into space yourself, you will start to
own abilities and be able to contribute to the entire team.
see and appreciate our planet in a new light.
What does Dr. Bondar see for the future of Canadians
in the space exploration field? For one, she predicts more
technological breakthroughs such as RADARSAT, which
1. Why should a person who is interested
will provide us with increasing information about how
in becoming an astronaut have a wide
our world is changing. She also points to expected
variety of interests related to that goal?
advancements in communications and global positioning
hardware. Canadian astronomers, she adds, continue to 2. Why do you think it is important for
be at the forefront of new discoveries. While astronauts astronauts to be good team players, as
tend to get a great deal of media attention, Dr. Bondar well as being able to work on their own?
emphasizes that it is the technical staff, researchers,
development engineers, and astronomers who are 3. What do you think would be the most
"pushing the envelope" in space discoveries. interesting part of being an astronaut?

info BIT
2.3 Using Space Technology to Meet Human
Needs on Earth High Spy
Some military and national
defense satellites conduct
Although we may not realize it, our daily lives are full of products and
surveillance from hundreds
systems that were first developed for exploring space. From instant of kilometres above Earth.
powdered juice drinks and top-of-the-line sports equipment, to satellites The cameras on these
that allow us to talk to friends who live far away, we rely on “space age” satellites are so sensitive
technology in many ways. that they can see you play
tennis, and even tell what
SATELLITES brand of tennis ball you are
using!
Satellites—sometimes referred to as “artificial satellites”—are objects that
are built and sent into Earth’s orbit by humans. (A “natural” satellite refers
to any small body that orbits a larger body, such as a moon orbiting a
planet.) Looking like small spherical containers or snap-together toy
structures, these relatively small objects are loaded with electronic
equipment, digital imaging apparatus, and other instrumentation. They
transmit the information they receive to ground stations by radio waves, a
topic you will learn more about in Section 3.0.
Satellites play a major role in our lives, performing a variety of
functions from space. They can help us communicate, observe and
forecast weather, predict magnetic storms, and even find our location on
the planet. We send satellites into space to allow us to watch television
and make long-distance phone calls. Some newer cars even come
equipped with satellite tracking devices. Computers in these cars receive
satellite signals. This information is then relayed to the driver as
directions to the nearest gas station or a particular address.
Figure 2.23 Satellite

technology can help drivers
in unfamiliar cities find their
way around.
Putting satellites into orbit outside Earth’s atmosphere was an

important step in the history of space exploration. Their use continues to
lead to advances in both our scientific understanding of space and the
development of further space-related technology.
Q U I C K LAB
DATA RELAY FROM SPACE TO EARTH

Most data received from research satellites are relayed to stations on Earth through Materials & Equipment
a network of satellites and ground-based receivers. The information, received as • a small rubber ball (about
signals, must be decoded and then transmitted to the user through communication 15 cm diameter)
networks. In this activity, an imaginary NASA satellite named SNIFF (SuperNova
Infrared Fact Finder) collects data about a supernova and transmits the data—
through a series of relay points—to a scientist working at the University of Alberta.
Purpose
To simulate how data are transmitted from space to someone on Earth, and to show
some problems that must be overcome to make such transmissions successful
Student Roles
Procedure 1. a supernova
2. the SNIFF satellite
1 Your teacher will assign roles to eight students, as listed on the right.
3. the Data Relay satellite
2 In a large space, the eight students should arrange themselves according to the (DRS)
pattern shown in the diagram. The rest of the class will be observers. 4. ground station #1
3 Students in roles 4, 6, 7, and 8 stand in a small circle, facing out. They 5. a communication satellite
represent the four relay positions on Earth. In unison, they will revolve 6. ground station #2
counterclockwise very slowly to represent the spinning Earth. 7. the University of Alberta
8. a scientist
4 Students in roles 3 and 5 are satellites in geosynchronous orbit, which means
they must move in time with Earth’s rotation.
5 The SNIFF satellite (role 2) lies at low altitude and orbits Earth about 15 times a
day. The student in this role should walk at a quick pace around Earth, about
2 m away. The student should complete several orbits for every one rotation of 3
Earth. The supernova (role 1) should be a fair distance away and not moving.
6 The ball represents the data (in this case, light) being picked up from the star by
SNIFF. When students are in position and moving, data transmission can start. 5
4
The supernova tosses the ball to SNIFF. SNIFF sends the ball to the DRS. The
DRS sends the ball to ground station #1. Ground station #1 sends the ball to
6 8 2
the communication satellite, who then sends it to ground station #2 in Calgary. 7
Ground station #2 hands the ball to the University of Alberta in Edmonton
(simulating a land-line telephone/Internet connection). Finally, the University
hands the ball to the scientist (simulating a computer network connection). Legend
7 Repeat the relay two or three times. Observe what happens. direction of
student/body
motion around
Questions
the four positions
8 What conditions are necessary for SNIFF to be able to communicate with the on Earth
relay satellite? direction of data
9 What would make this type of satellite communication easier and more transmission 1
dependable?
10 With reference to the simulation, describe what problems must be overcome in
transmitting data from space to a specific location on Earth.
(Adapted from EUVE Dataflow Demo, UC Berkeley and NASA)

Communication Satellites
In the early part of the 20th century, telegraph and
telephone communication across the North
American continent travelled through wires.
Cable connections needed to be physically in
place in order for one person to talk with another.
This was a difficult and expensive process even
on land. Setting up telephone communication
with someone across an ocean was a much greater
challenge that required the laying of submarine
cables. Communication satellites have eliminated
the need for costly cable laying.
Today, satellites use digital systems that result
in clearer transmissions and allow for a great Figure 2.24 Launched in 1972, Telesat Canada’s Anik 1
number of users at any one time. Every nation in provided Canada with communication across the entire
the world now employs “wireless” technologies continent. Canada was also the first country in the world to use
satellites to transmit television broadcasts.
for a wide range of communications.
Satellites for Observation and Research

Satellites are invaluable tools for monitoring and
forecasting weather. Weather satellites are
designed to stay in one position above Earth. This
is called a geosynchronous orbit, which means
that the satellite moves at the same rate as Earth
spins. In this way the satellite can observe the
same area at all times. The result is 24-hour-a-day
monitoring of weather conditions.
Observation satellites can do more than just
take photographs and monitor weather. Two
Canadian satellites, LANDSAT and RADARSAT,
have been used to follow ships at sea, monitor
soil quality, track forest fires, report on
environmental change, and search for natural Figure 2.25 A weather satellite being launched into orbit from
the space shuttle
resources. RADARSAT sees more than
1 000 000 km2 of Earth in each of its orbits. These
satellites are not in geosynchronous orbit.
Remote Sensing
The main purpose of satellites in low Earth orbit (at 200 to 1000 km
altitude) is to carry out remote sensing. Remote sensing is a process in
which imaging devices in a satellite make observations of Earth’s surface
and send this information back to Earth. Images can be photographs taken
by cameras or data collected from the sensing of heat and other invisible
energy waves. Remote sensing can provide information on the condition
of the environment on Earth, natural resources, and effects of
urbanization. This information is used for planning.
Figure 2.26 Satellite picture
of weather over southern
Manitoba
Satellites as Personal Tracking Devices
Imagine always knowing your position on the planet, accurate to within a
few metres. The Global Positioning System (GPS) lets you do just that.
This technology was designed to give people, wherever they are, their
location on the ground at any time. Twenty-four GPS satellites are in orbit
around Earth, which means that at least three are above any given location
in the world at any given moment. Radio signals from the satellites are
picked up by a hand-held receiver (which is about the size of a small
hand-held video game). The signals are translated by a computer in the
receiver, which then shows on a digital display the operator’s position in
relation to the satellites.
Figure 2.27 The Figure 2.28 With 24

computer in a GPS satellites in orbit, there
receiver calculates are at least three above
your position and the horizon, relative to
displays it on the a person’s location on
receiver’s screen. Earth, at any one time.
S K I L L PRACTICE
ON LOCATION WITH GPS

YUKON NORTHWEST
This activity illustrates in a two-dimensional way how the Global TERRITORY TERRITORIES
Positioning System uses satellite signals to determine the position of
someone holding a GPS receiver. You will need a pencil and a geometry satellite 2
compass.
1 Your teacher will give you an enlarged copy of the map shown here . BRITISH
COLUMBIA
Imagine that you are standing in a location somewhere on this map ALBERTA
when you turn on your GPS receiver.
Edmonton
2 Satellite 1 transmits a radio signal to the receiver in your hand and the
Pacific
GPS device calculates that you are 1000 km from the satellite. Using Ocean satellite 1 Calgary
the compass, measure 1000 km on the scale provided.
3 Next, place the compass point on the position labelled Satellite 1 and U.S.A.
satellite 3
draw a circle that has a radius equal to the distance from the satellite.
4 Repeat steps 2 and 3 for Satellites 2 and 3, using the information in Satellite Distance to GPS Receiver
the table. 1 1000 km
5 The spot where all three circles meet on the map indicates your
2 300 km
position on the ground.
3 940 km
6 Suggest how satellites know where their position is in relation to Earth.

“SPACE AGE” INSPIRED MATERIALS AND SYSTEMS
Many items, materials, and systems originally designed for a space
application have been put to practical use on Earth. Innovations to help
us study our universe, travel out into it, or exist in the space environment
can be found today in just about every aspect of our lives. The table below
lists some of the spin-off applications of space technology.
Figure 2.29 Not all of the

technology created for
exploring or living in space is
used only in space. The fire-
resistant suits and compact
breathing apparatus used
today by firefighters are spin-
offs from innovations
developed for NASA
astronauts.
Field Space Use Earth Use

Computer • Structural analysis of spacecraft • Use of microelectronics in appliances and office
technology equipment
• Structural analysis of buildings, bridges, etc.
• Monitoring of air quality aboard spacecraft • Analysis of smokestack emissions
• Simulation of space environment for training • Development of virtual reality software
Consumer • Design of space food for astronauts on long flights • Manufacture of enriched baby and freeze-dried foods
technology
• Study of aerodynamics and insulation • Design and manufacture of improved bike helmets, golf
balls, running shoes, and ski goggles
Medical and • Design of electronics for the Hubble Space Telescope • Development of digital imaging for the detection
health technology and treatment of breast cancer
• Development of slow-release medication to control • Manufacture of motion sickness medications
motion sickness • Development of a human tissue stimulator to control
• Design of microcircuitry for electronics chronic pain
• Development of communications and robotic systems • Development of voice-controlled wheelchairs
Industrial • Development of microlasers for communication • Application of microlasers for communication, and
technology to cut and melt materials
Transportation • Development of parachute material for the • Improvement of traction on car winter tires
technology Viking space mission
Public safety • Development of computer robotics • Design of emergency response robots for use in
technology situations too dangerous for humans (e.g., to inspect
explosive devices)
CHECK AND REFLECT
Key Concept Review
1. List three uses for satellites.
2. What does the abbreviation GPS stand for?
3. Name the satellite that Canada first launched to provide
communications across the country. In what year was it launched?
4. What is remote sensing?
5. Some materials are referred to as “spin-offs” from space technology.
What does that mean?

6. With GPS technology, why do you require at least three satellites to
determine your position?
7. Do you agree or disagree with the statement “There is no location on
Earth where GPS does not work”? Explain your answer.

8. Study Figure 2.30, which shows a number of common spin-off objects
whose origins lie in space technology. List six of the objects and the
technology behind their development.
Example: Airplane – satellite navigation and communication
Figure 2.30 Question 8
9. Consider a colony under the ocean where divers in deep-sea suits

work on the ocean floor. Do you think that a GPS-like system for
determining precise locations might work in this situation? Give
reasons for your opinion.

SECTION REVIEW
Key Concept Review
1. What is the only planet in our solar system that has not been visited by a
space probe? Why is that?
2. List the three main types of spacecraft currently being used.
3. In a rocket, what does “payload” usually refer to?
4. What limits how long an astronaut can stay out in space in his or her space
suit?

5. Why were animals used in the first test flights of vehicles launched to orbit
Earth?
6. Place the events listed below in the order in which they occurred:
a) first rocket into space
b) rockets used in World War II
c) Chinese use rockets to launch arrows
d) rockets send mobile probe to Mars as part of Pathfinder mission
e) rockets send humans to Moon and back
f) first satellite launched
7. Explain why a space suit must have both a heating unit and a cooling unit.

8. Why is it necessary to recycle almost all of the water used on a spacecraft
such as the International Space Station?
9. Draw a concept map starting with the term “space exploration.” Use 10 other
terms that you have learned in this unit to complete your map.

On
If humans are to travel great distances in space, problems must be solved and
technologies developed through the collaboration of many countries. The
International Space Station has only been made possible through the
co-operation and technological expertise of countries from around the globe.
Working with a partner or your class, consider the following questions:
1. Why is it essential that certain scientific principles be understood before a
technological solution to a problem is developed?
2. Is it worthwhile for members of the scientific community to share
information from their research? Explain your answer. Suggest an instance
when not sharing scientific knowledge might be a good decision.
3. Can scientific knowledge and technology develop and advance without the
sharing of knowledge?
Optical telescopes, radio telescopes,
3.0 and other technologies advance our
understanding of space.
Key Concepts
concepts:
• composition and
space
• triangulation and parallax
Learning Outcomes
• explain, in general terms, the
operation of optical telescopes,
including telescopes that are
positioned in space
environments
• explain the role of radio and About 170 000 years ago, a star in its last great gesture before dying
optical telescopes in exploded in a display a million times brighter than the Sun. The light
determining characteristics of generated did not reach Earth until 1987, where it was discovered by
stars and star systems
Canadian astronomer Ian Shelton, who was working in an observatory
• describe and interpret, in
in Chile.
general terms, the technologies
Just as the vast and seemingly limitless oceans beckoned the early
used in global positioning
systems and in remote sensing
maritime explorers, today the far reaches of the universe beckon modern
adventurers. Although the mysteries of space have captivated human
curiosity for thousands of years, it has been only in the past few decades
that we have had the technology to give us access to places not on our
home planet. Until it is physically possible for humans to travel to the
“shores” of distant planets and galaxies, our technologies must be our
eyes into the universe.
In this section, you will learn about the tools and technologies that
are helping us solve the many puzzles of space. From Earth-based
telescopes and Earth-orbit satellites, to sophisticated space probes that
can cross vast distances and send images back to Earth, technology is
letting us reach farther and farther out into space. The more we see, the
more we learn.

info BIT
3.1 Using Technology to See the Visible
Magnificent Magnification
Look up at a clear, cloudless night sky and with your unaided eyes you The first telescopes Galileo
can see a few thousand stars. With binoculars, you would see thousands used had magnifications
more. Use a telescope and millions of stars will be revealed. Use one of of only two or three.
the most powerful telescopes available and billions of stars come into However, by making
view. Telescopes allow us to see fainter and more distant objects in detail improvements to his
that cannot be detected by the unaided eye. lens-grinding and
A number of different types of telescopes are described in this section. -polishing techniques,
Each provides us with a variety of information about the objects that make he was able to create
up our universe. lenses with longer focal
lengths and so improve
his telescopes’
magnifications to 20 and
30 times.
Figure 3.1 A highly magnified image of the Andromeda galaxy
S K I L L PRACTICE
SHARPEN YOUR STAR-GAZING SKILLS

Pick a clear night on which to carry out this activity. All you will need is the cardboard tube
from a roll of paper towel, a flashlight, a notepad, and a pencil. Here is a simple test of
your observational skills.
Find a dark area away from house lights and street lights. (Make sure an adult knows
where you are.) Wait a few minutes to let your eyes get used to the dark. Then focus your
unaided eyes on a small portion of sky for about 1 min. Turn on the flashlight and write
down your observations on the notepad.
When you are finished, turn off the flashlight and again let your eyes adjust to the dark. (If
you put a red cellophane covering on the flashlight lens, your eyes will adjust more
quickly.) Using the cardboard tube as a telescope, view the same patch of sky as you did
before. What do you notice when you view the same area of sky using the cardboard tube?
Describe how the cardboard tube affected your observation, and explain why you think that
happens.
Optical Telescopes, Radio Telescopes, and Other Technologies Advance Our Understanding of Space 435
OPTICAL TELESCOPES
Optical telescopes have been in use for the past 400 years. In 1608, a
Dutch optician named Hans Lippershey made one of the first telescopes,
but it is Galileo who has been credited with first using the telescope to
study the visible features of the night sky.
Think of optical telescopes as “light collectors.” That is what their
series of lenses and mirrors do: gather and focus the light from stars so
that we can see it. The larger the area of the lenses or mirrors in a
telescope, the greater the ability of the telescope to see the faint light of
objects that are very distant.
The first telescope ever designed was a simple refracting telescope.
Refracting telescopes use two lenses to gather and focus starlight (see
Figure 3.3). There is a limit to how large a refracting telescope can be. Any
diameter over 1 m causes the glass in the lens to warp under its own
weight. Trying to see through a lens when that happens would be like
trying to make out details of the Moon by looking through the bottom of a
primary light-gathering pop bottle.
lens
Figure 3.2 The Yerkes

Observatory telescope
in Wisconsin is the
largest refracting
telescope in the world.
Its lens is 1 m in
diameter and weighs
half a ton.
Figure 3.3 A refracting

telescope
eye piece lens
Reflecting telescopes use mirrors instead of lenses to gather and focus

the light from stars. At one end of a reflecting telescope is a large concave
mirror, which is made from glass-like material that is coated with a thin
layer of metal. The metal, such as aluminum, is polished to a shiny finish
so that it can reflect the faintest light it receives.

Currently, telescope builders use a method called “spin casting” to
form the largest mirrors. This process requires that molten glass be poured
into a large spinning mould. Just as a rapidly turning amusement park
ride swings its occupants outward, the spinning mould forces the melted
glass to the mould’s outside edge. After the glass cools and solidifies,
technicians grind it into the desired shape for the telescope. This process
is quicker and less costly than previous methods of making mirrors. One
of the largest reflecting mirrors created this way is 6 m in diameter, built
by the former Soviet Union.
primary light-gathering eye piece lens

mirror focus
secondary mirror
Figure 3.4 A reflecting telescope
Figure 3.5 The Canada-France-Hawaii

Observatory, situated on Mauna Kea,
Hawaii, operates a telescope with a
3.6-m mirror.
One of the newest innovations for ground-based optical reflecting

telescopes is the use of segmented mirrors. A segmented-mirror telescope
uses several lightweight segments to build one large mirror. The result is a
large telescope with enormous light-gathering ability and resolving power
(ability to distinguish details in an object). For example, each of the Keck I
and Keck II telescopes atop Mauna Kea in Hawaii is 10 m in diameter,
each made up 36 hexagonal mirrors.
INTERFEROMETRY: COMBINING TELESCOPES FOR GREATER POWER

The resolution of the images seen with optical telescopes can be further
improved when two or more of the telescopes are used together. This
technique of using telescopes in combination is known as interferometry.
On top of Mauna Kea, Keck I and Keck II are located 85 m apart from each
other. When working together, they can detect objects in space with better
clarity and at greater distances than any other current Earth-based
observatories can. Another example is the Very Large Telescope of the
European Southern Observatory, located high in the Andean Mountains in
Chile. It is really four separate telescopes being used together.
Figure 3.6 One of the Keck
Astronomers are able to obtain much more detail in the images they Observatory’s two telescopes,
collect by using interferometry than by using a single telescope. showing its 10-m mirror made
of 36 hexagonal mirrors
re SEARCH THE HUBBLE SPACE TELESCOPE
Although remote mountains make excellent sites for building and
Hubble Insights operating telescopes away from light pollution and air pollution,
New discoveries about
astronomers are still at the mercy of the weather. Clouds, humidity
the universe are
(moisture in the air), and even high winds can interfere with star-gazing.
constantly being made
with advances in The development of the Hubble Space Telescope offers a solution to these
technology. Search the problems. Orbiting about 600 km above Earth, the Hubble Space Telescope
Internet for the latest (a reflecting telescope) uses a series of mirrors to focus light from
images from the Hubble extremely distant objects. Launched in 1990, the Hubble is cylinder-
Space Telescope. shaped, just over 13 m in length and 4.3 m in diameter at its widest point.
Explore how new It is modular in design. This allows shuttle mission astronauts to replace
information has faulty or out-of-date instruments on the telescope without having to
changed our ideas interrupt its other operations.
about the universe. Each orbit that the Hubble makes around Earth takes about 95 min.
Begin your search at While the telescope works 24 h a day, not all of that time is spent
www.pearsoned.ca/
observing and sending data to Earth. Some time also goes to activities
scienceinaction.
such as turning the telescope to focus on a new object of interest or
switching data transmission modes. Commands for these tasks are sent
from ground control several times a day.
imaging
electronics Sun
shield
Figure 3.7 Cross-

section of the Hubble
Space Telescope
primary light-gathering
mirror
solar panels
Figure 3.8 Earth-based telescopes are limited in their viewing Figure 3.9 Astronomers using the Hubble Space Telescope have
ability by interference from moisture, clouds, air pollution, and discovered galaxies in parts of space where Earth-based telescopes
light pollution. see nothing but blackness.

info BIT
Our Eye on the Sun
The Solar and Heliospheric Observatory (SOHO) has been
positioned about 1% of the distance from Earth to the Sun since
1996. Twelve different instruments provide details about the
Sun’s every action, day and night.
CHECK AND REFLECT

Key Concept Review
1. Why is there a need for telescopes?
2. What type of optical telescope uses mirrors to focus light?
3. Describe the advantage of using a segmented mirror telescope.
4. Describe the technique called interferometry.
5. The resolving power of a telescope is a measure of its:
a) operating ability under poor weather conditions
b) magnification
c) ability to distinguish details in an object
d) quality in general

6. Large ground-based telescopes are built with the ability to move to
oppose the movement of Earth. Why is this necessary?
7. Describe two advantages of reflecting telescopes over refracting
telescopes.
8. Why is the Hubble Space Telescope a reflector and not a refractor?
9. Even though it has a smaller mirror than many Earth-based telescopes,
the Hubble Space Telescope can see objects more than 50 times fainter
than what Earth telescopes can see. Explain why that is.

10. a) What happens to the detection capabilities of two reflecting
telescopes working together?
b) Would two refracting telescopes have the same capabilities?
11. Imagine you had to construct an observatory on Earth for a ground-
based reflecting telescope. Describe where the ideal location would be
and why.
info BIT
3.2 Using Technology to See Beyond the Visible
Bee Vision
Not all information from stars can be seen. Optical telescopes give us
Bees and several other
insects can see in the information based on visible light. However, objects in space, such as stars
ultraviolet spectrum. Why and galaxies, also emit radio waves, infrared (heat) waves, and X-rays.
do you think this would These are all forms of electromagnetic energy. This energy travels at the
be an advantage for these speed of light, 300 000 km/s, but has different wavelengths and
insects? frequencies from those of light. Wavelength is a measurement of the
distance from one point on a wave (such as the crest) to the same point on
the next wave. Frequency is the number of waves that pass a single point
in one second.
Energy with a high frequency has a short wavelength. Gamma rays, for
instance, have a high frequency (1020 waves per second) and a very short
wavelength (less than a millionth of a centimetre). Radio waves have a low
frequency, but wavelengths that can be several kilometres long.
The visible light we see all around us occupies a small section of the
entire electromagnetic spectrum, which covers the whole range of
electromagnetic energy (see Figure 3.10). Visible light has a wavelength
measured in micrometeres (written as µm). One micrometre is 1 millionth
of a metre.
Wavelength (µm) Wavelength (µm)
108 107 106 105 104 103 102 10 1 10–1 10–2 10–3 10–4 10–5 10–6 10–7
TV/radio microwave thermal visible ultraviolet X-ray gamma rays

infrared
Figure 3.10 Objects in space emit a great variety of electromagnetic energy. Humans can only see the
information provided in the visible spectrum, but technology enables us to detect all kinds of
electromagnetic radiation.

Q U I C K LAB
COMPARING LIGHT SPECTRA

Purpose
To observe a variety of light sources and compare their spectra
• spectroscopes
Procedure • a variety of light sources
1 Your teacher will set up a number of spectroscopes and light sources in (fluorescent, incandescent,
Bunsen burner, natural
the lab or classroom.
light, and other light
2 In small groups, take turns observing the spectrum of each light source. sources)
Record any changes you notice between one spectrum and another in • pencil and notebook
the variety of light sources you view.
Questions
3 What did you notice about the spectra for the different light sources?
4 Which light source produced the most distinct spectrum of all the
sources? Why do you think that was the case?
5 Why won’t your spectroscope allow you to see ultraviolet light or
infrared?
RADIO TELESCOPES
Studying radio waves emitted by objects in space gives astronomers data
that are not available from the visible spectrum. Radio waves are received
from stars, galaxies, nebulae, the Sun, and even some planets—both in our
own solar system and in others. These signals are mapped through the use
of sophisticated electronics and computers.
With the development of radio telescopes, astronomers gained several
advantages over optical telescopes. Radio waves are not affected by
weather and can be detected during the day and at night. They are also
not distorted by clouds, pollution, or the atmosphere as are light waves.
Furthermore, by focussing their radio telescopes on areas of space that
appear empty, astronomers have discovered much about the composition
and distribution of matter in space—information that cannot be detected
by optical equipment. For example, although neutral hydrogen (a large
component of matter in space) emits no light, it does emit energy at a
specific wavelength in the electromagnetic spectrum. Using radio
telescopes, astronomers have been able to map the distribution of neutral
hydrogen in the Milky Way galaxy. This is how they learned that the
shape of our galaxy is a spiral.
Figure 3.11 Because the wavelengths of radio waves are so large, the antenna of a radio telescope
must be large. This radio telescope in Arecibo, Puerto Rico, has a diameter of more than
300 m. That’s almost the length of three football fields laid end to end.
Radio telescopes are typically made of metal mesh. Their shape

resembles that of a satellite dish: they are curved inward, with a receiver
at the middle. The curved portion of the dish is really a large antenna that
intercepts and focusses radio waves before transmitting them to the
receiver. There, the waves are transformed into an electrical signal that is
fed into a computer for interpretation.
RADIO INTERFEROMETRY
Just as several reflecting telescopes can be combined for optical
interferometry, so several small radio telescopes can be combined to
achieve greater resolving power than one large radio telescope can achieve
(see Figure 3.12). This technique, referred to as interferometry, improves
the performance and accuracy of radio images. The results are radio maps
with valuable detail.
A B
Figure 3.12 Combining
information from two small radio
telescopes located 50 m apart
(A) simulates the resolving
power of one telescope with a
50-m diameter (B). The bigger
the separation between the
telescopes, the more detail
astronomers can measure.
50 m 50 m
apart diameter

The greater the distance between the radio telescopes
arranged for this purpose, the more accurately they can
measure position. The accuracy of measurement is increased
even further if more telescopes are arranged into groups
called arrays. The Very Large Array in Socorro, New Mexico,
uses twenty-seven 25-m radio telescopes arranged in a Y
pattern. The arms of the Y cover a distance of 61 km. The
resolving capability of this array would be similar to that of a
telescope with a diameter of 27 km!
VIEWING MORE THAN WHAT THE EYE CAN SEE Figure 3.13 The Very Large Array simulates
an antenna with a diameter of hundreds of
The electromagnetic spectrum offers many more
metres.
opportunities to understand the workings of space than can
be obtained from looking only at the visible spectrum.
For example, much ultraviolet radiation is absorbed by
the atmosphere and therefore cannot be studied very well
from Earth. When observed through an optical telescope, a
planet orbiting a distant star is practically invisible because
of the light given off by the star. However, when viewed in
the infrared spectrum through a radio telescope, the
brightness of the star is reduced and the planet’s brightness
peaks. The Keck Observatory in Hawaii is equipped to make
these observations and is actively searching for planets in
other solar systems.
Astronomers have discovered a variety of radiations
coming from various sources in space. These include
fluctuations in microwave energy that is left over from the
formation of the universe; X-rays that are being emitted from
Figure 3.14 By connecting ground-based
objects such as black holes and pulsating stars; and huge
arrays with satellites in space, astronomers
bursts of gamma rays that appear without warning and then can simulate antennas with diameters tens of
fade. thousands of kilometres wide.
Nations around the world have launched numerous
satellites to study each of these phenomena.
a b c info BIT
Gamma Ray Energy
Bursts of gamma rays
occur unpredictably in
different parts of space.
Although they may last
only a few seconds or
minutes, they give off
more energy than our
Sun would produce in its
Figure 3.15 Radiation sources in space: (a) a gamma-ray burst, (b) X-rays from a black hole, and entire 10-billion-year
(c) infrared image of a young star cluster lifetime.
SPACE PROBES
Telescopes, optical or radio, cannot provide answers to all the questions
we have about our solar system. Often it is necessary to send the
observation equipment right to the object so that tests not possible to
conduct by telescope can be done. In the past several decades,
astronomers have done just that, sending numerous space probes to
explore distant areas of our planetary neighbourhood. Space probes are
unmanned satellites or remote-controlled “landers” that put equipment on
or close to planets where it would be too difficult or dangerous to send
humans to.
Space probes have been used to carry out remote sensing on Mercury
and Jupiter, sample soil on Mars, land on Venus, and study the nature of
Saturn’s rings. For example, the Galileo probe, launched in 1995, was
designed to gather information about the composition of Jupiter’s
atmosphere. The Mars Pathfinder, launched in 2000, took soil samples
and performed geological tests on the planet’s rocks. It then sent the data
back to Earth for analysis. The data gathered by space probes is used to
find out more about how planets form in our solar system, and how the
characteristics of other planets compare with Earth’s.
The table below lists some of the space probes sent in the last three
Figure 3.16 The flight paths
of Voyager 1 and Voyager decades and their missions.
2. Both probes, launched
from Earth in 1977, flew Name of Space Probe Date of Encounter Mission
past Jupiter and then
Saturn. At that point, Mariner 1973–1975 Flyby of Mercury
Voyager 1 was sent out of Pioneer 11 1974–1979 Flyby of Jupiter and Saturn
the solar system. Voyager 2
Viking 1976 Mars landing
flew on to investigate
Uranus and Neptune. Voyagers I and 2 1977 (launched) Flyby of Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune
Venera 1982 Venus landing
Magellan 1994 Flyby of Venus
Galileo 1995 Flyby of Jupiter
Ulysses 1999 High latitude pass of Jupiter
Mars Global Explorer 2000 Orbiting of Mars
Mars Pathfinder 2000 Mars landing
Cassini 2004 Flyby of Saturn
Earth
Neptune
Voyager 2
Jupiter Uranus
Voyager 1
Saturn

Besides Earth, the only other body in the solar system that has been re SEARCH
physically explored by humans is the Moon. That was first accomplished
during the Apollo 11 mission in 1969. Since that time, astronauts have Satellite Specialties
walked across the Moon, driven a dune buggy on it, and taken a golf swing You have been
there. The lunar rocks they collected have been brought back to Earth. introduced to a variety of
The next great adventure in interplanetary exploration will be a forms of electromagnetic
manned flight to Mars and back. The entire journey could last up to three radiation in this section.
years and would be extremely dangerous. That is why it is essential to Research the names of
find out as much as possible by sending space probes and robot explorers some satellites that have
to the planet first. been designed to
observe and study
a) infrared radiation;
b) X-rays; and c) gamma
rays. Find out about
Canada’s involvement in
the development of these
satellites. Begin your
research at
www.pearsoned.ca/
scienceinaction.
Figure 3.17 These photographs show the preparation of three different space probes. Each probe
must be completely free of contamination, which is why all the workers visible in the photos are
wearing specially designed hygienic suits.
CHECK AND REFLECT

Key Concept Review 6. Why aren’t television signals visible to us?
1. What is electromagnetic radiation? 7. Explain two advantages of using radio
2. Name four other forms of electromagnetic telescopes instead of optical telescopes.
radiation besides visible light.
3. How is wave frequency related to 8. a) Explain how all forms of electromagnetic
wavelength? Support your answer with a radiation are similar to each other.
sketch. b) Explain how each form is different from
4. What advantages are there to using space the others.
probes rather than manned flights? 9. When combining information from multiple
Connect Your Understanding telescopes, the length of the distance
between the telescopes is very important. Is
5. What are the sources of radio waves from
there a limit to how far that distance can be:
space?
a) on Earth? b) in space?
3.3 Using Technology to Interpret Space
Telescopes tell us a great deal about the universe, but as you learned in
section 3.2, there is much more information in addition to what we can
see. Just by looking, we can’t tell how far away a star is, what its
composition is, or whether it is moving toward or away from us. To
discover and understand these and other characteristics, we need to tackle
the problem by technological means, whether by using a simple tool or
machine or operating a highly complex system of instrumentation.
G I V E I T A TRY
LIGHT BULB STARS

Without the use of technology, we are limited in the amount of information we can get
about stars. Still, that doesn’t mean we can’t get any information. Your teacher will put
two small lamps, each with a different sized light bulb, on a desk or table at the front of
the classroom. Your desk will be Earth and the light bulbs will represent stars far away.
List all the things you can tell about the stars just by looking at them from Earth.
MEASURING DISTANCE
Triangulation and parallax are two ways of measuring distances indirectly,
on the ground or in space.
Triangulation
Triangulation is based on the geometry of a triangle. By measuring the
angles between a baseline and the target object (such as a tall tree or a
water tower), you can determine the distance to that object.
Point on the distant object
Figure 3.18 To measure a

distance indirectly using Lines drawn from
the baseline ends to
triangulation, you must know the
the point on the
length of one side of the triangle
distant object
(the baseline) and the size of the
angles created when imaginary
lines are drawn from the ends of Distance to be
the baseline to the same points measured in a
on the distant object. scale diagram
Baseline
Angles to be measured

For instance, you could use triangulation to measure the distance across a
river without actually crossing the river. The procedure is as follows:
1. On a flat area along the bank of the river, measure off an accurate
baseline and mark each end of the line so that you can identify it
easily.
2. Select an object to be your viewing target on the opposite bank.
3. Standing at one end of the baseline, use a protractor to determine the
angle between your sight line to the object and the spot on the
baseline where you are standing.
4. Stand at the other end of the baseline and again determine the angle
from that spot to the object.
5. Make a scale drawing of a triangle using the length of the baseline and
the two angles.
6. On your drawing, mark a perpendicular line from the baseline to the
object. Measure this line and use the scale to convert it to actual
length. This will give you the distance across the river.
Figure 3.19 Using

triangulation to measure
the distance across a river
without actually crossing
the river
Tree on island
Measurement
of unknown
distance
(8.2 cm)
65˚
75˚
)
Baseline (6.0 cm
g: 1 cm = 20 m
Scale of drawin
Figure 3.20
A scale drawing
of the
triangulation
procedure
ACTIVITY E-6
H O W FA R I S I T ?
Inquiry
The Question
How accurately can the length of a playing field be measured using triangulation?
The Prediction
You will be calculating percent error for this activity. Predict the degree of accuracy that
you expect. Example: Our calculations will be off by 10%.
• measuring tape (at least 50 m
long) Procedure
• two metre-sticks
1 Copy the table below into your notebook.
• protractor
• paper
Baseline Angle from Angle from Calculated Actual Percent
• pencil
length (m) position (A) position (B) length of length of error
• ruler
(°) (°) field (m) field (m) (%)
10
20
50
2 Go outside to a large flat area, ideally a soccer or football field.

3 Working in a small group, use the measuring tape to measure off a baseline of 10 m
along the goal line of the field.
4 Stand a metre-stick in the ground at each end of the baseline to serve as guideposts
(A) and (B).
5 Standing at one end of the baseline (A), looking directly at the right goal post at the
far end of the field. Determine the straight line betweem A and the right goal post.
Measure the angle between this line and the baseline. In your data table, record the
angle you found. Repeat this step from the other end of the baseline (B) and again
record the angle.
6 Repeat steps 3 to 5, using a baseline of 20 m and then one of 50 m.
common
point
gth
n len
now
unk
(A)
baseli
(10 m ne
, 20 m (B)
, 50 m
)
Figure 3.21 Step 5

7 For each baseline length, make a scale drawing of a triangle, using the two angles
you measured each time. Use a scale of 1 cm = 5 m.
8 On each of your scale drawings, measure the length of the field and record your
results in the table. Do you get the same length for all three baselines? Explain your
answer.
9 Find the actual length of the field (either measure it directly, or ask the athletic
director of your school). Add this information to your table.
10 Calculate the accuracy of your results for each baseline length. Use the percent error
equation below. Record these figures in the table.
(actual value measured value) 100

percent error = __________________________
actual value
11 Determine the average of your three lengths and calculate the percent error.
Forming Conclusions
12 How accurate was your calculated average length of the playing field?
13 Which baseline resulted in the most accurate field length? Explain why that was.
14 How close were you to your predicted error?

For a technique like this to work, precise measurements must be made. With reference to
your percent error, describe what you think may be sources of error in this activity. What
are the limitations of using triangulation on the ground? How do these limitations
compare with those that apply when one is using triangulation to find distances to stars?
Parallax
Parallax is the apparent shift in position of a nearby object when the
object is viewed from two different places. For a quick example of
parallax, hold out your arm and stick up your thumb. With your right eye
closed, look at an object on the far wall behind your thumb. Now, look
with your left eye closed. You will notice how the background to your
thumb appears to have moved.
Astronomers use a star’s parallax (that is, its apparent shift in position
relative to the background stars) to determine what angles to use when
they triangulate the star’s distance from Earth. When triangulation
calculations are made, the longer the baseline, the more accurate the
results. The longest baseline we can use from Earth is the diameter of
Earth’s orbit. This means that measurements must be taken six months
apart to achieve the maximum baseline length (see Figure 3.22).
Baseline Distant star A
Closer star
Distant star B
Figure 3.22 When viewed from Earth at different times of the year, a nearby star will appear to shift
its position relative to different distant stars in the background. The angles between each end of
Earth’s baseline (the extreme ends of its orbit, six months apart) and the target star provide angles
for triangulation.

ACTIVITY E-7
A N A LY Z I N G P A R A L L A X
Inquiry
The Question
Which show greater parallax: close objects or distant objects?
Procedure
1 Set the candle on a table 50 cm in front of the board.
2 On the board, draw 10 evenly spaced vertical lines and label them A through J.
• a tall candle (about 25 cm
long) 3 From a position on the right-hand side of the classroom about 4 m back from the
• black board or white board board, look at the candle using only one eye. Make a sketch of its apparent position
• paper and pencil relative to the reference lines drawn behind it.
4 Go to the other side of the classroom and repeat step 3. What changes in your
observation did you notice from one position to the other?
5 Move 2 m closer to the candle and repeat steps 3 and 4. Make sketches of your
observations each time. What changes do you notice from the sketches you made
from the 4-m position?
6 Move 2 m back from your original position and repeat steps 3 and 4. What difference
do you notice this time?
7 The teacher will now move the candle closer to the board. Stand at the very back of
the classroom and again repeat steps 3 and 4.
8 Compile your observations in one table.

9 Describe the apparent motion of the candle as you moved closer to or farther away
from it. In which of your positions was the apparent shift of the candle the
i) greatest? ii) least?
10 Draw an overall map-view sketch that illustrates the apparent shift in steps 3 and 4.
Forming Conclusions
11 Describe how distances to stars can be measured using parallax.
12 Is parallax more useful for measuring distances to near objects or distant objects?

Although the technique using parallax has been around for hundreds of years, it was not
originally used for determining distances to stars. How do you think parallax could be
Figure 3.23 Step 1 used to measure short distances on the ground? What would be the limitations of using
parallax to measure distances on Earth?
DETERMINING A STAR’S COMPOSITION
As you recall from earlier studies, white light is actually a combination of
all colours (the “rainbow” colours). White light can be separated into its
component colours by being shone through a prism. The result is bands of
colour, which together are referred to as the visible spectrum.
Figure 3.24 Like other light,

starlight can be separated
into its spectral colours.
Isaac Newton was the first
person to separate sunlight
and analyze its spectrum.
When astronomers first began refracting the light from stars to

examine it, they noticed that different stars had dark bands in distinct
sequences and thicknesses on their spectra. They discovered that this
happened because the various elements in a star absorb light in different
ways. As a result, each element creates its own black-line “fingerprint.”
Astronomers compare the spectrum of a star with known spectra of
elements to determine the star’s composition. They use an instrument
called a spectrometer to do this.
H
A
He
B
Figure 3.25 The spectra of
(A) hydrogen, (B) helium,
Na
(C) sodium, and (D)
C
calcium. The Sun’s
spectrum is shown in (E).
Ca
D
Sun
E
DETERMINING A STAR’S DIRECTION OF MOTION

Have you ever noticed how the sound of a siren on an emergency vehicle
seems to change as it approaches, passes, and then moves away from you?
The reason has to do with the changes in pitch, the frequency of sound
waves. The pitch of the siren is higher as the vehicle comes toward you
than it is after the vehicle goes by and moves away from you. This occurs
because the sound wavelengths become compressed in front of the vehicle
as the vehicle approaches, causing the pitch to rise. As the vehicle moves
away, the wavelengths behind the vehicle are no longer squeezed. As they
stretch out, the sound falls in pitch. This is called the Doppler effect.

observer A observer B
Figure 3.26 Even if you could not see an emergency vehicle, you would be able to tell by the sound
of the siren whether the vehicle was moving, and approaching you or travelling away from you.
Like sound, light also travels in waves. Changes in those waves can be
used to measure how fast and in what direction a light-emitting object is
moving. Pitch refers to the shift in the sound waves of a moving object.
The position of the dark bands in the light spectrum is what shifts in the
light waves of a moving star. The spectrum of an approaching star shows
the dark lines shifting to the blue end of the spectrum as the light’s
wavelengths become compressed. In the spectrum of a star moving away
from Earth, the dark lines shift to the red end as the wavelengths stretch
out. The amount of that shift shows up in observations of a star indicates
the speed at which the star is approaching or receding.
Figure 3.27 Analyzing the blue-shift and red-shift in the spectra of stars and galaxies shows
astronomers whether the bodies are moving toward Earth (B) or away from Earth (C). No shift
in the spectrum means that the star and Earth are moving in the same direction (A). The star is
then said to be stationary.
The Doppler effect comes into play in a number of everyday

applications. One of the most common is the radar gun used by police to
detect drivers who are travelling above the speed limit. The radar gun
Figure 3.28 Radar guns used
emits a radio signal with a known wavelength. A moving car generates a
to enforce traffic speed limits
returning wave whose wavelength is picked up by the radar gun. The size were developed based on
of the difference in the two wavelengths shows how fast the moving scientific understanding of
vehicle is travelling. the Doppler effect.
G I V E I T A TRY
EXPERIENCING THE DOPPLER EFFECT

(Teacher Demonstration)
The Doppler effect refers to the change in frequency of 2 As the noise-maker moves overhead, listen for the
sound, light, and other waves, which results from the change in sound as the noise-maker approaches you
relative motion between an observer and the source of and then moves away from you. How would you
the waves. In this activity, you get the chance to describe the differences in sound?
experience the Doppler effect firsthand. You are the 3 Listen again while the teacher spins the object, but
observer and the source of the sound waves is a noise- this time close your eyes. Are you able to tell when
maker. the object is coming toward you and when it is
1 While you are seated at your desk, your teacher will moving away from you? Explain your answer.
stand in the centre of the classroom and swing a 4 In what ways is this apparent shift in sound similar
small battery-powered noise-maker overhead. to the shift that happens in a star’s spectrum? Use a
Because the noise-maker will be tied to a long diagram to help you illustrate your answer.
string, its circular path will be very wide.
CHECK AND REFLECT

Key Concept Review
1. Explain the meaning of triangulation and give an example of a
situation in which it might be used.
2. How is parallax used to measure distances in space?
3. a) What is a spectrum?
b) What can a star’s spectrum indicate about a star?
4. What is the Doppler effect? Give an example of its use.

5. When using the triangulation technique, why is it important to
measure the baseline accurately?
6. How do astronomers determine the elements that make up a star?
Figure 3.29 These ripples
7. Explain why the spectra of some stars shift.
show energy being
transmitted from one place Extend Your Understanding
to another. How is this
similar to the way in which 8. What type of shift in the spectrum would you expect from a star that
visible light and other was:
forms of electromagnetic a) moving in the same direction as Earth, at the same speed as Earth?
radiation travel? b) moving at right angles to the direction of sight?
9. What conditions would have to be met in order for an ambulance with
its siren on not to exhibit the Doppler effect when it passes you?

SECTION REVIEW
Key Concept Review
1. With the aid of two diagrams, describe how refracting and reflecting
telescopes work.
2. Explain why infrared telescopes would not be useful for stargazing in a city.
3. What is the advantage of using telescopes set up in an array?
4. What is a spectrometer used for?
5. If you see a red-shifted star, what does that tell you about the direction in
which the star is moving through space? Explain your answer.

6. You are the owner of a company that wants to build the largest optical
telescope in the world. Which type would you choose and why?
7. Why can radio astronomers make observations at any time during the day,
but optical astronomers are mostly limited to making their observations at
night?
8. Why do different elements in a star display different patterns of lines in
their spectra?
9. Why is the Doppler effect important to astronomers?

10. Most professional astronomers spend little time looking through a telescope
lens. Explain why you agree or disagree with this statement.
11. Describe one limitation in using parallax to determine a star’s distance from
Earth.

On
The advance of space technology has been the result of hundreds of years of
research and development. Ideas have developed over generations and have been
improved on. This has helped answer many questions humans have had about
the universe, while at the same time opening up even more mysteries. Consider
the following questions:
1. What has motivated humans to advance the technology used to study the
stars?
2. Why is it essential for ideas and technologies to be shared in order for
humans to improve their understanding of space?
3. How could the advancement of space observation technology benefit society?
Society and the environment are
4.0 affected by space exploration and the
development of space technologies.
Key Concepts
concepts:
• space exploration risks and
dangers
• ownership and use of
resources in space
Learning Outcomes
• recognize the risks and
dangers associated with space
exploration
• describe Canadian From cancer treatments and pacemakers, to Teflon and flat-screen
contributions to space research televisions, the technological benefits created by space research are
and development and to the
now everywhere in our daily lives. All of these innovations—many
astronaut program
developed for use in the International Space Station—got their start
• identify and analyze factors
fulfilling a purpose in space exploration. Opportunities for the
that are important to decisions
regarding space exploration
economic development of space resources are also being investigated
and development today, including such ideas as offering tourist space flights, building
hotels on the Moon, and mining minerals on asteroids.
At the same time, the study of space has made us aware of the
many hazards that lie beyond Earth’s protective atmosphere. For
example, we are learning more about the destructive effects of solar
radiation on life and equipment and about the danger of possible
collision with comets and asteroids. As well, many environmental and
ethical issues have arisen related to space exploration. Who owns
space? Who is entitled to use its resources? Who is responsible for
cleaning up the space environment? How can we justify spending
billions of dollars to send a few people into space when millions of
people on Earth do not have clean drinking water? These and other
matters are discussed in this final section of the unit. You will also read
about Canada’s significant contributions to space research and the
astronaut program.

4.1 The Risks and Dangers of Space Exploration
Space exploration is an exciting endeavour. Yet, as for any journey into
the unknown, there are dangers. Travel into space is an especially high-
info BIT
risk business. As you learned in Section 2.0, the space environment is not
What Goes Up ...
“human friendly.” Only by understanding the dangers and developing By mid-2001, about
technologies to overcome those obstacles have humans accomplished 2700 satellites were
what they have. Unforeseen dangers still remain. Accidents related to known to be orbiting
space travel may result not only in loss of human life, but in immense Earth. Only about one-
economic loss and the loss of countless years of work. third of those are
In 1967, the three-member crew aboard Apollo 1 died during a actually working. The
training exercise when fire broke out on board the spacecraft. In 1986, the rest are “space junk,”
space shuttle Challenger experienced a catastrophic explosion shortly and most will eventually
after take-off, killing all seven astronauts aboard. Both the Russians and burn up during re-entry
Americans lost Mars probes shortly before the crafts arrived at the planet. into Earth’s atmosphere.
In both of those cases, hundreds of millions of dollars and thousands of
hours of labour were lost.
Figure 4.1 As the explosion of the space shuttle Challenger showed in 1986, space exploration is
an extremely high-risk undertaking.
Nothing can be taken for granted during the preparation for a manned
or unmanned space flight. Something as seemingly straightforward as
calculating the amount of fuel needed for the flight requires the utmost
attention to detail. During Apollo 11’s mission to the Moon in 1969, the
original landing site for the Eagle was found to be too rocky for the lunar
module to set down safely. Faced with having to choose another place to
land, the astronauts knew they had to find the right spot with one try.
They didn’t have enough fuel to change their minds and find another
site—not if they wanted to get back to Earth after their visit to the Moon.
Society and the Environment Are Affected by Space Exploration and the Development of Space Technologies 457
THE DANGERS OF MANNED SPACE TRAVEL
Sending humans into space has always been a dangerous proposition.
First, just imagine the risks associated with being strapped into a small
cockpit above several hundred tonnes of highly explosive fuel. Poor
weather conditions, malfunctioning equipment, and even the presence of
birds can interfere with launching a rocket.
Once a manned craft is in space, floating debris, meteoroids, and
harmful doses of radiation must be faced. Outside of Earth’s protective
atmosphere, the effects of solar and cosmic radiation are magnified
because there is no protection. For example, the huge blast of electrically
charged particles that the Sun sometimes emits (in a “coronal mass
ejection”) can burn up the electronic circuits in a satellite. In humans, this
dose of radiation also kills cells in vital organs and damages bone marrow.
The occurrence of coronal mass ejections (solar flares) is monitored by
NASA, and astronauts are warned so that they can protect themselves
inside polyethylene shielding that absorbs the radiation.
Figure 4.2 In early 2001, the Cosmic radiation comes from the Milky Way and other galaxies. The
abandoned Russian space damage to human cells from this form of radiation is extreme.
station Mir came hurtling
Returning to Earth has its dangers too. The path that the spacecraft
through Earth’s atmosphere,
burning up on re-entry.
follows on re-entry into Earth’s atmosphere must be perfect. If it is too
shallow an angle, the craft can bounce off the atmosphere and back into
space (like a stone skipping across the surface of a pond). If it is at too
steep an angle, the craft can move too quickly through the atmosphere and
burn up.
info BIT SPACE JUNK

Another legacy of the human presence in space is “space junk.” Space
Stick to the Menu junk refers to all the pieces of debris that have fallen off rockets, satellites,
Not finding the space shuttles and space stations, and remain floating in space. The debris
dehydrated “space food” includes bits as small as flecks of paint or a bolt, and large items such as
very tasty, one of the dead satellites. Lost antennas, tools from past shuttle flights, and even a
early astronauts camera released by an astronaut are other examples. If the space garbage is
smuggled two corned just above the outer reaches of Earth’s atmosphere, it can stay in orbit for
beef sandwiches onto a
thousands of years.
space flight. Mission
Control found out and
The Hazards in Space
was furious. The mass of
the craft and its payload Since 1957, more than 4000 missions have been sent into space. Each one
had been calculated to has left its own bits of debris. The space shuttle and International Space
the nearest gram, and the Station are constantly being bombarded by tiny pieces of space debris
fuel required for the flight called micrometeorites. These are very hard to detect in space, and travel
had been calculated to with lethal velocities. A micrometeorite piercing the hull of a space craft
the nearest millilitre. would cause catastrophic damage.
A small washer or screw sounds insignificant compared to a satellite,
space shuttle, or space station. However, if you consider that those items
are moving 20 000 km/h, you can understand that the effects of a
spacecraft colliding with even the smallest object would be devastating.
That small object would have a higher impact velocity than a fired bullet.

Most space junk will burn up if it passes through Earth’s atmosphere, but re SEARCH
until it does, it will remain a very real threat to anyone or anything
travelling into space. Fuelling a Spacecraft
Just getting into space
The Hazards on Earth requires tremendous
Some space junk poses a risk to Earth as well. There is always the amounts of fuel. Find
possibility that pieces of obsolete satellites can make their way back to out how much each
Earth’s surface. One such example occurred in January 1978, when a solid fuel rocket tank
nuclear-powered Soviet satellite crashed into the Great Slave Lake area of on the American space
the Northwest Territories. On re-entry to Earth’s atmosphere, the satellite shuttle holds. Begin
disintegrated, showering radioactive debris over 124 000 km2. No lives your search at
were lost, but clean-up by Canadian and U.S. military personnel took www.pearsoned.ca/
scienceinaction.
almost eight months and cost $15 million (Cd.).
Figure 4.3 An impact crater

(greatly magnified) on a window
on the space shuttle Challenger
following its 1983 mission. The
pit contains traces of titanium
oxide—which might have
originated from a flake of paint.
CHECK AND REFLECT

Key Concept Review
1. Name four dangers faced by astronauts during space missions.
2. What happens to satellites that run out of power or just reach the limit
of their usefulness?
3. What is meant by “space junk”? Provide examples in your answer.
4. Why must a spacecraft’s angle of re-entry into Earth’s atmosphere be
carefully calculated?

5. For what reasons would NASA be concerned about something as
small as a lens cap floating in space?
6. Why do astronauts on the space shuttles and working in the
International Space Station receive more exposure to solar radiation
than people on Earth do?
7. Explain why NASA monitors coronal mass ejections.

8. a) What causes the vast majority of space debris to burn up as it
passes through Earth’s atmosphere?
b) Why does some space debris, such as a meteorite, not burn up
totally as it passes through Earth’s atmosphere?
info BIT
4.2 Canadian Contributions to Space
Robert Thirsk
In 1996, Canadian
Exploration and Observation
astronaut Robert Thirsk
Canada has had a proud involvement in the development of technology
spent 17 days on board a
for space exploration and observation. One of its most famous
space shuttle. Thirsk, who
set his sights on space contributions is the robotic arm, the “Canadarm,” originally designed by
flight at a young age, Spar Aerospace. Since its debut in 1981 on the U.S. space shuttle
holds four university Columbia, the Canadarm has proven to be one of the most versatile pieces
degrees, including a of technology ever designed for the space shuttle program. Manipulated
Bachelor of Science from by remote control, the Canadarm has launched and retrieved satellites,
the University of Calgary. helped fix optical apparatus on the Hubble Space Telescope, and put
together modules of the International Space Station.
positioning mechanism elbow pitch joint

for the upper arm Figure 4.4 Canadarm 1
in action
elbow closed-circuit retention latch
lower television & pan/tilt for the lower wrist
upper arm boom
arm
boom retention latch
for upper arm
shoulder
pitch joint
retention latch
orbiter positioning mechanism for the lower arm
longeron for lower arm
shoulder brace
wrist wrist yaw joint
pitch joint
shoulder wrist closed-circuit television & light
yaw joint Figure 4.5 The parts of
wrist roll joint end effector the Canadarm 1

When it launched Alouette 1 in 1962 (pictured in Figure 2.5), Canada
became among the first nations in the world to use a satellite for non-
military purposes. A decade later, in 1972, Canada launched Anik 1 from
Cape Canaveral in Florida. That satellite gave the whole country
telecommunications coverage for the first time. A year after that, Canada
became the first country in the world to use satellites to broadcast
television. Since then, the nation has continued to be a leader in the
development and use of satellites for communication purposes.
The next generation of Canadian space robotics is the Canadarm 2.
Not only can the arm bend around corners and grasp objects with its
computer-controlled fingers, it can also move itself around the outside of
the International Space Station, crawling like a caterpillar and making
Figure 4.6 Canadarm 2,
every part of the space station accessible.
shown here in position on
the International Space
Station, is bigger, stronger,
and smarter than its
predecessor, Canadarm 1.
System Description
Remote • contains seven motorized joints
Manipulator • handles large payloads
System • assists with docking the space shuttle
• can move itself around different parts
of the station
Mobile Base • can travel along a rail system to move

System to different positions on the station
Special • uses its two-armed robotic hand for

Purpose delicate assembly work
Dexterous
Figure 4.7 Three main systems of the Canadarm 2 Manipulator
G I V E I T A TRY
WHAT DOES IT TAKE TO BECOME AN ASTRONAUT?

Millions of dollars are spent to train people for the astronaut program and to send a Materials & Equipment
few of them into space. Added to that large financial cost are the thousands of hours • computer with Internet
of work put in by hundreds of support personnel (researchers, technicians, access
engineers, physiologists, and others). Obviously, choosing suitable candidates for • library (school or
the astronaut program is critical in making this investment of time and money public)
worthwhile. Candidates cannot just be randomly selected from a list of all applicants. • pencil and paper
What special education, skills, and other qualifications does someone need to
become an astronaut?
1 In a small group, brainstorm a list of criteria that you think a candidate should
have to be the “ideal astronaut.”
2 Research the Canadian Space Agency’s requirements for a person to become an
astronaut.
3 Research the biographies of three Canadian astronauts of your choosing. Make
note of any patterns or similarities you notice in their backgrounds.
4 Compare your initial brainstorming list with the actual requirements from the
Canadian Space Agency. How did your list compare with your research on the
backgrounds of actual Canadian astronauts?
5 Present your findings to the class.
6 As a class, discuss whether or not there is such a thing as an “ideal” candidate
to be an astronaut.
7 With reference to your research, explain why you would or wouldn’t make a
good candidate to be an astronaut.
Figure 4.8 From top to bottom,

Canadian astronauts Chris Hadfield,
Julie Payette, and Marc Garneau Figure 4.9 Headquarters of the Canadian Space Agency

Canada’s rich history in the field of space technology includes the re SEARCH
following highlights:
• In 1839, Sir Edward Sabine established the first magnetic observatory Which Astronaut Is
at the University of Toronto. He discovered that the aurora borealis was She?
associated with sunspot activity. In the early summer of
• In 1962, Canada became the third nation on Earth to launch a satellite, 1999, this astronaut
Alouette 1. became the eighth
Canadian in space. She
• When Apollo 11 made its historic first manned flight to the Moon in
was the second
1969, landing gear built in Canada ensured that the astronauts would Canadian female
safely touch down. astronaut and only one
• The first Canadian in space was Marc Garneau, who participated in the of three Canadians to
space shuttle mission in October 1984. operate the robotic
• Roberta Bondar was the first Canadian female astronaut to fly on a space arm. Find out
shuttle mission, in 1992. who she is and how she
became an astronaut.
• Canada provided technology for the Mars Pathfinder mission. It was a
Begin your research at
Canadian-designed ramp that the Sojourner rover rolled down in 1997.
www.pearsoned.ca/
• In April 2001, Chris Hadfield became the first Canadian to walk in scienceinaction.
space when he helped deliver Canadarm 2 to the International Space
Station.
CHECK AND REFLECT

Key Concept Review
1. When was Canada’s satellite Alouette 1 launched? What was unique
about it?
2. What was Canada’s technological contribution to the shuttle program?
3. What is the common name of the Canadian-designed and -built Remote
Manipulator System on the International Space Station?
4. Name one of the unique qualities of the Remote Manipulator System.

5. What Canadian technology contributed to the success of the Moon
expedition in 1969?
6. What was the Canadian contribution to the Mars Pathfinder mission?
7. Using information provided in section 4.2, create a timeline depicting
Canada’s contributions to space exploration.

8. Would the Canadarm 1 design be suitable for the International Space
Station? Explain your answer.
9. Imagine that NASA had a lottery in which the first prize was a ride in
the shuttle. There would be no training, or studying at all. The winner
would simply join the shuttle astronauts the next day for a launch into
space. List several reasons why this would be a foolish venture for the
individual who won and for the space agency.
info BIT
4.3 Issues Related to Space Exploration
The Moon and Life
Debate rages today over the huge amounts of money, time, and resources
Support
that are being expended on sending equipment and people into space. In
Volcanic material on the
Moon contains trapped the United States and Canada alone, the space program costs billions of
oxygen. Some scientists dollars every year.
believe that heating this
material would allow the THE PROS AND CONS OF SPACE EXPLORATION
oxygen to be released
Some people argue that, because there are so many problems on Earth to
and captured. They also
be solved (such as poverty, hunger, pollution, and disease epidemics),
believe that both oxygen
and water could be countries should not be spending huge sums of money to explore new
extracted from the ice at regions. Instead, they say, that money should go to relieving the suffering
the lunar poles. “Mining” of citizens on our own planet. Other people argue that space is the “last
the oxygen and water in great frontier,” and that what we learn by exploring it could help us find
this way could support ways of improving life on Earth.
future long-term
settlement by humans.
Figure 4.10 How do you think money and resources should be spent: to address problems on
Earth, or to explore space?
These and other factors must be taken into account when decisions are
being made about the future of space exploration and development.
Some forecasters suggest that the population of Earth will continue to
increase for the next 50 years before stabilizing. This increase, combined
with continued growth in our standard of living, means that the demand
for natural resources (such as minerals and fossil fuels) will rise. Instead
of looking to Earth to find more of those resources, technology is allowing
scientists to look to space for them.

Figure 4.11 As technology has allowed us to study and navigate space safely and efficiently, we
have discovered that space is not a barren place. With the right technology, many valuable
resources may be readily available.
THE POTENTIAL VALUE OF SPACE’S RESOURCES

Why would we even need to use resources from space? The reasons are
economic.
First, with the resources space has to offer, our energy needs on Earth
could be satisfied for a long time. For example, scientists are looking for
ways of capturing solar energy in space and beaming it to Earth. As well,
space is a boundless source of mineral resources. The asteroid belt that
lies between Mars and Jupiter, for instance, contains hundreds of
thousands of rocky chunks floating in space. Asteroids have been found to
contain iron, as well as gold and platinum group metals. At present
market value, a 200 000-t asteroid would yield more than $350 billion
worth of mineral resources.
Second, the cost of space travel could be cut substantially. It costs a
great deal of money to transport fuel and materials from Earth into space.
If materials for the construction of space vehicles, supplies, and fuel can
be found where they are to be located in space, costs would be reduced.
The first place scientists looked for resources in space was our closest
neighbour, the Moon. Both hydrogen and oxygen can be easily processed
from Moon rock. The hydrogen could be used as fuel for lunar bases and
space travel. The oxygen could be used for life support. Combine the two
and you have a readily available supply of water. Our Moon is not the
only source of material. Phobos and Deimos, the moons of Mars, could be
used to supply shuttles to that planet.
ACTIVITY E-8
SHOULD WE CONTINUE INVESTING IN S PA C E
Decision E X P L O R AT I O N A N D R E S E A R C H ?
Making The Issue
Every year, there are new, bold projects proposed for the study and exploration of space.
Humans continue to push the boundaries of the imagination, from building more
sophisticated satellites to planning manned space flights to Mars. Ultimately, we will not
be limited by our creativity, but by our ability and willingness to pay for costlier ideas.
Background Information
Throughout this unit, you have learned a great deal about the progress of technology
designed to enable us to observe and explore space. You have seen how space research
has helped people directly (for example, with satellite communications) and indirectly
(with spin-offs such as protective clothing and health care equipment). In this section,
you are learning about the great cost of space exploration and the many risks. Should we
continue investing in space? Can we afford to keep doing it? Can we afford not to?
1 Working in small groups, brainstorm the pros and cons of human investment in
space endeavours.
2 Research each of the items on your list in more detail, using such sources as the
Internet, books, magazines, journal articles, and local experts.
3 Individually, summarize your findings in a short report. Conclude the report by
stating whether you agree or disagree with humans continuing to invest in space
exploration and research. Explain your view. Be sure to consider observations and
ideas from a number of sources before drawing your conclusions.
Analyze and Evaluate

4 Present your findings and position on the issue to the class. Be prepared to defend
your opinions using the results of your research. Use any format you wish (for
example, posters, flip chart, handouts) to communicate your ideas.
5 Listen to your classmates’ presentations and be ready to ask questions based on
your research.
6 After all the presentations have been made, re-evaluate your position on the issue.
Did any of the arguments made by others who held the opposite point of view to
yours make you want to reconsider your view? Explain why or why not.
Figure 4.12 Debate the issue of investing in space exploration and research.

POLITICAL, ETHICAL, AND ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES math Link
Although it is widely agreed that valuable resources can be found in The Value of an
space, who owns them and who has a right to use them will become major Asteroid
matters of debate in future plans related to space development. There are Find out what minerals
also ethical and environmental issues to consider, as the table below an asteroid contains,
summarizes. and research the current
market value ($) of each
Issues mineral. Using that
information, calculate
the value of an asteroid
Political Ethical Environmental
if it yielded 100 000 t of
• Who owns space? • Is it right to spend money • Who is responsible for minerals. Assume that all
• Who has the right to use on space exploration protecting space the minerals found in
the resources in space? rather than on solving environments from the asteroid exist in the
• Who will determine how problems on Earth? alteration? same proportion (e.g.,
space will be used? • Do we have a right to • Who is responsible for five minerals, each
alter materials in space to cleaning up space junk, 20 000 t = 100 000 t).
meet our needs? and who should pay for
• How can we ensure that doing it?
space resources will be
used for the good of
humans and not to
further the interests of
only one nation or group?
G I V E I T A TRY
WHO OWNS SPACE?

As travelling into space becomes safer, easier, and 3 If we journey to other planets, should we go as
more economical, questions arise about the nature of eco-tourists, only to observe the planet, leaving it
our journeys. In this activity, you are asked to in the condition we found it, or as pioneers, to
consider some ethical issues on the exploration of settle and change the planet to meet human
space. In a small group (three to four students), needs?
discuss the following questions. One person should
record the group’s ideas. When you have finished your
1 Are the resources of a moon, planet, or asteroid discussion, compare your
the property of the first nation to land on it or group’s ideas with those of
claim it? the other groups in the
2 Should space resources be owned only by class. Be prepared to
nations rich enough to be able to afford the costs defend your position
of reaching the site of those resources? on each question.
re SEARCH On Earth, similar issues were debated over Antarctica. Though not to
the same degree as space, Antarctica is a hostile, remote environment that
Moon Marketing has valuable resources. No one country, however, could lay claim
Use the Internet to find politically to those resources for itself. In 1959, however, the 12 nations
out who the that had bases on the continent signed a treaty to share the resources of
entrepreneurs are who the area. Part of the Antarctica Treaty System reads, “Antarctica shall
are advertising trips to continue forever to be used exclusively for peaceful purposes and shall
the Moon. Begin your not become the scene or object of international discord.” The concept
research at requires that all nations work collaboratively to resolve differences. A
www.pearsoned.ca/ space treaty could have the same requirements.
scienceinaction.
Figure 4.13 The flags of

many nations are planted at
the South Pole.
CHECK AND REFLECT

Key Concept Review
1. Why might asteroids be of interest in space exploration?
2. What two elements can be processed from material on the Moon?
3. How could the elements processed from Moon-material be used?
4. Name two concerns that some people have about exploiting resources
in space.

5. How do left-over materials in space pose a threat to people on the
ground?
6. Explain a political concern that exists about space and its resources.
7. Describe an environmental concern about the exploration and
exploitation of space.

8. List three costs of space exploration, and three benefits.
9. Give two reasons why resources should be extracted and processed in
space. Give two reasons why they shouldn’t.

SECTION REVIEW
Key Concept Review
1. Describe three major hazards that astronauts could encounter on their
journey from Earth to the International Space Station.
2. Suggest one solution to the space junk problem.
3. List two benefits of Canada collaborating with other countries in space
exploration.
4. How are the exploration of Antarctica and the exploration of space
similar?

5. Sixteen different nations are represented in the International Space
Station. In your view, who owns space and the resources found there?
6. Besides space junk, give another negative effect of space exploration.
7. Why would mining asteroids or the very small Martian moons be
more appealing to a mining company than mining on Mars itself?

8. Describe a way in which space exploration could benefit all people on
Earth.
9. In point form, write your own space treaty. Consider the ethical,
political, and environmental issues involved in the exploration of
space.

On
Fulfilling the dream of human exploration of space only makes sense if it
can be done safely, economically, and in a socially and ethically
acceptable way. Technological advances, some contributed by Canadian
scientists, have made it easier to send people and materials into space.
However, as has always been the case in the past on Earth, colonizing new
environments leads to dramatic changes. As human influence spreads
throughout the solar system and beyond, issues such as ownership,
stewardship, and ethical responsibility must be addressed.
1. How has the advancement of technology made space travel safer?
2. Why is it advantageous for Canada to contribute space technologies to
international projects rather than to pursue space exploration by
itself?
3. As technology makes it easier for humans to get into space, what
issues about ownership must be addressed?
U N I T S U M M A RY: S PA C E E X P L O R AT I O N
Key Concepts Section Summaries
1.0 1.0 Human understanding of both Earth and space has changed over time.
• Ancient cultures explained their observations of bodies in space with myths and legends.
• Technology used to study space has evolved throughout history. With each technological
advance came better explanations for what was observed.
• reference frames for
• The planet Earth orbits a star that is one of billions of stars in a spiral galaxy called the
describing the position and
Milky Way.
motion of bodies in space
• Years of accurate data collection and advances in telescope technology have improved our
• distribution of matter through
scientific understanding of the solar system.
space
• A star’s position when viewed from a particular point, can be determined given the
• composition and characteristics
compass direction (azimuth) and the altitude.
of bodies in space
2.0 2.0 Technological developments are making space exploration possible and offer
benefits on Earth.
• Space transport technology began with simple rockets, and today’s spacecraft are still
exploration
launched using the same principles.
• For humans to live outside of Earth’s atmosphere, the basic requirements for life must be
met in space. This means that food, shelter, water, and air must be produced artificially.
• Satellites orbiting Earth transmit information to us about weather, agriculture, and natural
resources. We can also use space technology to locate our exact position on Earth.
• Many concepts designed for use in space have found applications on Earth. These include
materials used for communication, medicine, entertainment, and transportation.
3.0 3.0 Optical telescopes, radio telescopes, and other technologies advance our
understanding of space.
• Reflecting and refracting are two types of optical telescopes. Reflecting telescopes use
mirrors to focus light. Refracting telescopes use lenses to focus light.
• composition and
• Visible light is only one part of the electromagnetic spectrum. This spectrum includes
infrared, X-ray, ultraviolet, and gamma radiation. Specific technologies are designed to
space
detect these forms of radiation that come to us from space.
• By observing the shift in the spectrum of a star, we can tell if it is moving toward or away
• triangulation and parallax
from Earth.
• Triangulation and parallax are two techniques for measuring distances in space.
4.0 4.0 Society and the environment are affected by space exploration and the
development of space technologies.
• space exploration risks and
dangers • There are many dangers associated with both manned and unmanned space exploration.
• technologies for space Some of those dangers are posed by debris floating in space around Earth and by solar
exploration and observation and cosmic radiation.
• life support technologies • Canada has had a long and proud history of participation in space research and
• ownership and use of exploration.
resources in space • Many issues concerning ownership of space and its resources are yet to be resolved.
These include political, environmental, and ethical issues.

S C I E N C E W O R L D
y
a
se d
S t u
Babies Beyond Gravity’s Grip

The Issue
The International Space Station is just the first step in
human colonization of space. In the not-too-distant future,
permanently manned space stations and bases on the
Moon are likely to be the next step in space exploration.
Some scientists predict that within two decades, the first
inhabited colony on Mars will be established. The first
colonists will probably include families, which means that
babies might, for the first time ever, be born in a place
other than on Earth. Numerous health, social, and Go Further
emotional issues would surround such a significant Now it’s your turn. Look into the following resources for
historical occurrence. information to help you form an opinion about what health
issues might affect babies and children raised away from
Physical • How would the space environment physically Earth.
Health affect a new baby? • Search the Web: Check the Internet for information
Issues • Are there concerns other than microgravity about space travel and the effects of microgravity on the
that could affect the health of a developing human body.
baby?
• Ask the experts: Talk to a doctor or a nurse at your local
• How would a child born and raised on the
Moon, Mars, or an orbiting space station be
hospital or medical clinic about how microgravity
physically affected by moving to Earth? conditions would affect the development of a baby and
child.
Social • What would be the nationality of a baby born • Check journals and magazines: Search for current
Issues in space? stories related to travelling in space for long periods and
• What nation would be responsible for
the effects of low to microgravity.
providing the child with any social and
medical support it needed?
• How socially connected to Earth would a Analyze and Address the Issue
person raised in space feel? Imagine you were one of the first children to be born in
Emotional • How would living in small, cramped
space. (Assume for this case study that, thanks to
and conditions with limited freedom to move technological advances, conditions for safe delivery were
Psychological around affect a young child growing up? created for you and your mother.) Your life so far has been
Issues • What effects, if any, would a child experience spent in space, but now, as a young teenager, you are
from living apart from a natural environment moving to Earth. Write a series of first-person diary
that has air, grass, trees, rain, and birds? entries chronicling your adjustment to Earth. Start with
• How would a child who is born and raised your first day arriving on the planet. Compare and contrast
on the Moon, Mars, or an orbiting space
your life in space with your life on Earth, and consider
station be emotionally and psychologically
both the emotional and physical impacts. Be sure to use
affected by moving to Earth?
your research material to support your ideas.
Science World 471

PROJECT
MISSION TO MARS
Northern polar ice cap
Tharsis Montes volcanoes
Valles
Marineris
canyon

Getting Started Steps to Success
We have learned much about Mars from telescopes, 1 Working with two or three partners, select the area of
robotic probes, and satellites, but to really understand the Mars that will be the focus of your mission.
nature of the planet, we will have to see it for ourselves. Brainstorm ideas for both the type of landing probe
This project will allow you to apply what you have learned you wish to design and the style of base camp. Using
in this unit about space exploration, the requirements of a variety of sources, research the characteristics of the
living in space, and the way in which technology and surface feature your mission is going to study. With
science go hand in hand to advance our knowledge about your partners, identify problems resulting from the
the universe. You will be designing the first mission to conditions on Mars and discuss possible design
Mars. Where you land is up to you. You can choose solutions.
between the Valles Marineris canyon, the Tharsis Montes 2 Complete two scale drawings, one for the probe, and
volcanoes, and the northern polar ice cap. one showing the layout of the base camp. Include
ideas about how the astronauts will travel on the
Your Goal
surface of the planet.
The project has three parts.
3 Construct scale models of your probe and the base
• First, design an unmanned probe that will safely touch camp using materials of your choice.
down and explore the target area on Mars that you have
4 Write descriptions of a) the tasks to be performed
selected.
during the mission, b) the features of your landing
• Second, design a base camp for a team of eight probe, and c) the features of your base camp.
astronauts (four women and four men) who will be the
5 Present your work to the class and explain the
first humans to colonize Mars. Scale models must be
rationale behind your designs.
made for both the probe and the base camp.
• Third, decide which feature to study and how. How Did It Go?
6 In your notebook, answer each of the following
What You Need to Know
questions in a paragraph.
The mission to Mars will last approximately 22 months.
a) How did your research influence your design for
That time includes the eight months it will take to travel
each part of the mission?
there, six months to explore the surface, and eight months
b) Did you use current technology, or did you design
to return to Earth. In addition to what you learned about
your own technology to meet the needs of the
the nature of Mars in subsection 1.4, you should keep in
mission?
mind that dust storms with winds up to 900 km/h can
cover most of the planet for weeks. Also, communication c) How effective was the group decision-making
signals from Mars can be expected to take about 8 min to process? How were disagreements resolved?
reach Earth. Your base camp design must include d) After seeing your classmates’ presentations, are
laboratories, food, water and air supplies, and living space. there any changes you would make to your
It must also reflect which feature your mission is going to designs? Explain your answer.
study and how.
Project 473
UNIT REVIEW: SPACE EXPLORATION
Unit Vocabulary 2.0

1. Make a brief sketch that illustrates each of 8. Draw a rocket and label its main parts. What
the following vocabulary words or terms: propels a rocket forward?
geocentric
9. List five basic requirements for humans
heliocentric
living in space.
elliptical
black hole 10. Describe some of the effects on the human
constellation body that result from living in microgravity .
galaxy 11. How does the Global Positioning System
solar system work? Illustrate your answer.
comets
12. Name four materials or items we use on
meteors
Earth that were originally designed for use
astronomical unit
in space.
light-year
Hubble Space Telescope
spectrum
space junk 3.0
13. What part of the electromagnetic spectrum

Key Concept Review can humans detect?
14. Explain how astronomers use multiple small
1.0
telescopes to imitate one large telescope.
2. What information did constellations provide 15. What is the Doppler effect and how is the
early sky-watchers? principle applied in determining star
3. What is the first stage in a star’s life called? motion?
4. All stars start from the same “building 16. Explain how the process of triangulation can
blocks.” What element forms these building determine distances on the ground.
blocks? 17. What aspect of Earth makes it difficult to
5. Define a light-year. observe the X-rays, gamma rays, and
ultraviolet rays that come from space?
6. a) How many stars are estimated to be in the
Milky Way galaxy?
b) How many galaxies are estimated to be in
4.0
the universe?
7. Explain why you could not locate a star by 18. Name four risks associated with space
knowing only its altitude in the sky. exploration.
19. List three different contributions Canada has
made to the space industry.
20. Why is space junk an issue in space
exploration?

Connect Your Understanding 30. Sketch how an ellipse changes in shape
when the foci (the two pins that you used in
21. Describe what you consider to be the most
the activity on page 375) are moved farther
important issues facing space exploration.
apart from each other. Relate this to the
22. Describe how space exploration, or its spin- orbits of planets around the Sun.
off products, have affected you personally.
23. In the late 1970s, when Skylab was due to Self Assessment
re-enter Earth’s atmosphere, insurance
companies were offering policies to insure 31. Describe three facts that you found most
people who might get hit by pieces of the interesting in this unit which you did not
space station that reached Earth’s surface. know before.
Explain why it would be highly unlikely for 32. What are two questions that you have about
anyone to ever need to use such an technology used for space exploration and
insurance policy. travel?
24. If space technology and exploration affect 33. Has your opinion about the value of space
the planet as a whole, how should decisions exploration changed in the course of reading
regarding their use be made? this unit? Explain your answer.
34. Which spin-off of the space industry has had
Extend Your Understanding the greatest effect on your life?
25. Explain why looking at stars in the night sky
is considered looking into the past.
26. As soon as a comet gets close enough to the
On
Sun to feel the Sun’s effects, the gases in the
comet begin to bubble (effervesce) and it In this unit, you have investigated science and
leaves a trail along the path it has followed. technology related to space exploration.
When a comet’s tail is visible, it always Consider the following questions.
points away from the Sun. Explain why this
35. As improvements are made to technology,
occurs.
our understanding of the universe around us
27. If we knew a galaxy was moving away from advances. Should decisions that could
Earth, but we see a star in the galaxy with a potentially affect the entire planet be made
spectrum shifted towards the blue, what by only a handful of scientists? Explain your
would we conclude? answer.
36. Describe three ways in which the technology
Practise Your Skills from space exploration has potential to
28. Sketch a diagram that illustrates your benefit all people in the future. What
understanding of the differences between drawbacks to the development of this
reflecting, refracting, and radio telescopes. technology can you think of? Give reasons to
support your answer.
29. Construct a Venn diagram that compares and
contrasts the characteristics of Mars and 37. When making decisions about space
Earth. exploration and the exploitation of resources
in space, what do you feel are essential
questions to ask?
Unit Review 475

Unit e - Space Exploration

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What were some of the major events in the early history of space exploration?

What were some of the major events in the early history of space exploration?

How have different types of telescopes advanced our understanding of space?

How have different types of telescopes advanced our understanding of space?

UNIT

1.0 Human understanding of both Earth and space has changed

2.0 Technological developments are making space exploration

3.0 Optical telescopes, radio telescopes, and other technologies

4.0 Society and the environment are affected by space exploration

SHORT EXCURSION TO THE MOON

368 Unit E: Space Exploration

CRATER PATTERNS ON THE MOON

Focus SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

370 For Web links relating to 1.0, visit www.pearsoned.ca/scienceinaction

Figure 1.3 The designs of the

372 Unit E: Space Exploration

geocentric model of our solar

not all—about planetary

motion. In this model, Earth

The geocentric model allowed early astronomers to forecast such

A little less than 100 years later, a new generation of scientists—with

374 Unit E: Space Exploration

Connect Your Understanding

Extend Your Understanding

Figure 1.8 The Caracol,

376 Unit E: Space Exploration

TELLING SUNDIAL TIME

Figure 1.10 Step 2

quadrant astrolabe cross-staff early telescope

378 Unit E: Space Exploration

Figure 1.12 The relative

HOW BIG IS THE SUN?

Figure 1.13 Step 1

380 Unit E: Space Exploration

100 cm 150 000 000 km

(actual value measured value)

Applying and Connecting

TAKE A WALK THROUGH THE SOLAR SYSTEM

Purpose Mercury less than 0.4

Looking into the Past

382 Unit E: Space Exploration

CHECK AND REFLECT

Connect Your Understanding

Extend Your Understanding

Figure 1.17 Using modern

384 Unit E: Space Exploration

sequence. Ninety percent of

WHAT COLOUR AND TEMPERATURE TELL US ABOUT ELEMENTS

main sequence red giant

Sun-like stars white dwarf black dwarf

massive stars red supergiant supernova black hole

386 Unit E: Space Exploration

Figure 1.20 The giant

388 Unit E: Space Exploration

CLASSIFYING STARS BY SIZE

Star Radius (Sun=1) Density (Sun=1) Mass (Sun=1)

Beta Brittanee 40.0 0.00014 6.0

Krueller’s Star 0.7 6.3 0.5

34 Pygmi A 2.3 1.8 2.0