Genetics

Chapter 5: Mitosis and Meiosis

5.1 Mitosis
Importance: Cell division – necessary for growth and development of any multi-cellular
organism. Allows tissue repair and replacement of ageing cell

- Occurs when parent cell divides to produce 2 daughter cells.

- Daughter cells: genetically identical (heredity info in nucleus, the DNA, must be
duplicated and an exact copy must be passed to each daughter cell)
- With each round of division: total # of cells is double, DNA is the same.

Genetic continuity: transmission of hereditary material through cell divison.

2 things initiate cell division:

(1) as a cell grows, the surface area and volume does not change at the same rate. In cell
growth, transport of material through cell membrane is not enough to satisfy the nutrients
required of the larger cell volume. Cells become inefficient at performing tasks.

(2) as a cell grows, the nucleus has difficulty controlling the activities of the increased volume of
cytoplasm and organelles.

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 5.2 Meiosis
Meiosis is defined as a reduction division
(reducing the number of chromosomes by half. Diploid (2n) -> haploid (n) )
- occurs in the gamete cells (reproductive cells/sex cells)
-the gametes will fuse during sexual reproduction to produce a diploid zygote (2n)
-once the zygote is formed, it will grow by the process of Mitosis

Maternal n n Paternal

2n

Zygote

RECALL: Mitosis ensures genetic continuity of cells within any multi-cellular organism. Specific
chromosome number characteristic of the species is maintained by mitotic division. It ensures
every cell contains the exact number of chromosomes.

Importance of Meiosis:

When special sex cells or gametes unite in sexual reproduction the number of chromosomes is
crucial. Because of this, meiosis is needed:

- To prevent doubling in sexual reproduction

Differences and Similarities between Mitosis and Meiosis:

Mitosis Meiosis
- Asexual reproduction in which cells - Sexual reproduction in which
divide into 2 , creating a replica w/ chromosomes are reduced by half
equal number of chromosomes in through separation of homologous
haploid cell chromosomes in a diploid cell
- All living organisms - Humans, animals, plants, fungi,
- Produces 2 daughter cells - Produces 4 daughter cells
- Creates all cells except gamete - Creates gamete cells only (sex cells)
- Genetically identical - Genetically different
- 1 process - 2 processes
- Function: cell reproduction & general - Function: sexual reproduction
growth and repair of the body - Homologous pairs are found
- No pairing of homologous pairs - Nondisjunction

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 Mistakes in Meiosis
Chromosomal Abnormalities

-incorrect number of chromosomes

- nondisjunction : chromosomes don’t separate properly during meiosis

- breakage of chromosomes: deletion (delete genes)
duplication (double genes)
inversion
translocation (part of chrome, attaches to another)

a) nondisjunction

- problems with meiotic spindle causes errors in daughter cells

> homolgous chromosomes do not separate properly during meiosis 1

> sister chromatids fails to separate during meiosis 2
- too many or too few chromosomes

(Meiosis 2 has chance of fixing/developing correct number)

- baby has wrong number of chromosomes
> trisomy cells have 3 copies of a chromosome (2n+1)
> monosomy cells have 1 copy of a chromosome (2n-1)

Changes in chromosome structure

Error of replication - 1. Deletion : loss of a chromosomal segment

2. Duplication : repeat a segment

Error of crossing over – 1. Inversion : Reverse a segment

2. Translocation : move segment from one chromosome to the other

5.3 Sexual vs. Asexual Reproduction

Asexual Reproduction and Genetic Continuity

- In some organisms, one parent alone is capable of producing a new individual

- Hereditary information is transmitted from one generation to the next through this
process
- The single parent may split, bud, or fragment to produce a new individual.
- The genetic information is any new individual will be identical to the original parent.
(unless a chemical change in the DNA occurs , aka mutation.)
- Therefore, asexual offspring will display traits very similar if not identical to one another
and to the original parent
- Asexual reproduction may produce many offspring very rapidly

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 Sexual Reproduction

- Meiosis produces haploid gametes containing one of each of the homologous pairs of
chromosomes
- The products of meiosis are different from each other because of the random
assortment of chromes and because of the genetic recombination that occurs in
Prophase I
- When fertilization occurs in sexual repro. Diploid zygote results
- Zygote contains all genetic information required to produce an individual of the species
involved
- Two parents and two different sex cells are required
- Two gametes from among the thousands possible come together form a unique
offspring
- Offspring produced will contain a mixture of hereditary information from both parents
and will not look exactly like either parent (Each successive generation will show
variation)

Sexual versus Asexual Reproduction

- Some organisms are capable of both sexual and asexual reproduction

- Common in plant kingdom

Why do different organisms display two types of reproduction?

- Asexual reproduction involving one parent produces identical copies (clones) in a

relatively short time.
- Easiest means of reproducing

Why don’t all living organisms use this approach to reproduction?

- Sexual repro. Requires greater amount of time and energy

Is the ability to produce offspring with genetic variation a significant advantage?

- Must consider evolution and environment

- When environment is not changing, asexual reproduction allows well-adapted
organisms to reproduce quickly to produce new generation
- HOWEVER, if the environment changes, asexual organisms will have difficulty
adapting and changing to the environment. Slim chance of surviving
- In this case, any species that shows variation from one generation to the next will
have a better chance of surviving.
- Sexually produced offspring are all different, some may adapt to conditions better
than others. (adaptation)

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 Chapter 6: Genetics and Heredity
6.1 The Origins of Genetics
Gregor Mendel (Moravian monk)

- Father of genetics
- Conducted experiements in mid 1800’s that illustrated the basis of heredity
 From his experiments it was clear that characteristics were passed from one
generation to the next
 Mendel’s experiments provided scientific proof that a distinct pattern of
inheritance exists

Mendel’s Work

- Bred pea plants

 Plants had several visible contrasting characteristics (traits)

Eg) Tall plants vs. Drawf plants, Round seed coat vs. Wrinkled seed coat etc.

- Cross pollinated true breeding plans

- True breeding: all look the same. (all tall plants) Parent generation (P)

- He raised the plans and observed the traits in that generation called the offspring F 1

Filial generation (F1)

- He then allowed the F1 generation to self-pollinate and observed the next generation
which he called F2
Filial generation (F2)
Observed:

(P) tall plant x tall plant

(F1) all tall plants *self pollinated*

(F2) 75 % tall plants, 25% dwarf

Mendel’s Experiment

Phenotypes - observable characteristics or traits

Purebred plants – plants with pure line of characteristic

(Plants that produced seeds that grew into plants identical to parent  pure-breeding)

Hybrids – result between a cross of a pure tall plant and a pure dwarf one

Dominant trait – characteristics or traits expressed over another one/marks another

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 Recessive trait – characteristics or traits which are not expressed over another one/ is masked

Factors – units of inheritance

Alleles – different forms of genes

Genotype – described genetic makeup of the individual. Letters are used (eg. Tt or TT or tt)
Upper case = dominant allele Lower case = recessive allele

A tall plant can have two different genotypes:

TT or Tt

pure plant or homozygous; both alleles are same or hybrid or heterozygous b/c 2 dif alleles.

What does this mean?

- Traits come in alternate versions ( tall vs dwarf )

- We call these alleles
- For each characteristic an organism inherits 2 alleles (one from maternal and one
from paternal)
- Some characteristics (or traits) mask others
-

T -> t ->
If the maternal
chromosome has a tall
allele, and the paternal
chromosome has a dwarf
allele, the plans will be
Mendel’s Laws tall.

Law of Segregation

1. Pair of alleles for a given trait segregate or are separated when gametes are formed

Meiosis:

 Each allele is packaged into a separate

gamete

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 Law of Independent Assortment

2. When two or more pairs of characteristics are considered each pair segregates
independently of the other trait. (*assumes traits are on different chromes*)

T t S s

genotype = TtSs (2 traits , therefore 4 letters)

gametes could have: TS Ts tS ts

6.2 Genetic Analysis

In order to predict the outcome of a cross  we use a punnett square

- A punnett square allows you to visualize the probability of gametes forming zygotes
and the genotype and phenotype of the resulting individual

One trait cross with punnett square

Eg) Predict the genotype and phenotype of a cross between the following :

Tt x Tt Parent generation (P)

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 T t

T TT Tt
Filial generation (F1)
t Tt tt

gametes (n) haploid ∴ the genotype ratio for a cross between Tt x Tt is

TT:Tt:tt
1:2:1 (monohybrid cross)

∴ the phenotype ratio for this cross is

Tall : Short
3:1

Two trait crosses with punnett square

- Each trait will have two letters (representing the alleles)

ex) one trait  tall  TT
- Two traits will be represented by 4 letters
ex) tall green  TtGg
- When both parents are heterozygous for both traits it is called a dihybrid cross
(di = 2)
- Mendel did this and determined a “classic” phenotype ratio

Eg) TtGg x TtGg Parent generation (P)

TG Tg tG tg Tall green 9 (dominant for both)

TG TTGG TTGg TtGG TtGg Tall yellow 3 (dominant/recessive)
Tg TTGg TTgg TtGg Ttgg Short green3 (recessive/dominant)
tG TtGG TTGg ttGG ttGg Short yellow 1 (recessive/recessive)
tg TtGg Ttgg ttGg ttgg
“classic mendelian ratio” 9:3:3:1
Test Crosses

- A type of cross used to establish the genotype of a phenotypically dominant individual

TT or Tt?  phenotype : tall

- Cross the dominant plant with a recessive plant from that trait

ex) T ___ x tt?

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 T t T T
t Tt tt t Tt Tt
t Tt tt t Tt Tt

Phenotype 1:1 (tallshort) Phenotype 1:0 (all tall)

Probability

- Is a measure of the likelihood that an event will occur.

- Expressed in a numerical value
- If an event is certain to occur, the probability = 1
- If an event is certain NOT to occur, the probability = 0

Two rules:

1. Product rule
- Probability that two events will happen at the same time is a product of the
individual probability

Ex) two traits on a coin, flipped at the same time

½ x ½ = ¼ or 25%

Relate to Genetics

Trait for tall pea plant  Tt T = ½ t= ½ ∴ 50% tall , 50% short

If the genotype is TT  probability = 1 , probability of little t = 0

Ex) state the probability of an offspring being homozygous recessive, if the parents are
both heterozygous :

Tt x Tt = tt (homozygous, recessive) ½ x ½ = ¼ or 25%

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 2. Sum rule

- The probability that an event can occur in two different ways is the sum of the
individual probability.

Ex)
Parent generation (P) Filial generation (F1)

Tt x Tt  Tt

(½x½)+(½x½) = ¼+¼ =½ or 50%

If the parents are heterozygous, what is the probability that the offspring will be tall. (Trait tall)

Parent generation (P)

Tt x Tt

Tall ( TT x Tt )
Filial generation (F2)
= ( ½ x ½ ) + ( ½ x ½ ) + ( ½ + ½ ) = ¼ + ¼ + ¼ = ¾ or 75%

6.3 Genetics After Mendel

Dominance Spectrum

Complete Dominance Incomplete Dominance Co-Dominance

Ex) Tt  one dominant The heterozygous individual Alleles are equally expressed in
allele masks the other. expresses a blend of both alleles. heterozygous individual.
ex) snapdragon flowers are: ex) coat color in some
red pink white (phenotype) cattle & horses
RR Rw WW (genotype) Red Roan White (phenotype)
[ex] what will the genotype & (genotype)
phenotype be if a red flower is crossed
with a pink flower? RR x Rw

[ex] complete a monohybrid cross for

this trait? RW x RW

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 Multiple Alleles

- Mode of inheritance
 complete
 incomplete
 co – dominance
- Traits that have more than two alleles for the treat in the population are called
Multiple Alleles.
Eg) blood types

Blood Types

- A combination of complete dominance and co-dominance

- Each person has two alleles for blood type, the allele will express itself as the
following phenotype:

Phenotype Mode of Inheritance Genotype

A complete IAIA IAIi

B complete IBIB IBIi
C
*co-dominance IAIB
O complete IiIi