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Desalination and Water Treatment

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An overview on desalination & sustainability:

renewable energy-driven desalination and brine
management
a a a a
D. Xevgenos , K. Moustakas , D. Malamis & M. Loizidou
a
Unit of Environmental Science and Technology (UEST), School of Chemical Engineering,
National Technical University of Athens, Zographou Campus, 9, Heroon Polytechniou Str.,
Athens 15773, Greece, Tel. +30 210 772 3108; Fax: +30 210 772 3285
Published online: 01 Dec 2014.

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To cite this article: D. Xevgenos, K. Moustakas, D. Malamis & M. Loizidou (2014): An overview on desalination &
sustainability: renewable energy-driven desalination and brine management, Desalination and Water Treatment, DOI:
10.1080/19443994.2014.984927

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 Desalination and Water Treatment (2014) 1–11
www.deswater.com

doi: 10.1080/19443994.2014.984927

An overview on desalination & sustainability: renewable energy-driven

desalination and brine management

D. Xevgenos*, K. Moustakas, D. Malamis, M. Loizidou

Unit of Environmental Science and Technology (UEST), School of Chemical Engineering, National Technical University of Athens,
Zographou Campus, 9, Heroon Polytechniou Str., Athens 15773, Greece, Tel. +30 210 772 3108; Fax: +30 210 772 3285;
email: [email protected] (D. Xevgenos)
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Received 1 June 2014; Accepted 30 October 2014

ABSTRACT

Desalination is a water technology that is gaining increasing importance for addressing

water needs, but it is costly and energy intensive and further strains the environment with
brine disposal and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. In order to desalt seawater, either
through membrane or thermal processes, a large amount of energy is required. Desalination
has negative impacts in the form of depletion of fossil fuels and GHG emissions from the
power production process to deliver this energy. What is more, the wastewater (brine)
produced during the desalination process causes damages to the local sea environment
where the brine is discharged. In order for desalination to be considered a sustainable water
solution, both issues must be successfully resolved. This paper discusses the potential for
coupling desalination with renewable energy (RES-D). Different renewable technologies can
be combined with certain desalination techniques. The technical development stage of the
RES-D combinations already applied is given. Currently applied management as well as an
innovative alternative for brine management based on zero liquid discharge (ZLD) is also
presented. This pilot system was developed in the framework of an European project with
the acronym SOL-BRINE (LIFE09 ENV/GR/000299).

Keywords: Renewable energy; Solar energy; Wind energy; Ocean energy; Desalination; Brine
treatment; Desalination; Zero liquid discharge (ZLD); SOL-BRINE

1. Introduction solutes [1]. Thus, desalination techniques may be

classified into the following categories (see also Fig. 1):
Desalination technologies are used to produce
drinking water from brackish water (salinity between
(1) phase-change or thermal processes;
1,000 and 35,000 ppm) or/and seawater (salinity
(2) membrane or single-phase processes; and
greater than 35,000 ppm). Industrial desalination
(3) hybrid processes.
technologies use either phase change or involve semi-
permeable membranes to separate the solvent or some
As of June 2011, 15,988 desalination plants have
been installed and operated in 150 countries
*Corresponding author.

Presented at AdaptToClimate Conference, 27–28 March 2014, Nicosia, Cyprus

1944-3994/1944-3986 Ó 2014 Balaban Desalination Publications. All rights reserved.

 2 D. Xevgenos et al. / Desalination and Water Treatment
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Fig. 1. Processes for water desalination. Adapted from [2].

Note: The dashed boxes indicate processes that are in the R&D stage.

producing a combined 66.5 million m3 of fresh water Arabian Gulf using mostly thermal techniques (MSF
per day [3]. The desalinated water is used for different and MED), while almost all plants in Europe and USA
applications: municipal use (63%), industries (25.8%), use RO (see also Figs. 3 and 4).
power stations (5.8%), irrigation (1.9%), tourism (1.9%)
and others. The sources of the water treated are: sea-
water (60%), brackish water (21.5%), river water 2. Desalination & energy considerations
(8.3%), wastewater (5.7%), pure water (4.3%) and brine
(0.2%) (see also Fig. 2). Among the different desalina- Desalination uses a significant amount of energy.
tion technologies, reverse osmosis (RO) predominates Energy usage affects the technology’s carbon footprint
with a total share of 53%, followed by multistage flash and hampers its wider deployment. Currently, RO is
distillation (MSF), multiple effect distillation (MED) the most efficient water treatment technology, with its
and electrodialysis (ED). This pattern changes consumption ranging between 2 and 5 kWh/m3
drastically across regions, with countries around the (according to the type of treated water, i.e. brackish or
seawater). No thermal energy is required for driving
the RO process. In general, it can be said that thermal
techniques require a greater amount of energy than
membrane technologies. However, in order to com-
pare the energy requirements of these techniques, it is
necessary to reflect the primary energy consumption
and not only the final energy consumption (see Fig. 5).
For instance, RO uses electricity which is produced in
most cases by fossil fuel-fired power stations.

3. Renewable desalination (RES-D): a win–win

technological partnership
The main challenge of RES-D is how to make two
different technologies work together. Even though,
both components comprise mature technologies, their
Fig. 2. Sources of water treated by desalination technolo- combination is currently at the R&D stage at the
gies (Worldwide) [3]. moment. This is why RES-D plants are limited both in
 D. Xevgenos et al. / Desalination and Water Treatment 3

Worldwide capacity by Region

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By Region & Process

World (2008) United Arab Emirates (2008)

Mediterranean Region (2008) USA (2006)

RO MED EDI
MSF ED Ion Exchange

Fig. 3. Desalination capacity. Adapted from [4,5].

number and water production capacity. Kalogirou [1] Middle East and North African region (MENA), with
reports that RES-D plants make up less than 1% of the capacities between a few m3 up to 100 m3.
total installed desalination capacity worldwide. Most RES-D systems have been the focal point of much
of these plants are installed in arid areas e.g. the research work worldwide. Many projects (such as
 4 D. Xevgenos et al. / Desalination and Water Treatment

desalination powered by renewable energy” which was

developed in the framework of the European project
PRODES [9]. The project PRODES has made signifi-
cant contribution in collecting and reporting the avail-
able data for RES-D plants worldwide. Papapetrou [9]
reports that until 2009, 131 renewable powered desali-
nation systems have been recorded across the globe.
The RES-D combinations recorded are presented in
Table 1 [Figs. 7 and 8], while data for selected RES-D
small applications are provided in Table 3.
It must be noted that the vast majority of the RES-D
applications employ solar powered techniques with PV-RO
being the dominant combination, amounting to a share of
31%. Solar energy techniques comprise proven, well-tested
technologies, offering the potential of a reliable energy
source for desalination practices. Solar powered desalination
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Fig. 4. End users of desalination plants (Worldwide) [3]. technologies can be divided into two broad categories: direct
and indirect processes. The first category involves the solar
still technology, while the second involves:
AQUASOL, PRODES, ADIRA, AQUA-CSP, MEDESOL
and MEDINA.) have examined and evaluated the bar- (1) solar collectors;
riers and challenges stemming from the coupling of (2) solar ponds, and
these technologies (i.e. renewable source collector and (3) photovoltaic units.
desalination technology) with the aim to carry forward
the RES-D techniques from the research to the com- Solar energy collector devices can either drive both
mercial application development stage (see also thermal desalination and membrane desalination sys-
Fig. 6). One of the most often cited works on RES-D is tems. A list of the possible combinations, according to
the report titled “Roadmap for the development of the type of the solar device, is presented in Table 2.

Fig. 5. Energy consumption of desalination systems and overall primary energy requirements. Compiled based on data
collected from [2,6–8].
 D. Xevgenos et al. / Desalination and Water Treatment 5
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Fig. 6. Development stage and capacity of the main renewable powered desalination plants [9].

Table 1
Breakdown of renewable energy-driven desalination appli-
cations1 effects and scaling-up. Trieb and Müller-Steinhagen
[11] reports that RES-D cost is expected to fall to
RES-D technology combination Share (%)
0.9$/m3 by 2050.
PV–RO 31
Wind–RO 12
Solar–MD 11 4. Brine management
Solar–MED 9 4.1. Concentrate management options
Solar–MSF 7
PV–ED/EDR 3 The desalination process produces a significant
Hybrid 3 amount of wastewater: 2 L of brine for every litre of
Others 15 freshwater produced. The generated wastewater has
1
PV: photovoltaics, RO: reverse osmosis, MD: membrane distilla-
to be managed properly, while the concentrate man-
tion, MED: multiple effect distillation, MSF: multi-stage flash agement options depend heavily on site characteristics
distillation, ED: electrodialysis, EDR: electrodialysis reversal. and the wastewater volume. These options typically
Source: Papapetrou et al. [9] include the following:

The technical and economical potential of renew- (1) deep well injection;
able energy (RE) resources vary significantly by coun- (2) evaporation pond;
try and region, across the globe. For instance, the (3) spray irrigation;
MENA region has very abundant solar potential, with (4) sewer;
large area availability, meaning that the MENA region (5) surface water, and
has a comparative advantage for solar applications (6) brine concentrator/zero liquid discharge (ZLD).
and especially concentrated solar power (CSP) [6,10].
In contrast, North European countries such as Den- Every concentrate management method has differ-
mark have a very good renewable potential for wind ent costs, benefits, environmental impacts and limita-
applications. The water production cost varies signifi- tions. The costs are highly dependent on the
cantly according to the type of RES-D and the water concentrate volume (see also Fig. 9).
type treated, as illustrated in Fig. 8. Even though costs The main characteristics of the above-mentioned
are prohibitive at the moment, cost reduction is antici- brine treatment and discharge methods are provided
pated due to technology improvements, learning in Table 4.
 6 D. Xevgenos et al. / Desalination and Water Treatment
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Fig. 7. Possible combinations of desalination processes with renewable processes. Adapted from [2].

Fig. 8. Range of cost for various RES-D technologies [12].

4.2. The SOL-BRINE system

of wastewater poses a significant management
ZLD desalination can provide a sustainable source problem, and critical problems to the discharge
of potable water. Desalination is an energy-intensive environments: the sea (for seashore desalination
process which produces a significant amount of plants) and underground aquifers (for inland desali-
wastewater: around 2 L of wastewater are generated nation plants). The United Nations Environment
for every litre of freshwater produced. This volume Programme (UNEP-MAP) has recognized the
 D. Xevgenos et al. / Desalination and Water Treatment 7

Table 2
Combinations between solar technologies and desalination

CSP
Desalination technique Thermal collectors Thermal Electrical PV Solar pond
SD
MEH
MD
TVC
MSF
MED
ED
MVC
RO
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Source: Papapetrou et al. [9]

Table 3
Selected plants for small RES-D applications

Desalination Renewable
Reference plants Capacity Site system technology Water cost Reference
Keio University 100 kg/d Yokohama, Japan MED Static Solar – [13]
Plant Collectors
Ebara plant 205 kg/d Gaza, Palestine MED Static Collectors & – [14]
PVs
Geroskipou Plant ~3 m3/d Paphos, Cyprus MEH Static Collectors 18 €/m3 [15]
PSA plant 72 m3/d Almeria, Spain MED CPC – [16]
Jeddah plant 5 m3/d Saudi Arabia MEH Static Collectors ~ 6 €/m3 [17]
Gran Canaria 480 l/d Gran Canaria MD Static Collectors – [18]
plant
Morocco plants 12– Morocco RO PV 3.99–7.01 [18]
24 m3/d €/m3
Ydriada plant 80 m3/d Greece RO Wind Turbine – [18]
Kimolos Plant 200 m3/d Kimolos Island, MED Geothermal [19]
Greece
Oyster Plant – Scotland RO Wave energy – [9]
Note: An in-depth analysis of these plants was carried out in the report titled “Report on the evaluation of desalination systems driven
by renewable energy sources: focus on solar energy systems used in different desalination applications” which was produced in the
framework of the SOL-BRINE project (available at: http://uest.ntua.gr/solbrine/uploads/files/Deliverable1.2.pdf).

problem of brine disposal as one of the major threats Sea (Posidonia Oceanica), which is protected under
to the Mediterranean Sea.2 More specifically, one of the Barcelona Convention, has been identified to be
the most significant seagrasses of the Mediterranean highly vulnerable to salinity changes and as a result
to brine exposure [20–22].
2 The SOL-BRINE project sought to eliminate water
“One of the two major, urgent threats to the Mediterranean
Sea environment is the pollution caused by the increased number pollution and environmental damage associated with
of desalination plants and the releases and the effects of brine to brine release, by introducing a new technique capable
the Mediterranean Sea”: part of the speech of the director, of achieving ZLD from desalination plants. The dem-
Ms Maria Luisa Silva Mejias to the launching conference onstration plant that is presented in this paper was
of the project “Governance & Financing for the Mediterra- installed in Tinos Island in Greece and is in operation
nean Water Sector” held in Barcelona on 28–29 May, 2013.
See also: http://ufmsecretariat.org/mediterranean-water- since January 2013. The plant has the capacity to treat
governance/. over 200 tonnes of brine per year and can lead to high
 8 D. Xevgenos et al. / Desalination and Water Treatment

distilled water of high quality and (b) dry salt.

Both products have increased market potential;
(4) Energy autonomous operation: solar thermal
collectors are used for delivering hot water
(delivered at 80˚C approximately) and a photo-
voltaic generator for electricity. All energy
requirements are covered exclusively through
the use of solar energy;
(5) Use of state-of the art technology: the evapora-
tion of water is realized through a custom
designed vacuum evaporation technology
(evaporator and crystallizer) and solar dryer.

The SOL-BRINE concept is summarized in the fol-

Fig. 9. Capital cost of different discharge methods versus
concentrate volume [6]. lowing Fig. 10.
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4.4. The SOL-BRINE system

recovery of resources, both water (recovery > 90%) and
dry salt (full recovery). In the course of the project, an innovative and
energy-autonomous (through solar energy) pilot sys-
tem was developed for the treatment of brine from an
4.3. The SOL-BRINE concept existing desalination plant. The system was installed
The overall scope was to develop an energy auton- in Tinos Island with a capacity of 2 m3/d (feed vol-
omous brine treatment system for the total elimination ume rate of brine effluent). It is able to treat a small
of the brine, so as to address effectively the complex portion (<1%) of the total quantity of brine effluent
issue of sustainable water management and desalina- produced from the desalination plant. The system
tion. The innovative features of the system include [5]: comprises three treatment stages: (a) an evaporator
unit, (b) a crystallizer unit and (c) a dryer unit.
(1) Total brine elimination: the system has been The prototype system has been tested thoroughly
designed in line with the ZLD principle; and the technology has been demonstrated at pilot
(2) Water recovery (>90%); scale. The system results are very promising and can
(3) Production of useful end products: through the be further exploited with its market uptake. The
operation of the prototype system, the results of the project are available via the project
following two products are produced: (a) website (http://uest.ntua.gr/solbrine).

Fig. 10. The SOL-BRINE concept [5].

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Table 4
Main characteristics of brine treatment and discharge methods [23,24]

Method Costs Land requirements Benefits Constraints

Surface discharge Low capital and O&M cost Small Can accommodate large Thermal pollution, reduction of dissolved
(Often Least Expensive option) volumes oxygen in receiving waters,
eutrophication, toxicity, pH increase and
damage of biota
Often requires a discharge permit
Sewer disposal Cost-effective, if existing Small Uses existing infrastructure Must meet sewer quality standards
sewage and treatment plants Lowers the BOD of the Can hamper the use of the treated
nearby resulting effluent sewage for irrigation
Overload existing capacity of the sewage
plant
Deep well injection Cost efficient for larger Land required for No marine impact expected Risk of groundwater pollution
volumes‘ injection wellfield No beneficial use of brine
High capital costs
Evaporation ponds High cost Large Possible commercial salt Only suitable in dry climates
exploitation Storage and distribution system needed
Low technological and Risk of soil and groundwater pollution
managing efforts
Land application Low economy of scale Large Can be used to irrigate salt- Suitable for smaller discharge flows
tolerant species
D. Xevgenos et al. / Desalination and Water Treatment

No marine impact expected Can increase the salinity of groundwater

and underlying soil
ZLD Expensive Large Can commercially exploit Energy-intensive process
concentrate
No marine impact expected
9
 10 D. Xevgenos et al. / Desalination and Water Treatment

5. Conclusions Seawater Desalination Plants (Doctoral Dissertation,

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now time to address the limitations of desalination
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