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Post-Truth in Social Media

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 Peer Reviewed Article

THE ARCHIVAL WORLD

Volume: 6 - Issue: 2

POST-TRUTH IN SOCIAL MEDIA

SOSYAL MEDYADA GERÇEK-ÖTESİ
Lect. Mehmet Oytun CİBAROĞLU
Bursa Technical University
[email protected]

Abstract
Due to the developments in information technologies in the last 20 years, social media is frequently used
especially for mobile devices for news announcement and follow-up. This has led to a large increase in the
number of information produced, too. Considering information/news sharing pages on social media around
the world and sharing/posting too much information or news, there are many news sources that need to be
verified after accessed. There is no accuracy filtering process in the dissemination of information on social
media and therefore, unverifiable news can affect the masses in a very short time. Nowadays, it is important
that users check the reality of such information in social media. In this study, it is tried to investigate how the
post-truth concept which the Oxford Dictionary has chosen as the word of the year in 2016 in social media. By
using keywords such as “post-truth”, “fake/false news”, “access to accurate information” and “the diffusion
of social media use” in the literature of “Information and Records Management”, “Management Information
Systems” and “Media and Communication” in international databases and journals; content analysis was
performed. At the end of the study, the implications of the institutions that developed various strategies to avoid
such news and information were included.

Keywords: Post-Truth, Fake News, Social Media, Lack of Information, Fact-Check

Öz
Son 20 yılda bilişim teknolojilerindeki gelişmelerin etkisiyle sosyal medya, haber duyurusu ve takibi için
özellikle mobil cihazlardam sıklıkla kullanılmaktadır. Bu durum, üretilen bilgi sayısında da büyük bir artışa
yol açmıştır. Dünya genelinde, sosyal medyadaki bilgi/haber paylaşımı yapan sayfaların, sayılamayacak kadar
çok bilgi veya haber paylaştığı düşünüldüğünde, erişildikten sonra doğrulanması gereken birçok haber
kaynağı bulunmaktadır. Sosyal medyadaki bilgilerin yayılımında, herhangi bir doğruluk filtrelemesi işlemi
bulunmamakta ve dolaysıyla doğruluğu ispatlanamayan haberler kitleleri çok kısa bir süre içinde
etkileyebilmektedir. Günümüzde sosyal medyada, kullanıcılar tarafından bu tür bilgilere yönelik "gerçeklik
kontrolü"nün yapılması önem arz etmektedir. Çalışmada, Oxford Sözlüğü’nün 2016’da yılın kelimesi olarak
seçtiği “gerçek-ötesi” kavramının sosyal medyada nasıl karşılık bulduğu araştırılmaya çalışılmıştır. “Gerçek-
ötesi”, “sahte/yalan haber”,“doğru bilgiye erişim” ve “sosyal medya kullanımın yayılması” gibi anahtar
kelimeler kullanılarak; Bilgi ve Belge Yönetimi, Yönetim Bilişim Sistemleri ile Medya ve İletişim
literatüründeki uluslararası veritabanlarından ve dergilerden yayınlara erişilmiş ve içerik analizi
gerçekleştirilmiştir. Çalışmanın sonunda, bu tür haber ve bilgilerden kaçınmada çeşitli stratejiler geliştiren
kurumların uygulamalarına yer verilmiştir.

Anahtar Kelimeler: Gerçek-Ötesi, Sahte Haber, Sosyal Medya, Bilgi Eksikliği, Gerçeklik Kontrolü

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Introduction
In recent years, the sources used for online information retrieval have started to vary. The
increase in the number of devices producing data and information has led to an increase in
the quantity of data and information. Therefore, the quality of retrieved information has
become more important. Today, the usage rate of mobile devices outstripped the rate of
desktops used in the context of SNSs (Social Network Site). A survey conducted in the
United States in 2018 showed that 58% of web sites were accessed via smartphones, while
42% of desktops were accessed (Enge, 2019). The survey can explain why social media use
is rising dramatically.
Besides, as Salgado (2018, p. 318) states, manufacturing and manipulating information to
achieve political goals is not nothing new in itself. Some political groups or routers try to
change some facts to create a specific domain and present it as news-bearing information. It
is called post-truth, which emerges as examples of further manipulations. Post-truth news
that are often confused with fake news is generally indistinguishable from social media users.
This study examines the implications of post-truth and emphasizes that fact-checks should
be undertaken to avoid such news and information. Besides, evaluations will be made on the
nature and effectiveness of the access to postings and news that provide accurate information
transfer through social media applications. This study was conducted through content
analysis as a result of the publications obtained from international databases and journals in
the Information and Records Management, Management Information Systems and Media
and Communication literature with the keywords “post-truth”, “fake news”, “true
information retrieval” and “diffusion of social media use”.
Social Media
Nowadays, the use of social media which separated from traditional way of communication
is growing increasingly day-by-day. Social media is defined in literature as a kind of “new
media” (Ying, 2012; Dilmen, 2014). All the definitions have a common phenomenon:
Digital media, which is interactive, incorporate and two-way communication and involve
some form of computing as opposed to “old media” such as telephone, radio and TV (Logan,
2010).
As Veltman (2006, p. 12) states, the revolution in new media, which most individuals assume
is only about computers and the Internet, is not really about computers as such it is about a
reorganization of all knowledge. For the first time in the 1970s, the concept of “new media”
that was introduced by researchers in information and communication, social, psychological,
economic and cultural studies is now being discussed in a different context: A Social Media
(Dilmen, 2014, p.3). The meaning of the term in the 1970s appears substantially different
from today. Thompson (1995, p. 24) indicates that the main subject is dramatical increase in
computer science and information technologies, especially with 1990s.
There are disputed claims as to who coined the term social media. According to Bercovici
(2010), the term appeared to emerge in the early 1990s in reference to emerging web-based
communication tools that facilitated online interaction. Over the past two decades, social
media has evolved from an obscure, yet novel form of communication to an increasingly
ubiquitous means of interaction, organizing, information gathering, and commerce. Yet as

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social media has grown to a multi-billion dollar sector of the global economy and become a
common term in daily lexicon, understanding the scope and nature of social media activity
has become more difficult to discern (Treem, Dailey, Pierce and Biffl, 2016). However, it is
still possible to make a simple definition: Social media is computer-mediated technologies
that facilitate the creation and sharing of information, ideas, career interests and other forms
of expression via virtual communities and networks (Obar and Wildman, 2015).
Some of the common characteristics of social media can be explained as below:
 Social media consists interactive Web 3.0 Internet-based applications,
 Has user-generated content such as text posts or comments, digital photos or
videos and data generated through all online interactions,
 Users can create service-specific profiles for the website or application that are
designed and maintained by the social media organization,
 Social media facilitate the development of online social networks by connecting
a user's profile with those of other individuals or groups (Garrigos-Simon,
Alcami and Ribera, 2012; Ellison and Boyd, 2007; Kaplan and Haenlein, 2010).
According to Solis and Breakenridge (2009), individuals have now become actors, not just
audiences or readers. Individuals are able to share their thoughts, ideas and experiences
around the world by using social media means.
Social media contains the online communication web sites and application channels
dedicated to community-based input, interaction, content sharing and collaboration. The
following are some broad categories for social media:
 Social Networks (Facebook, Twitter, Google+ etc.): These allow members to
share text, pictures, and videos. It also enables members to share news and
promotes meetings and projects with friends and groups.
 Business Networking (LinkedIn, Viadeo etc.): Allows business and professional
communication. A social media member could present an image of herself as a
key man/woman educator and network with other and/or potential members.
 Social Media by Interest Groups (Pinterest, Spotify, Instagram, YouTube,
TripAdvisor, Zynga and MyFitnessPal): These include music, photography,
video, travel, gaming, health, and fitness. This type of social media allows
members to share creative endeavours and advice. Members can generate interest
in educational topics and activities, programs, and achievements
(Communications & Publicity, 2017).
With the rise of social media use, it can be easily seen that social networks participate in the
process of producing and disseminating news. News or events that have the potential to
influence the masses can pass through within a very short period from the spark to the fire.
Social media users, who now have joined the news production process, undoubtedly use the
right to freedom of thought and expression. Of course, we cannot expect that every social
media user share news or event in the manner of truth, non-objective, ethical etc. Therefore,
as Rochlin mentioned (2017), the facts and evidence have been replaced by personal beliefs
and emotions, the nature of the news and the things people accept as news, have shifted to a
place of belief and emotion. The reality of this period is the post-truth.
In this case, the following question should be asked: Why is such manipulated news or

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information spreading rapidly in social media? The answer was given in the previous section,
and is due to the dramatic advance of information technologies. Graphics 1 and 2 provide a
better understanding of these causes.

Graphic 1. Cellularphone vs Computer Use

(Source: Roser, Ritche and Ortiz-Ospina, 2019)

In Graphic 1, cellular phone and internet usage started in the same year; 1994 and the same
rate, 10%; while smartphone use started to grow up from 2010. It can be easily seen from
the graph, that smartphone usage increased more than two fold in ten years, while computer
usage doubled approximately in twenty years. In parallel, social media and smartphone usage
grew at pretty much the same rate. One important point evident in the graph is that social
media usage existed before smartphones, usage mostly was from computers.

Graphic 2. Number of People Using Social Media Platforms

(Source: Roser, Ritche and Ortiz-Ospina, 2019)

Graphic 1 and Graphic 2 both illustrate that there are some major social media sites, such as
Facebook, YouTube and WhatsApp that have been in operation for about 10 years or more;
but other newer sites also exist. For example, TikTok was launched in September 2016 and
has already reached half a billion users by mid-2018. To put this in perspective, TikTok
earned an average of 20 million new users per month during the period from 2004 to 2008,

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MySpace was a close competitor of Facebook, but by 2011, they had hardly possessed any
market share. The same also applies to You Tube.

The Concept of Post-Truth

The term “post-truth” was named word of the year in 2016 by the Oxford Dictionary and
defined as "Relating to or denoting circumstances in which objective facts are less influential
in shaping public opinion than appeals to emotion and personal belief.” The term was first
used in 1992 in his article “A Government of Lies” in The Nation by the Serbian-American
playwright Steve Tesich. It describes a political setting whereby debate is framed by appeals
to emotion with repeated assertion of half-truths and outright lies whose factual rebuttals are
ignored (Tesich, 1992, p. 12-13; Grech, 2017, p. 118).

Figure 1: First Use of Term “Post-Truth”

(Source: Google Trends, 2018)

Google Trends1 search on “post-truth” showed that from January 2004 to present,
individuals searched about the term “post-truth” in general but there are two high peaks in
the timeline: The first, was in January 2012 and the second was in November 2016. It is
known that in 2016, the USA Presidency Election took place and Brexit also generated
queries. However, the figure shows that in November 2016, the term “post-truth” hit its
highest search score. Parmar (2012, p. 4) indicates findings on a few real policy differences
between two main parties who have both embraced a “post-truth politics”.
One of the conceptual approaches regarding “post-truth” is defined by Savolainen (2007,
p.122). He claims that the social constructionist paradigm puts emphasis on social practices,
the concrete situated activities of interacting people, reproduced in routine social contexts
across time and space. Focusing on practices rather than behaviour means that the analysis
shifts from the cognitive to the social and is consistent with the study of information seekers
in their social context. Social constructivism is based on specific assumptions about reality,
knowledge, and learning. Social constructivists contend that reality is constructed through

1 Google Trends: A Google service provides an index of the volume of Google queries by geographic location and category.

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human activity. Members of a society together invent the properties of the world (Hjorland
and Albrechtsen 1995; Talja, Tuominen and Savolainen, 2005; Olsson 2013).
Thus, the behaviour of information seeking depends on communications between society or
individuals and desire of gaining information. This absolutely presents a dilemma. Thanks
to communication technologies, information spreads faster but its content and context cannot
be controlled. It is the main problem of the current digital age.
As Hopkin and Rosamond (2017) and Oxford Dictionaries (2016) mentioned even the term
is known for years, since 2016, the election of Donald Trump to the American Presidency
and the successful campaign to leave from the EU in the United Kingdom are the two most
widely discussed examples of this concept. In addition, Oxford Dictionary has detected a
spike in frequency in the context of the EU referendum in the United Kingdom and the
presidential election in the United States. It has also become associated with a particular
noun, in the phrase “post-truth politics”.

Fake News vs Post-Truth

The term “post-truth “is sometimes confused with the term “fake news”. Hunt (2017)
defined fake news as disinformation and hoaxes published on websites for political purposes
or to drive web traffic and the incorrect information being passed along by social media. The
term “fake news” was first used in 1889 from a Polish newspaper “Ameryka” in Toledo,
OH, USA. It was used like a motto to take adverts.

Figure 2: First Use of Term “fake news”

(Source: Chronicling America, 1889)

However, as a newspaper article, it was first used in 1890 from “Daily Tobacco Leaf-
Chronicle” in TN, USA.

Figure 3: Use of Term “fake news” as a Newspaper Article

(Source: Chronicling America, 1890)

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Although there is a connection between “post-truth” and “fake news”, there are sharp
differences. According to Corner (2017, p. 1100), “post-truth” is a self-consciously grand
term of epochal shift. As Schlesinger (2017, p. 603) pointed out, despite its limitations, its
rise as an idea “has signalled a perception of change both in how the public domain is
constituted and in the conduct of major protagonists in the media-political sphere”. “Fake
news”, however, seems a snappy identifier of a kind of a fraudulent media product (the
negative judgement and the sense of intention are even stronger than with) and it carries far
less by way of philosophical baggage (Corner, 2017, p. 1101).
As Duranti said (2017) while fake news involving propaganda and misinformation dates to
the sensationalist journalism of the late 1800s, social media is always on connectivity allows
erroneous information to circulate at rapid rates, extended by distribution channels that
favour algorithm-based populism over traditionally trusted sources.
One of the most famous pieces of “fake news,” can be attributed to the Google Nose Service.
It was announced to the world in 2013 that the company activated the “Google Nose” service.
It was claimed that the smell of objects and food could be sensed by getting closer to the
screen (Google Nose, n.d.). People were curious about how the system worked. When food
and beverages, locker rooms, airports, and many more are searched on Google, after clicking
the “smell” button on the right side of screen, Google requires that the nose zooms in as
close to the screen as possible, and that the “enter” button is then pressed when ready.
Therefore, it specifies that the smell of an object or situation can be identified. They claimed
that the “mobile aroma indexing program” at the heart of the product has amassed a “15
million scentibyte database of smells from around the world.” As Goldberg indicates,
millions of people have tried to smell by pulling their noses on screen without questioning
the truth-value of this news. Moreover, nobody had ever thought that it might be an April
fools prank.

Post-Truth in Social Media

“Post-truth” news is fed by the peddling of fake news and journalism activities, which is
comprised of deliberate misinformation or hoaxes. Notwithstanding the fact that these
activities and news are made by whom, those who deal with issues related to the politics
(especially government officials, columnists, etc.) generally do not hesitate to offer fake
news in order to maintain their assets in a strong way. According to Lewandowsky, Ecker
and Cook (2017), during the 2016 U.S. presidential campaign, independent fact checker
PolitiFact2 judged 70% of all statements by Donald Trump to be false or mostly false. There
are hundreds of example about Trump’s statements such as:
 Barack Obama was not born in the US,
 Obama spent $4m in legal fees to hide the true facts of his birth, that Hillary
Clinton was the true originator of these birther claims,
 Mr. Trump started his business empire with a small loan from his father, in fact
he inherited $40m (Freedland, 2016).
Similar statements were seen before the referendum on Britain's exit from the European
Union (Brexit). Such claims were:

2 PolitiFact: A fact-checking website that rates the accuracy of claims by elected officials and others on its Truth-O-Meter.

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 £350 million a week is sent to the EU and it would be transferred to the National
Health Service (NHS) instead of sending it to EU,
 Net migration to the UK had hit 333,000,
 Turkey and other candidate countries joining the EU (Forsyth and Nelson, 2018;
Cooper, 2016).
These statements and claims spread in social media with incredible speed. Such news and
statements show us that from the moment when social media emerged in the life, doubts
about the reliability of information have reached the highest level upon both increase of
various applications in this area and use of them by the majority of the population (Johnson,
2017; Levine, 2017; Post-Truth, 2017; Miroshnichenko, 2017). It is no wonder anymore that
showing anything on any subject which did not happen as if it happened and spreading it
through as news and making it popular in agenda with feedbacks of people who might get
affected by the related news, in a manner to be indignant. Ball notes that (2017) as a main
result of this ecology, the BBC or the New York Times are not so much focused on as the
Facebook status or the American Patriot Daily3 is taken into consideration.
How to Avoid Fake News?
Through the use of social media, especially sites such as Facebook and Twitter, emotions,
thoughts and requests have been openly shared by ordinary people. In addition, individuals
see social media as both a source of news and news-producing portal. The videos that users
record, the texts they write or the way they think can now reach to tens of thousands or even
millions within seconds. It is a point in truth, that every word people write or every photo
they share is not a reflection of the absolute true.
The latest figures reveal that with 330 million active Twitter (Number of monthly active
Twitter users, 2019) and approximately 2.5 billion Facebook users per month (Number of
monthly active Facebook users, 2019), acceptance or approval of shared news or views that
include supportive evidence exists or not, will have a very strong impact. A news or opinion
that appears initially false can turn into believable depending on the pace of propagation. If
so, can hundreds and thousands people believing in the same news prevent the check of its
reality? In today's social media, it is critical quite feasible to engage in a "fact check". In
other words, the confirmation of the news by the masses makes content correct and the only
criterion for news to be true is the size of the masses who believe in that news. In the
decision-making process of approval, the role played by the information and the information
satisfaction are extremely important can be seeing at this point, independent from the
accuracy of the information (Köseoğlu, 2010, p. 92). In the context of decision-making, for
example, Yalçınkaya et al. (2018) found that the students do not trust information online and
they are aware of post-truth information and how fast it can spread online. They believe that
people do not give correct information about themselves on social media. The rate of belief
on the difference between the reality on social media and the reality that we live is reasonably
high according to the research findings. Students also believe that the spread of information
online is faster.
Due to the power of social media, the facts become flexible that everyone can bend as they
pleased. The truth can be falsified if it is evaluated partially rather than entirely. The main

3 American Patriot Daily: A conservative news and opinion website

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problem here is not from an objective point of view but from the most useful point of view
in the personal sense. Thus, Facebook published an ad how to avoid post-truth or fake news
for all people. It includes:
 Approach headlines with caution,
 Look closely at the Internet address (URL),
 Investigate the source,
 Pay attention to whether the font is unusual,
 Look over the photos,
 Review the dates,
 Check the evidence,
 Look at the other news sources and think is the news a joke. (Facebook…, 2017).
By this move, Facebook seems to want to make people aware of unfounded news and fake
videos, end up using unfounded news and videos that have increased especially after 2016
in the digital platform in recent years. Germany also has set to start enforcing a law that
demands social media sites move quickly to remove hate speech, fake news and illegal
materials (Germany starts enforcing hate speech law, 2018). Besides, In the United States,
Ela Area Public Library recommends and elaborates some strategies to avoid groundless
news such as:
 Check the date
 Check the by-line
 Evaluate the tone
 Reverse image search
 Reverse video search
 Check the URL
 Evaluate crazy claims
 Is it satire, a joke, or maybe April Fools’ Day-related?
 Google search something on the page you’re not sure about
 Avoid or ignore appeals to emotion
 Use a fact checking website
 Know the parts of a webpage
 Don’t click, like, share, comment, or engage with spam content
 Watch out for personalization
 Clear out cookies
 Opt out of personalization (Ela Area Public Library, n.d.)

Conclusion
The new media concept that emerged in the 1970s has become virtualized by social media
and interpersonal communication that is formed by the transformation of information
technologies into communication networks. In addition to the formation of too many social
networks over time, online interactions have become much more preferred. Thus, it caused
the facts and evidence have been replaced by personal beliefs and emotions. We are living
in information age and truths has replaced into lies, which named the era “post-truth”
(Living in a Post-Truth World, 2016).
Although fake news and information for propaganda appeared in the 1800s, the term was

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first used by Steve Tesich in 1992. It has been linked to unfounded news in politics over
time. The term “post-truth” which was selected as the word of 2016 by Oxford Dictionary,
is using as relating to or denoting circumstances in which objective facts are less influential
in shaping public opinion than appeals to emotion and personal belief. The term has become
a current issue during 2016 U.S. presidential election and the Brexit referendum. It may be
thought especially Facebook, Twitter and various blogs played a key role to spread fake
news to millions of users. However, it may not only reason. How Facebook's algorithms
work is also thought to be effective in people's choices. However, this discourse is thought
to be more effective for voters who have not developed new media literacy and do not have
knowledge of how they can confirm a story they are facing on social media.
Trump stated that Facebook and Twitter helped him to win the elections and that power in
social media was an effective tool without spending much money in elections (McCormick,
2016). Actually, he was not wrong at all. So what have to be done to overcome these forces
and their struggles in the social media? According to Mozur and Scott (2016), the
architecture or design of social media platforms should be developed to question the ethical
issue. Algorithms may be transparent. Therefore, the interested citizens can really
understand what is happening with the media behaviour of himself and others, so that there
is no perception disorder in the individuals. In other words, public life mentality and civil
responsibility should be coded into the algorithms. These algorithms should be as transparent
as we can see the rules governing what passes through filters. Trump’s victory and Brexit
success are the best proofs how statements and postings affect people.
Finally, it must not forgotten that creating the network we desire means creating the future
we desire. This is because thinking our freedoms on the internet differently from our real life
freedoms will cause us to be unable to perceive the problems that we have experienced on
the internet as technical problems in a way that lacks a holistic viewpoint.

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