1.

HOW DO WE MITIGATE CORROSION: -

1.1 Methods for Corrosion Protection

1.1.1 Using Nobel Metals (Platinum /Gold / Graphite /Titanium / silver

/Stainless Steel / Nickel / Copper / Nickel / Tin etc.)
Carbon steel is typically the material of choice for the construction of long distance transmission
pipelines for petrochemicals, crude oil, products and gas. This is due to the versatile engineering
properties of carbon steels and their relatively low cost compared with other materials. However, the
external surfaces of the pipeline need to be protected from corrosion under atmospheric, buried or
immersed conditions to ensure the long-term integrity of the pipeline over its full design life.

1.1.2 Keeping the pipeline / structure above ground

General practice for the pump stations and related facilities is to construct above ground and most of
the station piping are preferable above ground. Therefore, the electrolyte for passing the current is not
available and thus, it does not require cathodic protection.
1.1.3 Providing Insulation / Coating on the structure / pipeline .

Insulating joints can be used at the changing environmental location to avoid inter pipeline sectional
corrosion by breaking the conductor path – but this has got limited usage.

Coatings normally are intended to form a continuous film of an electrically insulating material over the
metallic surface to be protected. The function of such a coating is to isolate the metal from direct
contact with the surrounding electrolyte. And to interpose such a high electrical resistance that the
electrochemical reactions cannot readily occur.

The most cost-effective means of providing external protection for buried carbon steel pipelines is to
apply a good quality anti-corrosion coating supplemented by the application of cathodic protection to
protect areas where the coating may become damaged. The objective is for the coating to provide
the primary means of corrosion protection, with secondary protection provided by the cathodic
protection system, but overall the two methods of corrosion control provide a complementary and
synergistic corrosion control system.

2. EFFECTIVENESS OF COATINGS FOR CORROSION CONTROL

Many coating systems have been used historically for pipeline protection, but the susceptibility of the
coating system to damage during transport and pipe laying, its susceptibility to deterioration/damage
in the soil during pipeline operation, and the overall integrity of the coating can have a significant
effect on the requirements of the pipeline cathodic protection system.

NACE standard RE0169-96 section 5: coatings, is a comprehensive guide to pipe coatings. This
standard lists the following desirable characteristics of coatings:
1. Effective electrical insulator – Corrosion is an electrochemical process, a pipe coating has to
stop the current flow by isolating the pipe from its installed environment /electrolyte. To assure
a high electrical resistance, the coating should have high dielectric strength.
2. Effective moisture barrier – Water transfer through the coating may cause blistering and will
contribute to corrosion by prohibiting isolation.
3. Applicability – Application of coating to pipe must be possible by a method that will not
adversely affect the properties of the pipe and with a minimum of defects.
4. Ability to resist development of holidays with time – After the coating is buried; two areas that
may destroy or degrade coatings are soil stress and soil contaminants. Soil stress, brought
about in certain soils that are alternately wet and dry, creates forces that may split or cause
thin areas. To minimize this problem, one must evaluate the coating absorption resistance.
5. Good adhesion to pipe surface – The pipe coating requires sufficient adhesion to prevent
water ingress or migration between the coating and the pipe, along with cohesion to resist
handling and soil stress. Soil stress is the main cause of pipe coating failure. “ Soil stress
effects can be seen on flexible PE coatings with elastomeric adhesive as a characteristic
wrinkling. However, other types of coatings can fail by blistering fusion bonded epoxy (FBE) or
fatigue cracking coal tar enamel (CTE) that is exacerbated by soil movement.
6. Ability to withstand normal handling, storage and installation – The ability of a coating to
withstand damage is a function of its impact, abrasion and flexibility properties. Pipe coatings
are subject to numerous handling between application and backfill.
7. Ability to maintain substantially constant electrical resistivity with time.
8. Resistance to disbonding.
 9. Ease of repair – because the perfect pipe coating does not exist , we can expect to make
some field repairs as well as field coating of the weld area.
10. Non-toxic interaction with the environment
3. IMPACT OF COATING SELECTION ON CP REQUIREMENTS
Many coating systems have been used historically for pipeline protection, but the susceptibility of the
coating system to damage during transport and pipe laying, its susceptibility to deterioration/damage
in the soil during pipeline operation, and the overall integrity of the coating can have a significant
affect on the requirements of the pipeline cathodic protection system.

In general terms, the current density requirements of the pipeline will be lower for more
modern, higher integrity coating systems, which will lead to lower capital cost for cathodic
protection equipment and lower operating costs. Consequently, the selection of the coating
system can have a significant affect on the whole-of-life pipeline costs.
4. LINEPIPE COATING OPTIONS

The six most common types of external pipeline coating applied to buried hydrocarbon pipelines in
recent years are noted below:

 Tape Wrap System.

 Extruded Polyethylene Over Mastic (EPM).

 Fusion Bonded Epoxy (FBE).

 3 Layer Polyethylene (3LPE).

 Coal Tar Enamel (CTE).

 Liquid Epoxy coating.

4.1 Tape Wrap

Tape wrap external linepipe coatings have been discounted for use on the Project, as they are
inappropriate for a number of reasons:

 Tape wrap coating on large diameter pipelines exhibits a susceptibility to failure by soil stress and
soil loading. This causes cracking of the tape at the crown and wrinkling of the tape in the lower
quadrants.

 Tape coatings are only more economic than extruded polyethylene over mastic coatings if the
tape coating is applied over the ditch and over a wire brushed pipe surface. If the pipe is coated in
 a plant over blast cleaned steel surface, then the tape is more expensive due to the cost of tape
manufacture compared with the simple raw materials used in extruded polyethylene over mastic
coatings. The lack of a blast-cleaned surface with over the ditch coating can render the pipe
susceptible to stress corrosion cracking, and significantly reduces the cathodic disbonding
resistance and adhesion of the tape to the pipe. Coating over the ditch and over a wire brushed
surface may be appropriate for short service-life pipelines, but not for a pipeline with a longer
design life.

4.2 Extruded Polyethylene over Mastic (EPM)

EPM has been discounted for use on the Project, as it is inappropriate for a number of reasons:

 During construction under high ambient temperature conditions the mastic sealant will flow from
areas of local compressive stress. Such stresses occur between pipes while the pipe is
stockpiled, is resting on bearers above the ground, and on installation into the trench. The mastic
flow can result in areas of no mastic between the steel and polyethylene. If the polyethylene is
damaged at the location, corrosion may occur due to shielding of the cathodic protection.

 The pipeline is designed to operate at temperatures of up to 60 C. This is too high for extruded
polyethylene over mastic coatings. There will be creep of the mastic away from local compressive
stresses in the trench over a period of time. The mastic creep can result in areas of no mastic
between the steel and the polyethylene. If the polyethylene is damaged at this location, as may
occur due to the stone in the trench that caused the initial compressive stress, corrosion may
occur due to shielding of the cathodic protection.

 Extruded polyethylene over mastic coatings is not suited to large diameter pipelines. The coating
performs best at diameters less than 300 mm. The adhesion of the coating to the pipe is via
mastic, which is not a particularly strong bond. The good performance of the coating on small
diameter pipe is due to the curvature of the pipe providing intimate contact between the pipe and
the coating. On large diameter pipe, the reduced pipe curvature reduces the contact pressure
between pipe and coating, especially as the residual compressive stress in the coating relaxes.
This leads to a higher susceptibility to soil stress damage, and a higher probability of cathodic
protection shielding at coating defects.
4.3 Coal Tar Enamel (CTE)

CTE coatings are still applied infrequently in parts of the world and can represent a cost advantage
when compared directly with FBE and 3LPE on material costs. However, CTE has been discounted
for use on the project, even when applied over a blast-cleaned surface, as they are inappropriate for a
number of reasons:

 Whilst CTE coatings have provided adequate performance for medium life pipelines, they tend to
degrade with time requiring a significant increase in cathodic protection current for long life
pipelines. In general terms, the current density requirement for CTE is an order of magnitude
greater than for FBE coated pipe and two orders of magnitude greater than for 3LPE-coated pipe.
In areas where cathodic protection interference is a problem, or where the pipe is in a rock
environment limiting cathodic protection current access, it may not be possible to apply the
required additional cathodic protection current.

 CTE is susceptible to fatigue cracking, which is exacerbated by soil movement and soil stress.

 Coal tar is carcinogenic and during its application it is difficult to avoid personnel exposure to its
fumes. There is a similar exposure if joint coating and/or coating repairs are carried out with coal
tar enamel.

 Over the life of the pipeline any coating repair that may require blast cleaning, or heating of the
pipe, may lead to exposure to the carcinogen.

4.4 Fusion Bonded Epoxy (FBE)

The Fusion Bonded Epoxy coating system (FBE) is a single layer thin (400 micron) coating that is
formed by spraying epoxy powder onto the prepared and heated pipe surface.

FBE coatings have excellent adhesion and chemical resistance. They also have good compatibility
with cathodic protection systems, since they provide high resistance to Cathodic disbondment and do
not shield cathodic protection current. FBE coatings are, however, very sensitive to application
conditions, have poor resistance to sharp impacts due to their thin and brittle nature, and have a
propensity to absorb moisture.
The quality control of the powder, pipe surface, humidity and application environment are critical
parameters and must be controlled at all times. A crucial aspect during coating application is the
foaming level, or porosity, of the coating. High foaming levels create excessive pores in the coating
and reduce coating density, which can lead to water penetration problems, softness of the coating,
and a poor surface when preparing for overlapping coatings.

Most weld joint coatings can normally be made; but an emphasis is required on the pre-preparation of
a feathered surface on the FBE where the joint coating will overlap.

4.4.1 Advantages of FBE pipe coatings

Advantages of FBE pipe coatings are as follows:

 It provides a well-proven, cost effective and excellent coating under most conditions.

 It provides excellent adhesion to the pipe surface.

 It has good resistance to cathodic disbonding providing that close control of pipeline potentials
can be maintained.

 It will allow use of an FBE weld-joint coating, which will provide a continuous single coating along
the pipeline.

 It absorbs water allowing cathodic protection current to flow through the coating, although at a
high resistance. This provides resistance to stress corrosion cracking of the steel and cathodic
protection shielding.

4.4.2 Disadvantages of FBE pipe coatings

 The coating is susceptible to impact and abrasion damage under the following conditions:

 During transport, particularly in dry dusty areas where grit may be blown between surfaces that
have relative movement.

 During transport where the pipe may be exposed to stones being thrown up by vehicle tyres.

 Whilst strung along the ROW where vehicles moving along the construction road may throw up
stones.

 During lowering into rock trenches where the pipe may impact against a rock trench wall.

 During backfilling operations, particularly in rocky or stony country.

 The coating is susceptible to blistering and disbondment, particularly in moist soils and where it is
difficult to control cathodic protection potentials, as may occur with telluric affects.

 Coating defects are repaired with a liquid epoxy coating. Due to time constraints, and the general
coating damage caused by spot blast cleaning, defects are usually repaired with a hand filing
preparation and not blast cleaning. This can lead to reduced performance and the repairs can fail
over time.
 Coating repair material may take an hour or more to cure, thus due to time constraints during pipe
laying, the repair coating may be backfilled in the trench whilst it is still wet. Such coating repairs
can fail.

4.5 3 Layer Polyethylene (3LPE)

The 3LPE coating has the highest rate of usage increase of all the pipeline coatings (ref 1). The
coating system comprises an FBE primer coating applied to the pipe surface, followed by a hot-
extruded co-polymer adhesive layer and then an extruded outer polyethylene layer which bonds to
form the 3 layers of a monolithic coating. The coating system therefore inherits the benefits of the
strong adhesive characteristic of FBE combined with the tough defect resistance of the outer
polyethylene coating.

The coating has proven to be very damage resistant to normal handling situations and minor backfill
impurities, however the normal principles of trying to protect all coatings must still be applied as it can
still be damaged by continued abrasion, or impact, from hard substances or surfaces.

Different densities of polyethylene can be used in 3LPE coating systems, namely low density (LDPE),
medium density (MDPE) and high density (HDPE). These densities, together with the molecular
weight and other additives, determine the physical properties of the material and the required
thickness to provide adequate pipeline protection. This is discussed in more detail in Appendix A.

A summary of the advantages and disadvantages of 3LPE coatings is provided below.

4.5.1 Advantages of 3LPE Coatings

Advantages of 3 Layer Polyethylene (3LPE) coating include:

 The 3LPE coating has been designed to combine the best advantages of FBE and EPM coatings,
without the disadvantages of either:

 3LPE has an FBE primer which gives it excellent adhesion and excellent cathodic
disbondment resistance, without the FBE sensitivity to abrasion, impact damage, moisture
pick up and blistering during pipeline operation, and blistering during joint coating.

 3LPE has the PE bonded to the FBE, and not just applied over mastic. Thus it is tougher and
more resistant to mechanical damage than EPM coatings and does not have their
disadvantages of coating movement prior to laying in hot climates, coating shrink back on
application of heat shrink sleeves, susceptibility to mechanical damage, service cracking of the
PE, limited exposure temperature during stockpiling, laying and operation, and exhibiting
cathodic protection shielded geometry when damaged.
 The FBE primer, and the strong bond of the adhesive between the FBE and the PE, prevent
cathodic protection shielding effects and stress corrosion cracking

4.5.2 Disadvantages of 3LPE Coatings

Disadvantages of 3 Layer PE pipe coatings include:

 There are no inherent performance problems with a 3 Layer PE coating other than its cost and the
increased application complexity of some of the joint and repair coating systems.

4.6 Liquid Epoxy coating

• Liquid Epoxy is mostly used for internal coating for pipelines.

• can be applied as a paint or spray.
• So far not well known for external coating for pipelines
• for application manufacturers specifications must be strictly followed (surface cleaning,
preparation and time of curing and overcoat.)

5. CONCEPTS FOR COATING SELECTION AND APPLICATIONS

 Selection of the best coating and proper application are very important
 CP must be supplement the coating for 100 % protection.
 Sufficient test shall be required to carry out for checking the integrity of coating.
 The current requirement for CP is the best measure of coating performance.
 Optimum coating thickness is important.
 Soil stress shall be considered in coating selection.
 Proper application is most important consideration.
o A major cause of pipeline coating failure is improper application. The applicator shall
be evaluated considering: Experience, Reputation, Reliability, and Conformance to
coating manufacturer’s requirement, modern automated equipments and Quality
control.

Although coatings by themselves may not be the one perfect answer to corrosion control, they are
extremely effective when properly used. A properly selected and applied coating will provide all the
protection necessary on most of the pipeline surface to which it is applied, on a typical well-coated
pipeline this should be better than 99% and, along with the CP, should give total protection.
Although coatings by them selves may not be the one perfect answer to corrosion control, they are
extremely effective when properly used. A properly selected and applied coating will provide all the
protection necessary on most of the pipeline surface to which it is applied, on a typical well-coated
pipeline this should be better than 99% and, along with the CP, should give total protection.

600

500
Application cost

400

300

200

100

% Accuracy of coating