DURABILITY ISSUE FOR SFRC PRECAST SEGMENT IN

TUNNELLING APPLICATION
Benoit de Rivaz
NV Bekaert, France

SYNOPSIS
This paper is meant primarily for those who are active in construction (Clients,
Contractors, Consulting Engineers, Construction Firms), more specifically in the field of
underground structures constructed by mechanical excavation using tunnel boring
machines.
Its aim is to familiarize the reader with the behaviour of steel fibre reinforced concrete
(SFRC), and to draw his attention to the specificities of this product when applied to
lining rings in precast segments to provide durability and allow design for 100 years
service life.
1. INTRODUCTION
Precast concrete segmental lining have been traditionally designed in the past with
conventional steel bar. In many cases, this has been satisfactory in service, but in others
major problems occurred with durability of the linings. Commonly this has resulted from
corrosion of the reinforcement, mainly from chlorides in ground water, causing spalling
of the concrete and leading very expensive and disruptive repairs. The fibre provide long
term durability, impact resistance and toughness for greater load capacity across joint,
enhanced robustness during transportation and erection, plus improved fire resistance
with the addition of polipropylene fibre.
Durability is a key requirement today. Cost induced due to durability problem is a huge
amount. So designing for a120-year life is becoming a leading design day by day. Thats
why the use of SFRC is a continuous trend.
2. SFRC DURABILITY STATE OF THE ART
Protection of the steel against corrosion calls for a coating thickness that may be quite
important.
The concrete is therefore not reinforced over a certain thickness. The concentration of
stresses toward the middle layer between segments and rings induces important risks of
spalling in the coating zone on the periphery of the segment. The increased mechanical
impact resistance of the corners of SFRC segments, in particular during handling and
installation, significantly reduces the number of elements to be scrapped (Fig.1).

Figure 1: Spalling effect-tempory load

When addressing the durability of an SFRC, the first thing that comes to mind is the
potential corrosion of the steel fibres and the loss of mechanical capacity induced by this
corrosion.
The state of the art provides an unambiguous answer to this question: as far as the control
of corrosion problems is concerned, SFRCs are far more durable than reinforced
concrete.
Two different cases are to be distinguished in the analysis of corrosion of steel fibres and
its consequences:
The case where the fibre does not pass through a crack opening at the surface
The case where the fibre passes through a crack opening at the surface
2.1 Case where the fibre does not pass through a crack opening at the surface
Normally, the concrete ensures the protection of the fibres against corrosion. The degree
of protection provided by the concrete to the fibres mainly depends on the compactness
of the concrete or, in other words, its porous structure, and the coating thickness of the
fibres.
The SFRC formulation principles imply that the addition of fibres to the concrete is
imperatively accompanied by a modification of the granular skeleton of the concrete.
This modification basically consists in increasing the quantity of cement, and the sandgravel ratio when the percentage of fibres increases. These two modifications combine to
produce an SFRC that is as compact as possible, in which the fibres are satisfactorily
coated so as not to touch each other.
Should any corrosion still occur, it will be limited to the steel fibres located near the
surface of the SFRC.
The main effect of this surface corrosion is the formation of rust stains on the facing of
the structure. It should be noted that:
In the case of steel fibres, only a very limited number of oxides are formed because of
the very small cross sections involved
The corrosion products, limited in number, induce porosity plugging at the surface
which can only slow down surface corrosion of the SFRC It should be stressed that
the rust staining problem can be virtually eliminated
By optimising the formulation of the SFRCs. These are sufficiently rich in cement
paste to prevent any outcrop of fibre at the surface. In this respect, the best technical
solution is the use of self-placing SFRC
By using steel fibres having improved resistance to corrosion, such as galvanised
steel and stainless steel fibres
By using non-metallic formwork (so as not to generate electrostatic forces that attract
the fibres at the surface) or, for instance, formwork covered with a synthetic fabric

2.2. Case where the fibre passes through a crack opening at the surface
This case is sensitive to the potential mechanical consequences of fibre corrosion.
All studies conducted on this subject point to the same conclusion: for crack openings
less than or equal to 150 m, which constitute a threshold that should not be exceeded in
the case of structures exposed to a very aggressive environment, the steel fibres are not
subject to corrosion that adversely affects the mechanical properties of the SFRCs.
Particular case of mixed structures in which the reinforced concrete reinforcements and
the steel fibres constitute the reinforcements.
It is important to note that, in service conditions, the cracks are much less open and more
tortuous in a mixed structure than in a reinforced concrete only structure. This implies
that it is much more difficult for aggressive agents to reach the reinforcements in a mixed
structure.
Secondary
Friction
Compre

Figure 2: Crack propagation

Seconda

The crack cicatrization and fouling mechanisms referred to earlier can more easily occur
in a mixed structure than in reinforced concrete only structure.
Despite that, many applications have to be designed for crack width. For instance, an
estimation of the expected crack width has to be given to prevent corrosion of rebars or
esthetical damage, ensure water tightness or protect the environment from dangerous
substances. In these cases steel fibres can contribute significantly to reduce crack width
and/or to reduce the amount of required minimum reinforcement.
In short:
There are no mechanically harmful corrosion problems within SFRC structures
Mixed structures, i.e. reinforcements plus fibres, are less subject to corrosion than
reinforced concrete only structures
3. RESEARCH PROGRAM EXAMPLE BRITE EURAM PROJECT:
The corrosion resistance of steel fibres in uncracked concrete has been proven to be good.
Many authors [1,2,3] have stated that, even when exposed to seawater, only fibres
situated directly at the surface show corrosion and this corrosion does not penetrate into
the concrete.
The objective of this subtask was to investigate the corrosion of steel fibres in a cracked
fibre reinforced concrete. It is often felt that steel fibres show a better corrosion resistance
under circumstances where conventional reinforcement shows already severe corrosion.
Although other authors also observe corrosion for steel fibres in cracked concrete, it is
the intention of this research that was to quantify the amount of corrosion and to assess
the durability of the fibres in a cracked situation.

The main conclusions are the following:

No decrease in strength after 18 months of exposure, independent of exposure
conditions
Rusty fibres could be found in the non-cracked concrete only directly at the
surface, in the carbonated zone. Galvanised fibres at the surface do not show
staining
Zinc coated fibres show a positive effect towards corrosion resistance: no staining
at the surface and no corrosion of the steel could be seen yet although the zinc
layer at some places was disappeared
The crack width up to 0.5 mm seems to have no adverse effect on corrosion
4. CASE STUDIES
4.1 CTRL
One of the most high profile and well publicized project to use steel fibre reinforced
segmental linings is the Channel Tunnel Rail link (CTRL or High Speed 1 as it is now
know). The rail line was officially opened on the 14th November 2007 and completes the
rail link between Paris and London. Section 2 of the CTRL comprised 4 main running
tunnels total 40 km with a 7,15 m diameter and a lining thickness of 350 mm. The ring
consisted of 9 segments plus a key. One key design criteria for the lining is a design life
of 120 years. Therefore, durability was an important reason for choosing steel fibre
reinforced concrete over the conventional rebar.

Figure 3: Segment manufacturing on CTRL project

The segments were manufactured at 3 purpose built manufacturing plants. Contracts 320
& 250 used static mould plants and contracts 220 & 240 were supplied from one carousel
type plant (fig 2). Although carousel plants have a higher capital cost, they can be made
more efficient and smaller without need for rebar storage and assembly operations. The
maximum production rate for contracts 220 & 240 was one segment every 2 minutes.
A significant benefit of using steel fibre concrete was realized by the lack of damage to
the segments during production and installation. Of the 260,000 segment
ts produced only 0.8% were rejected and 2.8% were repaired during manufacture. During
construction only 2.2% suffered minor damage with no repair required, 0.3% had damage

requiring a minor repair, and only one segment or 0.0004% required a major repair. None
of the installed segments were required to be removed and replaced.

The CTRL project required production of over 260,000 segments. This was the first
major infrastructure project to use steel fibre concrete segmental lining throughout the
whole project. Eddie Woods, the Tunnel Engineering Manager of Rail Link Engineering
the designers of CTRL stated We used steel fibres as we wanted a tunnel with a design
life of over 120 years. The Thames tunnel was to be constructed through highly saline
water and with normal rebar segments there is a significant risk of corrosion and spalling
concrete. The fibre reinforced segments.
5. MINIMUM PERFORMANCE CRITERIA
The performance of steel fibre reinforced concrete increases with:
- The performance of the concrete matrix
- The fibre dosage
- The intrinsic performance of the fibre in the matrix (geometry, l/D, anchoring
method, etc.)
Steel fibres must comply with European Standard
NF EN 14889-1(ref 4)
They must have CE label category 1
5.1 Proposed minimum recommendation:
a) Drawn wire
- -Tensile strength of the wire > 1100 MPa minimum (the tensile strength of the
wire must be consistent with that of the matrix, high carbon steel for BHP)
- -Dimensional tolerances as indicated in the above table
- -Search for optimum network effect (ml/m3) by checking that the chosen
implementation verifies the orientation of the fibres with respect to the
mechanical operation
- Optimization of the anchoring system (end hooks for optimized anchoring of the
fibre in the concrete or matrix or similar systems)

The packaging of the fibres must take into account:

- The addition of the fibres by an automatic dosage system
- The distribution of the fibres in the concrete so as to obtain a perfectly
homogeneous distribution
- The total elimination of skin formation for fibres with l/D > 80 (ne fast for the
implementation phase)
It is recommended to use glued fibres or any other system to ensure compliance with the
above requirements.
b) Durability Surface aspect
For certain types of structures, the use of galvanised fibres may avoid the risk of fibre
corrosion at the surface.
The galvanized steel fibres shall be produced from hot galvanized steel wires. The
specifications of the zinc coating must comply with French standard A 91-131 and
classification type B with a minimum zinc coating of 30 g/m.
The galvanized steel fibres must be protected by a gassing inhibitor, which allows
controlling and preventing the zinc/cement reaction, and also ensures adhesion of the zinc
coating and bonding of the fibres in the concrete matrix. Salt spray endurance tests in
accordance with standard ASTM B117 or NF X41-002 must be carried out in a approved
laboratory to guarantee that no trace of corrosion is observed after 1000 hours of storage
immersed in the salt solution.
Galvanized fibres are the solution for durability improvement and esthetical aspect.
Why galvanized steel fibres?
When steel fibres are galvanized, the concrete surface will be clear of rust stains. Tests at
Brite Euram showed that galvanized steel fibres are protected against corrosion even at a
crack width of 0,2 mm.
(BRPR-CT98-0813, Project No. BE 97-4163).
A corrosion free surface also increases the durability of the concrete. This allows you to
deliver both high quality and good looking products to your customer.

A galvanized steel fibre avoids the process of corrosion

The problem with galvanized steel fibres is that the zinc coating causes the formation of
gas when they are added to the concrete mix.
Zn + 2H2O => Zn (OH)2 + H2

Our research and development department has taken this problem very seriously. That is
why we came up with Dramix Green, a specially designed galvanized steel fibre with a
unique inhibitor added to its glue.
Thanks to its unique inhibitor, Dramix Green is the fibre that can guarantee perfect
bond between the concrete and the galvanized steel. This patented technology by Bekaert
passivates the zinc in an alkaline environment and avoids the formation of gas
(hydrogen).

Spongy and porous surface around the galvanized steel fibres without inhibitor

Smooth surface around Galvanized fibres with inhibitor

Without inhibitor:
- Spectrum of fibres at the concrete surface
- Porous concrete surface because of bubbles
- Loss of durability because of gas formation
- Lack of bond leading to reduced structural performance

Galvanized fibtes with inhibitor gives you a 40% higher residual strength compared to other
galvanized steel fibres without inhibitor!

c) Minimum dosage
According to EN standards 14 487-1 the value for a minimum overlap between fibres
may be estimated as:

Where :
- lf is the length of the fibre
- df is the equivalent diameter of the fibre
- f is the fibre percentage
s should be lower than 0,45f to ensure a minimum overlap.
The formula and s limit are taken from the thesis of D.C Mckee, University of Louisina
the properties of an expensive mortar reinforced with random wire fibers.

Figure 4: Mc kee theory

Minimum dosages of steel fibres based on different aspect ratios & steel fibre spacing
Aspect ratio (lf / df=)
Overlap factor=1,66 : min dosage ( kg/m3)
Overlap factor=2,0 : min dosage ( kg/m3)

50
>50
>80

55
48
80

60
40
67

65
35
58

80
22
38

For combined solution the minimum overlap factor recommended is 1.66.

For SFRC solution the overlap factor recommended is 2.
The use of combine solution in segmental lining is well known. In fact for durability, the
thickness cover should be increase (Water tunnel in Casablanca, USA).
A large metro extension, Madrid Metro, has been realized using SFRC in combined
solution based on this approach. So in this case a relevant technical solution is certainly
to promote a galvanized fibre with a minimum total length wire base on the Mc Kee
Theory.
If the Steel fibre is also taking in account in the structural design, then additional
performance criteria based on a minimum residual strength should be required.
6. CONCLUSION
Multiple research studies and tests on the behaviour of steel fibre reinforced concrete
have been carried out in recent years in various countries (United States, Canada, France,
Belgium, Great Britain, Italy, Switzerland, Japan, Dannemark, South Africa, Germany
etc.).
They have greatly contributed to a better characterization of SFRC, and have thus
allowed to gain a better understanding of the behaviour of this material and to specify
minimum performance requirements for each project.
The use of steel fibre today which the segment is not loaded in flexure or tension,
provides:
- Durability best available
- Handling damage minimized
- Bursting stresses limited
- Minimal repairs required
- Overall costs savings of 10%
Structural performance of SFRC and durability of SFRC with respect to carbonation and
chloride ingress are well documented.
All the research programs conclude on very positive improvement in using SFRC for

durability issue.
In precast segment durability is today a key requirements and the key issue.
Compared to conventional reinforced concrete, SFRC also grants superior durability
properties.
The new product as galvanized fibre provide even durability improvement for the
designer.
7. REFERENCES
1. AFTES Recommendation for the design, sizing and construction of precast concrete segments installed
at the rear of a tunnel boring machine (TBM) and AITES Guideline
2. Tunneling is an art Marc Vandewalle
3. Brite-Euram Project - sub-task Durability
4. Focusing on Fibres: CTRL Experience - Tunnels & Tunnelling Int March 2006
5. EN 14 889-1 - Fibres for concrete - Part 1: steel fibres - Definitions, specifications and conformity
6. EN 14 721 - Test method for metallic fibre concrete-Measuring the fibre content in fresh and hardened
concrete
7. RILEM-Committee-TDF-162, Chairlady L. Vandewalle, main author Stang, H.: Test and Design
Methods for Steel Fiber Reinforced Concrete. Design of Steel Fibre Reinforced Concrete using the s/w
Method: Principles and Applications. Materials and Structures, 35, 249, 262-278, 2002.
8. AGFGC-SETRA recommendation9) German SFRC design guideline (DBV, 2001)
9. National precaster N48 nov 2008
10. Pierre Rossi LCP (Paris Journe Technique AFGC)
11. Andra report on durability
12. Steel fiber reinforced tunnel linings - Eddie woods (Arup)
13. American Concrete Institute, State of the Art Report on Fiber Reinforced Concrete. ACI 544.1R-96
14. ASTM C 1018 - Standard Test Method for Flexural Toughness and First-Crack Strength of FiberReinforced Concrete (Using Beam With Third-point Loding).
15. Dubois, F. and H. Nouguier. Durability of Steel Fibrous Concrete Used for the Manufacture of
Containers for Nuclear Waste Storage. Agence Nationale de Dechets Radio Actus (ANDRAS) FRANCE
16. Kern, B. and H. Schorn. 1991. 23 Jahre alter Stahlfaserbeton, Beton-und Stahlbetonbau, V.86.205-208
17. King, M.R. and A.J. Alder. 2001.The practical specification of steel fiber reinforced concrete (SFRC)
for tunnel linings. Underground Construction 2001
18. Steel Fiber reinforced tunnel linings - Eddie Woods (Arup) Peter Shuttleeworth (Arup) Chris Fesq
(Arup)

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