Chegg - Chapter Three PDF

Chapter 3, Problem 1E
Problem
An environmental engineer suspects mercury contamination in an area which contains three

lakes and two streams. He will check all five for mercury contamination.
(a) Express each outcome using two coordinates, so (2, 1), for example, represents the event
that two of the lakes and one of the streams will be contaminated. Draw a diagram similar to that
of Figure 3.1 showing the 12 outcomes in the sample space.
(b) If R is the event that equally many lakes and streams are contaminated, T is the event that
none of the streams is contaminated, and U is the event that fewer lakes than streams are
contaminated, express each of these events symbolically by listing its elements.
Step-by-step solution
Step 1 of 3
It is given that an environmental engineer suspects mercury contamination in an area which

contains three lakes and two streams and checks all five for mercury contamination.
The sample space for five mercury contaminations in an area which contains three lakes and two
streams is obtained below.
Where the first coordinate is the number of mercury contamination in an area contains lakes and
the second coordinate is the number of mercury contamination in an area contains streams.
Step 2 of 3
We have to draw a diagram for the sample space of 12 outcomes.
Step 3 of 3
(b) R is the event that equally many lakes and streams are contaminated.
That is,
T is the event that none of the streams is contaminated.
That is,
U is the event that fewer lakes than streams are contaminated.
That is,
Problem
With reference to Exercise 1, which of the three pairs of events, R and T, R and U, and T and U,
are mutually exclusive?
Exercise 1

Step 1 of 4

Step 2 of 4
Step 3 of 4
Let R is the event that equally many lakes and streams are contaminated.
That is,
Let T is the event that none of the streams is contaminated.
That is,
Let U is the event that fewer lakes than streams are contaminated.
That is,
Step 4 of 4
From the above information we can observe that the events R and T are not mutually exclusive,
because the pair is common in both the events R and T.
From the above information we can observe that the events and are mutually exclusive,
because there is no common pairs.
That is
From the above information we can observe that the events and are mutually exclusive,
because there is no common pairs.
That is
Therefore, we can conclude that the three pairs of events are mutually
exclusive.
Problem
With reference to Exercise 1, list the outcomes comprising each of the following events, and also
express the events in words.
(a)
(b)
(c)
Exercise 1

Step 1 of 4

R is the event that equally many lakes and streams are contaminated.
That is,
T is the event that none of the streams is contaminated.
That is,
U is the event that fewer lakes than streams are contaminated.
That is,
Step 2 of 4
(a) The event contains all the elements that are in , in or in both is given below.
That is the events that at least as many streams are contaminated as lakes.
Step 3 of 4
(b) The event contains all the elements that are in both and is given below.
That is the events that none of the lakes or streams is contaminated.
Step 4 of 4
(c) The event contains all the elements of the sample space that are not in is given below.
That is the events that at least one of the streams is contaminated.

Problem
With reference to the sample space of Figure 3.1, express each of the following events in words.
(a) F = {(1,0), (1,1)}
(b) G = {(0,2), (1,1), (2,0)}
(c)
Step 1 of 3
It is given that the government agency must decide where to locate two new computer research
facilities. The sample space is given below.
(a)
F is the event that Texas will get only one of the two research facilities.
Step 2 of 3
(b)
G is the event that, altogether two Texas or California will get two research facilities.
Step 3 of 3
(c) The event contains all the elements that are in both and is given below.
That is the events that each Texas and California will get one of the two research facilities.
Problem
To construct sample spaces for experiments in which we deal with nonnumerical data, we often
code the various alternatives by assigning them numbers. For instance, if a mechanic is asked
whether work on a certain model car is very easy, easy, average, difficult, or very difficult, we
might assign these alternatives the codes, 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5. If A = {3, 4}, B = {2, 3}, and C = {4, 5},
express each of the following symbolically by listing its elements and also in words.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Step 1 of 5
It is given that the mechanic is asked whether work on a certain model car is very easy, easy,
average, difficult, or very difficult. To assign those alternatives using codes, 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5.
Suppose,
Step 2 of 5
(a) The event contains all the elements that are in , in or in both is given below.
That is the events that work on the car is easy, average, or difficult.
Step 3 of 5
(b) The event contains all the elements that are in both and is given below.
That is the events that work on the car is average.
Step 4 of 5
(c) The event contains all the elements that are in A, not in B or in both is given below.
That is the event that work on the car is very easy, average, difficult, and very difficult.
Step 5 of 5
(d) The event contains all the elements of the sample space that are not in C are given below.
That is the event that work on the car is very easy, easy, and average.
Problem
With reference to Exercise 1, which of the three pairs of events, A and B, A and C, and B and C,
are mutually exclusive?
Exercise 1
To construct sample spaces for experiments in which we deal with nonnumerical data, we often
code the various alternatives by assigning them numbers. For instance, if a mechanic is asked
whether work on a certain model car is very easy, easy, average, difficult, or very difficult, we
might assign these alternatives the codes, 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5. If A = {3, 4}, B = {2, 3}, and C = {4, 5},
express each of the following symbolically by listing its elements and also in words.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Step 1 of 2
It is given that the mechanic is asked whether work on a certain model car is very easy, easy,
average, difficult, or very difficult. To assign those alternatives using codes, 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5.
Suppose,
Step 2 of 2
The events and contains all the elements that are in both and is given below.
That is
That is
That is
Therefore, we can conclude that the pairs of events are not mutually
exclusive, since they have one common element, and pair of events is mutually
exclusive, since the events have no elements in common.
Problem
Two professors and 3 graduate assistants are responsible for the supervision of a physics lab,
and at least one professor and one graduate assistant have to be present at all times.
(a) Using two coordinates so that (1, 3), for example, represents the event that one professor and
3 graduate assistants are present, draw a diagram similar to that of Figure 3.1 showing the points
of the corresponding sample space.
(b) Describe in words the events which are represented by B = {(1, 3), (2, 3)}, C = {(1, 1), (2, 2)},
and D = {(1,2), (2,1)}.
(c) With reference to part (b), express C ∪ D symbolically by listing its elements, and also express
this event in words.
(d) With reference to part (b), are B and D mutually exclusive?
Step 1 of 5
It is given that two professors and 3 graduate assistants are responsible for the supervision of a
physics lab, and at least one professor and one graduate assistant have to be present at all
times.
The sample space for the supervision of a physics lab at least one professor and one graduate
assistant have to be present at all times is given below.
Where the first coordinate is the number professors who are present for the supervision of a
physics lab and the second coordinate is the number of graduate assistants who are present for
the supervision of a physics lab.
Step 2 of 5
(a) We have to draw a diagram for the sample space of 6 outcomes.
Step 3 of 5
(b)
B is the event that three graduate assistants are present for the supervision of a physics lab.
C is the event that as many professors as graduate assistants are present for the supervision of a
physics lab.
D is the event that between of them, three professors or graduate assistants are present for the
supervision of a physics lab.
Step 4 of 5
(c) The event contains all the elements that are in , in or in both is given below.
That is the events that at most two graduate assistants are present for the supervision of a
physics lab.
Step 5 of 5
(d) The events and contains all the elements that are in both and is given below.
Therefore, we can conclude that the pair of events is mutually exclusive, since the
events have no elements in common.
Step 1 of 6
We are supposed to decide whether the given experiment would be appropriate to use a sample
space which is finite, countably infinite, or continuous.
(a) It is given that the amount of cosmic radiation to which passengers are exposed during a
transcontinental jet flight is measured by means of a suitable counter. This is continuous.
Step 2 of 6
(b) It is given that five of the members of a professional society with 12600 members are chosen
to serve on a nominating committee. This is finite sample space.
Step 3 of 6
(c) It is given that an experiment is conducted to measure the heat of vaporization of an unknown
liquid. This is continuous.
Step 4 of 6
(d) It is given that the study is made to determine in how many of 450 airplane accidents the main
cause is pilot error. This is finite sample space.
Step 5 of 6
(e) It is given that the measurements are made to determine the uranium content of a certain ore.
This is continuous.
Step 6 of 6
(f) It is given that in a torture test, a watch is dropped a number of times from a tall building until it
stops running. This is countable infinite.
Problem
In Figure 1, C is the event that an ore contains copper and U is the event that it contains uranium.
Explain in words what events are represented by regions 1, 2, 3, and 4.
Figure 1
Step 1 of 1
The Venn diagram is given below.
It is given that C is the event that an ore contains copper and U is the event that it contains
uranium.
The region 1 represents an event that the ore contains both copper and uranium.
The region 2 represents an event that the ore contains copper but not uranium.
The region 3 represents an event that the ore contains uranium but not copper.
The region 4 represents an event that the ore contains neither copper nor uranium.
Problem
With reference to Exercise 1, what events are represented by
(a) regions 1 and 3 together;
(b) regions 3 and 4 together;
(c) regions 1, 2, and 3 together?
Exercise 1
In Figure 1, C is the event that an ore contains copper and U is the event that it contains uranium.
Explain in words what events are represented by regions 1, 2, 3, and 4.
Figure 1
Step 1 of 4
It is given that C is the event that an ore contains copper and U is the event that it contains
uranium.
The region 1 represents an event that the ore contains both copper and uranium.
The region 2 represents an event that the ore contains copper but not uranium.
The region 3 represents an event that the ore contains uranium but not copper.
The region 4 represents an event that the ore contains neither copper nor uranium.
Step 2 of 4
(a) The regions 1 and 3 together is contained in U, it represents the event that the ore contains
uranium.
Step 3 of 4
(b) The regions 3 and 4 together is contained not in C, it represents the event that the ore does
not contains copper.
Step 4 of 4
(c) The region 1, 2, and 3 together is contained in C, in U or in both, it represents the event that
the ore contains total copper and uranium.
Problem
With reference to Figure 3.4, what events are represented by
(a) region 5;
(b) regions 4 and 6 together;
(c) regions 7 and 8 together;
(d) regions 1, 2, 3 and 5 together?
Step 1 of 4
It is given that the manufacturer of small motors is concerned with three major types of defects. If
A is the event that the shaft size is too large, B is the event that the windings are improper, and C
is the event that the electrical connections are unsatisfactory.
(a) The regions 5 is contained in B, but not A and C, it represents the event that the windings are
improper but shaft size is not too large and the electrical connections are satisfactory.
Step 2 of 4
(b) The regions 4 and 6 together are contained in A and C, but not B it represents the event that
the shaft size is too large and electrical connections are unsatisfactory, but windings are proper.
Step 3 of 4
(c) The regions 4 and 6 together are contained not in both B and C, it represents the event that
the electrical connections are satisfactory and windings are proper.
Step 4 of 4
(d) The regions 1, 2, 3 and 5 together are contained in B only; it represents the event that the
windings are improper.
Problem
With reference to Figure 3.4, what regions or combinations of regions represent the events that a
motor will have
(a) none of the major defects;
(b) a shaft that is large and windings improper;
(c) a shaft that is large and/or windings improper but the electrical connections are satisfactory;
(d) a shaft that is large and the windings improper and/ or the electrical connections are
unsatisfactory?
Step 1 of 4
It is given that the manufacturer of small motors is concerned with three major types of defects. If
A is the event that the shaft size is too large, B is the event that the windings are improper, and C
is the event that the electrical connections are unsatisfactory.
a)
It is given that a motor will have none of the major defects.
The region 8 represents the event that none of the major defects.
Step 2 of 4
b)
It is given that motor will have a shaft that is large and windings improper.
The regions 2 represent the event that the shaft is large and windings are improper.
Step 3 of 4
c)
It is given that motor will have a shaft that is large and/or windings improper but the electrical
connections are satisfactory.
The regions 2, 5 and 7 represent the event that the shaft is large and/or windings are improper
but the electrical connections are satisfactory.
Step 4 of 4
d)
It is given that a shift is large and the windings improper and/or the electrical connections are
unsatisfactory.
The regions 1 represent the event that the shaft is large and/or windings are improper
but the electrical connections are satisfactory.

Problem
Use Venn diagrams to verify that
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
Step 1 of 3
We are supposed to verify the following relations.
(a)
Let us show that , which expresses the fact that the complement of the
intersection of two sets equals the union of their complements.
From the above left side diagram we observe that the shaded area shows the complement of the
intersection of the two sets. It is equal to the right side Venn diagram.
Step 2 of 3
(b)
We are supposed to verify that
From the above left side Venn diagram we observe that the intersection of vertical and horizontal
lines shows the region of and the union of the event and the event is equal to
right side Venn diagram.
(c)
From the above left side Venn diagram the yellow color region shows the event and the
light green color region shows the event . The union of these two regions is equal to the
right side Venn diagram.
Step 3 of 3
(d)
From the left side Venn diagram we observe that the light green color region shows the event
. From the right side Venn diagram we observe that the green color region shows the
event and the pink color region shows the event and blue color region shows the
event combine all the regions it is equal to the left side Venn diagram.
(e)
From the above left side Venn diagram we observe that the light green color region shows the
event it is equals to the right side Venn diagram.
Problem
A building inspector has to check the wiring in a new apartment building either on Monday,
Tuesday, Wednesday, or Thursday, and at 8 A.M., 1 P.M., or 2 P.M. Draw a tree diagram which
shows the various ways in which the inspector can schedule the inspection of the wiring of the
new apartment building.
Step 1 of 1
It is given that a building inspector has to check the wiring in a new apartment building either on
Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, or Thursday. And the inspector has to check the wiring either at 8
A.M., 1 P.M., or 2 P.M.
The tree diagram the schedule of inspection of the wiring of the new apartment building for
inspector.
The tree diagram shows the various ways in which the inspector can schedule the inspection of
the wiring of the new apartment building.
Problem
If the five finalists in an international volleyball tournament are Spain, the United States, Uruguay,
Portugal, and Japan, draw a tree diagram that shows the various possible first- and second-place
finishers.
Step 1 of 1
It is given that the five finalists in an international volleyball tournament are , the , , , and .
We have to draw a tree diagram, to show the various possible first-place and second-place
finishers.
The tree diagram shows that the various possible first-place and second-place finishers.
Step 1 of 1
It is given that the biomechanical device for medical emergencies can operate for 0, 1, or 2 times
a night.
We have to find the number of possible ways can be operated for a total of 6 times over 4 nights.
There are 10 possible different ways that it can be operated for a total of 6 times over 4 nights.
They are,
The tree diagram for to show that there are 10 different ways that it can be operated for a total of
6 times over 4 nights.
Step 1 of 1
It is given that the optics kit contains 6 concave lenses, 4 convex lenses and 3 prisms.
We have to find the number of possible ways can one choose one of the concave lenses, one of
the convex lenses, and one of the prisms.
There are 6 concave lenses, we can select one concave lenses from 6 concave lenses in
ways.
There are 4 convex lenses; we can select one convex lens from 4 convex lenses in ways.
There are 3 prisms; we can select one prism from 3 prisms in ways.
The number of possible ways to select one of the concave lenses, one of the convex lenses, and
one of the prisms is obtained below.
Therefore, to select one of the concave lenses, one of the convex lenses, and one of the prisms
in 72 possible ways.
Step 1 of 1
It is given that the special purpose computer has 2 switches, each of which can be set in 3
different positions, and 1 switch that can be set in 2 positions.
Therefore, the number of possible ways that can the computer’s switches be set is expressed as
follows:
There are 3 different positions; set 2 switches in 3 different positions in ways.
There are 2 different positions; set one switch in 2 different positions in ways.
The number of possible ways to set 2 switches in 3 different positions and one switch in 2
positions is expressed as follows:
Therefore, there are 18 possible ways to set 2 switches in 3 different positions and one switch in
2 positions.
Problem
One engineering group consists of 6 men and 4 women.
(a) How many different project teams can be formed consisting of 2 men and 2 women?
(b) If 2 women have the same boyfriend and refuse to be on the same team together, how many
different project teams can be formed consisting of 2 men and 2 women?
Step 1 of 4
Given,
One engineering group consists of 6 men and 4 women.
Step 2 of 4
(a)
Find the possible ways to different project teams can be formed consisting of 2 men and 2
women.
That is, selecting 2 men from 6 men in ways and 2 women from 4 women in ways.
The number of ways the two women and their boyfriend can work together in same team is
obtained below.
Therefore, the possible ways to different project teams can be formed consisting of 2 men and 2
women is 90.
Step 3 of 4
(b)
As per the problem states, among the 4 women 2 have same boyfriend and they wish not to work
together.
Hence, the only possible way to keep 2 women having same boyfriend in one team is 1, as it will
make the other 2 women form a definite another team and there will be no more choices.
But, the number ways to choose 2 men out of the 6 is,
Hence the total number ways 2 women and their boyfriend work in the same team is,
Step 4 of 4
Now as the 2 women don’t want to work together, the number of ways different project groups
can be formed is nothing but the number of ways complementary events can be formed is,
Therefore, the different project teams can be formed consisting of 2 men and 2 women from the
group consists of 6 men and 4 women, when two women and their boyfriend cannot work
together are 75.
Problem
If there are 9 cars in a race, in how many different ways can they place first, second, and third?
Step 1 of 1
It is given that there are 9 cars in a race.
We have to find the number of different ways that they can place first, second and third.
There are 9 cars; we can select 1 car from 9 cars for the first place in a race in ways.
Now, we have only 8 cars for selection of second place in a race; we can select 1 car from 8 cars
for the second place in ways.
Now, we have only 7 cars for selection of third place in a race; we can select 1 car from 7 cars for
the third place in ways.
The number of possible ways to select first, second and third places in a race containing 9 cars is
obtained below.
Therefore, to select first, second and third places in a race in 504 possible ways.
Problem
In how many ordered ways can a television director schedule 6 different commercials during the
6 time slots allocated to commercials during the telecast of the first period of a hockey game?
Step 1 of 1
It is given that the television director telecast of the first period of a hockey game during the 6
time slots allocated to commercials.
We have to find the possible ordered ways to choose a television director schedule 6 different
commercials the 6 time slots allocated to commercials during the telecast of the first period of a
hockey game in ways, since the television director has to telecast the hockey game at first
period (which is in order base).
Therefore, television director schedule 6 different commercials the 6 time slots allocated to
commercials during the telecast of the first period of a hockey game in 720 ways.
Problem
If among n objects k are alike and the others are all distinct, the number of permutations of these
n objects taken all together is n!/k!.
(a) How many permutations are there of the letters of the word class?
(b) In how many ways can the television director of Exercise 1 fill the 6 time slots allocated to
commercials, if there are 4 different commercials, of which a given one is to be shown 3 times
while each of the others is to be shown once?
Exercise 1
In how many ordered ways can a television director schedule 6 different commercials during the
6 time slots allocated to commercials during the telecast of the first period of a hockey game?
Step 1 of 2
Suppose, among n objects k are alike and the others are all distinct, the number of permutations
of these n objects taken all together is .
(a) We have to find the number of permutations is there of the letters of the word class.
The word “class” has 5 letters, that is .
Here, 2 letters are alike, since the letter‘s’ repeat two times. The distinct letters are 3.
Therefore, the number of permutations of the word class is obtained below.
Step 2 of 2
(b) Suppose there are 4 different commercials of which a given one is to be shown 3 times while
each of the others is to be shown once.
We have to find the possible number ways that can the television director of fill the 6 time slots
allocated to commercials.
Here is order is important, so we can use permutations.
Therefore, the required number of ways is obtained below.
Therefore, there is 120 possible ways can the television director of fill the 6 time slots allocated to
commercials of which one is to be shown 3 times while each of the others is to be shown once.
Problem
Determine the number of ways in which a manufacturer can choose 2 of 15 locations for a new
warehouse.
Step 1 of 1
We supposed to find the number of ways in which a manufacturer has to choose 2 of 15 locations
for a new warehouse.
Here order does not matter, so we have to use combinations.
There are 15 locations for a new warehouse.
The manufacturer wants to choose 2 locations out of 15 locations for a new warehouse in
ways.
The number of ways in which a manufacturer has to choose 2 of 15 locations for a new
warehouse is obtained below.
Therefore, there is 105 ways in which a manufacturer has to choose 2 of 15 locations for a new
ware house.
Step 1 of 1
We supposed to find the number of ways in which 4 of 18 robotic arms be chosen for a special
welding job.
There are 18 robotic arms for a special welding job.
We can choose 4 robotic arms out of 18 robotic arms in ways for a special welding job.
The number of ways in which 4 of 18 robotic arms be chosen for a special welding job is obtained
below.
Therefore, there is 3060 ways in which 4 of 18 robotic arms be select for a special welding job.
Problem
A carton of 12 rechargeable batteries contains one that is defective. In how many ways can an
inspector choose 3 of the batteries and
(a) get the one that is defective;
(b) not get the one that is defective?
Step 1 of 2
It is given that a carton of 12 rechargeable batteries contains one that is defective.
(a) We supposed to find the number of ways that can an inspector choose 3 of the batteries and
get the one that is defective.
The carton has 12 rechargeable batteries and one that is defective.
Thus, we have 11 non-defective rechargeable batteries and one defective battery.
Now, we have to select two non-defective batteries out of 11 non-defective batteries in ways
and one defective battery from one defective can select in ways.
Therefore, the numbers of ways that can an inspector choose 3 of the batteries and get the one
that is defective is obtained below.
Therefore, there is 55 ways that can an inspector choose 3 of the batteries and get the one that is
defective.
Step 2 of 2
(b) We supposed to find the number of ways that can an inspector choose 3 of the batteries and
not get the one that is defective.
The carton has 12 rechargeable batteries and one that is defective.
Thus, we have 11 non-defective rechargeable batteries and one defective battery.
Now, we have to select three non-defective batteries out of 11 non-defective batteries in
ways.
Therefore, the numbers of ways that can an inspector choose 3 of the batteries and not get the
one that is defective is obtained below.
Therefore, there is 165 ways that can an inspector choose 3 of the batteries and not get the one
that is defective.
Problem
With reference to Exercise 1, suppose that two of the batteries are defective. In how many ways
can the inspector choose 3 of the batteries and get
(a) none of the defective batteries;
(b) one of the defective batteries;
(c) both of the defective batteries?
Exercise 1
A carton of 12 rechargeable batteries contains one that is defective. In how many ways can an
inspector choose 3 of the batteries and
(a) get the one that is defective;
(b) not get the one that is defective?
Step 1 of 3
It is given that a carton of 12 rechargeable batteries contains two that are defective.
(a) We supposed to find the number of ways that can an inspector choose 3 of the batteries and
get none of the defective batteries.
The carton has 12 rechargeable batteries and two that are defective.
Thus, we have 10 non-defective rechargeable batteries and two defective batteries.
Now, we have to select three non-defective batteries out of 10 non-defective batteries in
ways.
Therefore, the numbers of ways that can an inspector choose 3 of the batteries and get none of
the defective batteries is obtained below.
Therefore, there is 120 ways that can an inspector choose 3 of the batteries and get none of the
defective batteries.
Step 2 of 3
(b) We supposed to find the number of ways that can an inspector choose 3 of the batteries and
get one of the defective batteries.
Now, we have to select two non-defective batteries out of 10 non-defective batteries in
ways and one defective battery from two defectives in .
Therefore, the numbers of ways that can an inspector choose 3 of the batteries and get one of
Therefore, there is 90 ways that can an inspector choose 3 of the batteries and get one of the
Step 3 of 3
(c) We supposed to find the number of ways that can an inspector choose 3 of the batteries and
get both of the defective batteries.
Now, we have to select one non-defective battery out of 10 non-defective batteries in ways
and one defective battery from two defectives in .
Therefore, the numbers of ways that can an inspector choose 3 of the batteries and get both of
Therefore, there is 10 ways that can an inspector choose 3 of the batteries and get both of the
Problem
The supply department has 8 different electric motors and 5 different starting switches. In how
many ways can 2 motors and 2 switches be selected for an experiment concerning a tracking
antenna?
Step 1 of 1
It is given that the supply department has 8 different electric motors and 5 different starting
switches.
We supposed to find the possible number of ways that can 2 motors and 2 switches be selected
for an experiment concerning a tracking antenna.
There are 8 different electric motors and 5 different starting switches.
So, we can select 2 motors out of 8 different electric motors in ways and 2 switches from 5
different starting switches in ways.
Therefore, the numbers of ways that can 2 motors and 2 switches be selected for an experiment
concerning a tracking antenna is obtained below.
Therefore, there is 280 ways that can 2 motors and 2 switches be selected for an experiment
concerning a tracking antenna.
Step 1 of 2
(a) It is given that the refrigerator manufacturer sold 2,756 units of a new model and 287 required
repairs under the warranty.
We have to estimate the probability that a new unit, which has just been sold, will require repairs
under the warranty.
The number of favorable outcomes is the number of new model refrigerator that are required
repair under the warranty,
Therefore, the probability that a new model, which has just been sold, will require repairs under
the warranty is 0.10414.
Step 2 of 2
(b) It is given that 8400 students applied for the 6000 student season tickets available for football
games for last year.
We have to estimate the probability of receiving a season ticket available for football games for
next year.
The number of favorable outcomes is the number of student season tickets available for football
games for last year,
Therefore, the probability that of receiving a season ticket available for football games for next
year is 0.71429.
Problem
When we roll a pair of balanced dice, what are the probabilities of getting
(a) 7;
(b) 11;
(c) 7 or 11;
(d) 3;
(e) 2 or 12;
(f) 2, 3, or 12?
Step 1 of 7
It is given that a pair of balanced dice is rolled and the sample space is given below.
Step 2 of 7
(a) We have to find the probability of getting 7.
There are totally, 36 possible outcomes, that is
The number of favorable outcomes is that up faced die shows 7 is given below.
Therefore, the probability of getting 7 is .
Step 3 of 7
(b) We have to find the probability of getting 11.
Step 4 of 7
(c) We have to find the probability of getting 7 or 11.
The number of favorable outcomes is that up faced die shows 7 or 11 is given below.
Step 5 of 7
(d) We have to find the probability of getting 3.
Step 6 of 7
(e) We have to find the probability of getting 2 or 12.
The number of favorable outcomes is that up faced die shows 2 or 12 is given below.
Therefore, the probability of getting 2 or 12 is .
Step 7 of 7
(f) We have to find the probability of getting 2, 3 or 12.
The number of favorable outcomes is that up faced die shows 2, 3 or 12 is given below.
Therefore, the probability of getting 2, 3 or 12 is .

Problem
A lottery sells tickets numbered from 00001 through 50000. What is the probability of drawing a
number that is divisible by 200?
Step 1 of 1
It is given that a lottery sells tickets numbered from 00001 through 50000.
We have to find the probability of drawing a number that is divisible by 200.
There are totally, 50000 lottery sells tickets, that is
The number of favorable cases is that the number of count which is divisible by 200 is obtained
by thumb rule is given below.
Therefore, the probability of drawing a number that is divisible by 200 is 0.005.

Problem
A car rental agency has 18 compact cars and 12 intermediate-size cars. If four of the cars are
randomly selected for a safety check, what is the probability of getting two of each kind?
Step 1 of 2
A car rental agency has 18 compact cars and 12 intermediate-size cars.
The total number of rental cars is .
Selecting 4 cars (2 of each kind) out of 30 cars in ways.
The number of favorable cases is that select 2 cars form 18 compact cars in ways and 2
cars from 12 intermediate-size cars in ways.
So, the number of ways selecting 2 cars of each kind in ways.
Step 2 of 2
Find the probability of getting two of each kind.
Therefore,
Hence, the probability of getting 2 cars from each kind of 18 compact cars and 12 intermediate-
size cars is 0.368.
Step 1 of 1
It is given that, among the first 842 convection ovens sold to consumers, 143 required some
adjustment during the warranty period.
We have to estimate the probability that a newly purchased convection oven will require some
adjustment during the warranty period.
Total number of convection ovens sold is,
The number of favorable outcomes is the number of newly purchased convection oven will
require some adjustment during the warranty period,
Therefore, the probability that a newly purchased convection oven will require some adjustment
during the warranty period is 0.170.
Problem
In a group of 160 graduate engineering students, 92 are enrolled in an advanced course in

statistics, 63 are enrolled in a course in operations research, and 40 are enrolled in both. How
many of these students are not enrolled in either course?
Step 1 of 1
It is given that the group contains 160 graduate engineering students, 92 are enrolled in an
advanced course in statistics, 63 are enrolled in a course in operations research, and 40 are
enrolled in both.
We have to find the number of students is not enrolled in either course.
Let us consider, S be the event that represents the number of graduate engineering students are
enrolled in an advanced course.
Let O be the event that represents the number of graduate engineering students are enrolled in
operations research.
Thus,
The number of students are not enrolled in either course is,
Therefore, the number of graduate engineering students are not enrolled in either course is 45.
Problem
Among 150 persons interviewed as part of an urban mass transportation study, some live more
than 3 miles from the center of the city (A), some now regularly drive their own car to work (B),
and some would gladly switch to public mass transportation if it were available (C). Use the
information given in Figure 1 to find
(a) N(A);
(b) N(B);
(c) N(C);
(d) N(A ∩ B);
(e) N(A ∩ C);
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
(j) .
Figure 1
Step 1 of 11
than 3miles from the center of the city (A), some now regularly drive their own car to work (B),
and some would gladly switch to public mass transportation if it were available (C).
Step 2 of 11
(a)
Let represents the number of persons who live more than 3 miles from the center of the
city.
The value of is,
Step 3 of 11
(b)
Let represents the number of persons who regularly drive their own car to work.
The value of is,

Step 4 of 11
(c)
Let represents the number of persons who would gladly switch to public mass
transportation if it were available.
The value of is,
Step 5 of 11
(d)
Let represents the number of persons both who live more than 3 miles from the
center of the city and regularly drive their own car to work.
The value of is,
Step 6 of 11
(e)
Let represents the number of persons both who live more than 3 miles from the
center of the city and gladly switch to public mass transportation.
The value of is,
Step 7 of 11
(f)
Let represents the number of persons who live more than 3 miles from the center
of the city, regularly drive their own car to work and gladly switch to public mass transportation.
The value of is,
Step 8 of 11
(g)
Let represents the number of persons either who live more than 3 miles from the
center of the city or regularly drive their own car to work.
The value of is,
Step 9 of 11
(h)
Let represents the number of persons either who regularly drive their own car to
work or gladly switch to public mass transportation.
The value of is,
Step 10 of 11
(i)
Let represents the number of persons interviewed who gladly switches to public
mass transportation if it were available.
The value of is,
Step 11 of 11
(j)
Let represents the number of person interviewed who are common in both
regularly drive their own car to work and either live more than 3 miles from the center of the city
or gladly switches to public mass transportation if it were available.
The value of is,

Problem
An experiment has the four possible mutually exclusive outcomes A, B, C, and D. Check whether
the following assignments of probability are permissible:
(a) P(A) = 0.38, P(B) = 0.16, P(C) = 0.11, P(D) = 0.35;
(b) P(A) = 0.31, P(B) = 0.21, P(C) = 0.28, P(D) = 0.16;
(c) P(A) = 0.32, P(B) = 0.27, P(C) = –0.06, P(D) = 0.47;
(d) P(A) = , P(B) = , P(C) = , P(D) = ;
(e) P(A) = , P(B) = , P(C) = , P(D) = .
Step 1 of 4
It is given that the experiment has the four possible mutually exclusive outcomes A, B, C, and D.
We have to verify whether the assignments of probability are permissible.
(a) It is given that,
If the assignments of probabilities are permissible, the total probability is unity and every
individual probability must lies within 0 and 1.
Here every probability lies within 0 and 1.
Therefore, the given assignments of probabilities are permissible.
Step 2 of 4
(b) It is given that,
Therefore, the given assignments of probabilities are not permissible, since total probability
exceeds 1.
Step 3 of 4
(c) It is given that,
Here the event C does not lies between 0 and 1.
Therefore, the given assignments of probabilities are not permissible, since one of the
assignment probabilities has negative value.
(d) It is given that,
Therefore, the given assignments of probabilities are not permissible, since total probability less
than 1.
Step 4 of 4
(e) It is given that,


Problem
With reference to Exercise 1, suppose that the points (0, 0), (0, 1), (0, 2), (1, 0), (1, 1), (1, 2), (2,
0), (2, 1), (2, 2), (3, 0), (3, 1), and (3, 2) have the probabilities 0.060, 0.012, 0.006, 0.067, 0.014,
0.092, 0.260, 0.027, 0.080, 0.166, 0.110, and 0.106.
(a) Verify that this assignment of probabilities is permissible.
(b) Find the probabilities of events R, T, and U given in part (b) of that exercise.
(c) Calculate the probabilities that zero, one, or two streams are contaminated.
Exercise 1

Step 1 of 2

contains three lakes and two streams. The points (0, 0), (0, 1), (0, 2), (1, 0), (1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 0),
(2, 1), (2, 2), (3, 0), (3, 1), (3, 2) have the probabilities 0.060, 0.012, 0.006, 0.067, 0.014, 0.092,
0.260, 0.027, 0.080, 0.166, 0.110, and 0.106.
(a) If the assignments of probabilities are permissible, the total probability is unity and every
Step 2 of 2
(b) We have to find the probability of events R, T, and U.
Thus,
(c) We have to calculate the probabilities that zero, one, or two streams are contaminated.
Zero streams are contaminated in mercury contamination are (0, 0), (1, 0), (2, 0), (3, 0).
One streams are contaminated in mercury contamination are (0, 1), (1, 1), (2, 1), (3, 1).
Two streams are contaminated in mercury contamination are (0, 2), (1, 2), (2, 2), (3, 2).
Therefore, the probability that zero, one, or two streams are contaminated in mercury
contamination is 1.
Problem
With reference to Exercise 1, suppose that each point (i, j) of the sample space is assigned the
probability
(a) Verify that this assignment of probabilities is permissible.
(b) Find the probabilities of events B, C, and D described in part (b) of that exercise.
(c) Find the probabilities that one, two, or three of the graduate students will be supervising the
physics lab.
Exercise 1
Two professors and 3 graduate assistants are responsible for the supervision of a physics lab,
and at least one professor and one graduate assistant have to be present at all times.
(a) Using two coordinates so that (1, 3), for example, represents the event that one professor and
3 graduate assistants are present, draw a diagram similar to that of Figure 3.1 showing the points
of the corresponding sample space.
(b) Describe in words the events which are represented by B = {(1, 3), (2, 3)}, C = {(1, 1), (2, 2)},
and D = {(1,2), (2,1)}.
(c) With reference to part (b), express C ∪ D symbolically by listing its elements, and also express
this event in words.
(d) With reference to part (b), are B and D mutually exclusive?
Step 1 of 4
It is given that two professors and 3 graduate assistants are responsible for the supervision of a
physics lab, and at least one professor and one graduate assistant have to be present at all
times.
The sample space for the supervision of a physics lab at least one professor and one graduate
assistant have to be present at all times is given below.
Where the first coordinate is the number professors who are present for the supervision of a
physics lab and the second coordinate is the number of graduate assistants who are present for
the supervision of a physics lab.
Suppose that each point of the sample space is assigned the probability .
The probabilities for the points are 0.268, 0.179,

0.134, 0.179, 0.134, and 0.107.
Step 2 of 4
(a) If the assignment of probabilities is permissible, then the sum of each probabilities of the
sample space is unity.
Here,
Therefore, the given assignment of probabilities is permissible.
Step 3 of 4
(b) We have to find the probabilities of event B, C, and D is obtained below.
The event has the probability is 0.134 + 0.107 = 0.241

Therefore, the probabilities of event B, C, and D is 0.241, 0.402, and 0.357 respectively.
Step 4 of 4
(c) We have to find the probabilities that one, two, or three of the graduate students will be
supervising the physics lab.
The probability that one graduate student will be supervising the physics lab is obtained below.
The probability that two graduate students will be supervising the physics lab is obtained below.
The probability that three graduate students will be supervising the physics lab is obtained below.
Therefore, the probabilities that one, two, or three of the graduate students will be supervising the
physics lab are 0.446, 0.313, and 0.241 respectively.
Problem
Explain why there must be a mistake in each of the following statements:
(a) The probability that a mineral sample will contain silver is 0.38 and the probability that it will
not contain silver is 0.52.
(b) The probability that a drilling operation will be a success is 0.34 and the probability that it will
not be a success is –0.66.
(c) An air-conditioning repair person claims that the probability is 0.82 that the compressor is all
right, 0.64 that the fan motor is all right, and 0.41 that they are both all right.
Step 1 of 3
We have to identify the mistake in each of the statement:
(a) The given statement is that “The probability that a mineral sample will contain silver is 0.38
and the probability that it will not contain silver is 0.52”.
The sum of complementary events always equals to unity.
This statement is incorrect, since sum of complementary events is not equal to 1.
Step 2 of 3
(b) The given statement is that “The probability that a drilling operation will be a success is 0.34
and the probability that it will not be a success is –0.66.
Every probability always lies between 0 and 1.
This statement is incorrect, since the probability that it will not be a success is negative value.
Step 3 of 3
(c) The given statement is that “An air-conditioning repair person claims that the probability is
0.82 that the compressor is all right, 0.64 that the fan motor is all right, and 0.41 that they are
both all right”
Let A be the compressor is all right, and B be the fan motor is all right.
It is given that,
We have to calculate :
Every probability always lies between 0 and 1.
This statement is incorrect; since the probability that either the compressor is all right or fan motor
is all right is exceed 1.
Problem
Refer to parts (c) and (d) of Exercise 1 to show that
(a) ;
(b) .
Exercise 1
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
Step 1 of 3
From exercise 3.13,
Part (c):
Part (d):
Step 2 of 3
(a)
The objective is to show that :
Consider,
Hence, if
Step 3 of 3
(b)
The objective is to show that :
Consider,
Hence, if .
Problem
Explain why there must be a mistake in each of the following statements:
(a) The probability that a student will get an A in a geology course is 0.3, and the probability that
he or she will get either an A or a B is 0.27.
(b) A company is working on the construction of two shopping centers; the probability that the
larger one will be completed on time is 0.35 and the probability that both will be completed on
time is 0.42.
Step 1 of 2
We have to identify the mistake in each of the statement:
(a) The given statement is that “The probability that a student will get an A in a geology course is
0.3, and the probability that he or she will get either an A or a B is 0.27”.
Here,
We have, the individual probability always less than or equal to the joint probability of them. That
is,
Therefore, the given statement is incorrect, since the individual probability is greater than the joint
probability of them. .
Step 2 of 2
(b) The given statement is that “A company is working on the construction of two shopping
centers; the probability that the larger one will be completed on time is 0.35 and the probability
that both will be completed on time is 0.42”.
Let A be the event that represents the larger one will be completed on time and B be another one
will be completed on time.
Here,
We have the individual probability always greater than or equal to the combined probability of
them. That is,
Therefore, the given statement is incorrect, since the individual probability is less than the
combined probability of them. .
Problem
If A and B are mutually exclusive events, P(A) = 0.26, and P(B) = 0.45, find
(a) ;
(b) ;
(c) ;
(d) .
Step 1 of 4
Consider A and B are two mutually exclusive events.
The probability values of event A and B is given as follows:
(a)
Calculate
Step 2 of 4
(b)
Calculate .
Step 3 of 4
(c)
Calculate
Step 4 of 4
(d)
Calculate .
Problem
With reference to Exercise 1, suppose that the questionnaire filled in by one of the 150 persons is
to be double-checked. If it is chosen in such a way that each questionnaire has a probability of
of being selected, find the probabilities that the person
(a) lives more than 3 miles from the center of the city;
(b) regularly drives his or her car to work;
(c) does not live more than 3 miles from the center of the city and would not want to switch to
public mass transportation if it were available;
(d) regularly drives his or her car to work but would gladly switch to public mass transportation if it
were available.
Exercise 1
information given in Figure 3.10 to find
(a) N(A);
(b) N(B);
(c) N(C);
(d) N(A ∩ B);
(e) N(A ∩ C);
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
(j) .
Step 1 of 6
It is given that, among 150 persons interviewed as part of an urban mass transportation study,
some live more than 3miles from the center of the city (A), some now regularly drive their own car
to work (B), and some would gladly switch to public mass transportation if it were available (C).

Suppose that the questionnaire filled in by one of the 150 persons is to be double-checked and it
is chosen in such a way that each questionnaire has a probability of of being selected.
Step 2 of 6
(a) We have to find the probability that the person lives more than 3 miles from the center of the
city.
The number of persons who live more than 3 miles from the center of the city is 84.
The probability of being selected for each questionnaire is .
Thus, the required probability is obtained below.
Therefore, the probability that the person lives more than 3 miles from the center of the city is
0.56.
Step 3 of 6
(b) We have to find the probability that the person regularly drives his or her car to work.
The number of persons who regularly drive their own car to work is 99.
Therefore, the probability that the person regularly drives his or her car to work is 0.66.
Step 4 of 6
(c) We have to find the probability that the person does not live more than 3 miles from the center
of the city and would not want to switch to public mass transportation if it were available.
The number of persons does not live more than 3 miles from the center of the city and would not
want to switch to public mass transportation if it were available is obtained below.
Step 5 of 6
Therefore, the probability that the person does not live more than 3 miles from the center of the
city and would not want to switch to public mass transportation if it were available is 0.287.
Step 6 of 6
(d) We have to find the probability that the person regularly drives his or her car to work but would
gladly switch to public mass transportation if it were available.
The number of persons regularly drives his or her car to work but would gladly switch to public
mass transportation if it were available is obtained below.
Therefore, the probability that the person regularly drives his or her car to work but would gladly
switch to public mass transportation if it were available is 0.42.
Problem
A campus police department needs new bicycles for its patrol persons, and the probabilities are
0.17, 0.22, 0.03, 0.29, 0.21, and 0.08 that it will buy Bianshe, Can-nonhill, Fishim, Giante, Tree,
or HT. Find the probabilities that it will buy
(a) Cannonhill or Tree;
(b) Bianshe, Giante, or Tree;
(c) Fishim or Tree;
(d) Cannonhill, Giante, or HT.
Step 1 of 5
It is given that the campus police department needs new bicycles for its patrol persons, and the
probabilities are 0.17, 0.22, 0.03, 0.29, 0.21 and 0.08 that it will buy Bianshe, Cannonhill, Fishim,
Giante, Trec, or HT.
Let, B is the event that represents Bianshe.
C is the event that represents Cannonhill.
F is the event that represents Fishim.
G is the event that represents Giante.
T is the event that represents Trec.
H is the event that represents HT.
We can observe that the events C, F, G, T, and H are mutually exclusive, since buying one
bicycle is precludes the buying others.
Step 2 of 5
(a) We have to find the probability that it will buy Cannonhill or Trec.
Therefore, the probability that it will buy Cannonhill or Trec is 0.43.
Step 3 of 5
(b) We have to find the probability that it will buy Bianshe, Giante or Trec.
Therefore, the probability that it will buy Bianshe, Giante or Trec is 0.67.
Step 4 of 5
(c) We have to find the probability that it will buy Fishim or Trec.
Therefore, the probability that it will buy Fishim or Trec is 0.24.
Step 5 of 5
(d) We have to find the probability that it will buy Cannonhill, Giante, or HT.
Therefore, the probability that it will buy Cannonhill, Giante, or HT is 0.59.

Problem
The probabilities that a TV station will receive 0, 1, 2, 3,…, 8 or at least 9 complaints after
showing a controversial program are, respectively, 0.01, 0.03, 0.07, 0.15, 0.19, 0.18, 0.14, 0.12,
0.09, and 0.02. What are the probabilities that after showing such a program the station will
receive
(a) at most 4 complaints;
(b) at least 6 complaints;
(c) from 5 to 8 complaints?
Step 1 of 3
It is given that the probabilities that a TV station will receive 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 or at least 9

complaints after showing a controversial program are, respectively, 0.01, 0.03, 0.07, 0.15, 0.19,
0.18, 0.14, 0.12, 0.09, and 0.02.
(a) We have to find the probability that after showing such a program the station will receive at
most 4 complaints.
Therefore, the probability that after showing such a program the station will receive at most 4
complaints is 0.45.
Step 2 of 3
(b) We have to find the probability that after showing such a program the station will receive at
least 6 complaints.
Therefore, the probability that after showing such a program the station will receive at least 6
complaints is 0.37.
Step 3 of 3
(c) We have to find the probability that after showing such a program the station will receive from
5 to 8 complaints.
Therefore, the probability that after showing such a program the station will receive from 5 to 8
complaints is 0.53.
Problem
If each point of the sample space of Figure 1 represents an outcome having the probability ,
find
(a) P(A);
(b) P(B);
(c) ;
(d) ;
(e) ;
(f) .
Figure 1
Step 1 of 7
It is given that the Venn diagram represents an outcome shows the points, contains the events A
and B having probability .
The Venn diagram is shown below.
Step 2 of 7
(a) To find :
The event A contains 15 points.
Thus,
Step 3 of 7
(b) To find :
The event B contains 13 points.
Thus,
Step 4 of 7
(c) To find :
The number of points both the events A and B contain 5 points.
Thus,
Step 5 of 7
(d) To find :
The number of points in A and in B or in both is 23 points.
Thus,
Step 6 of 7
(e) To find :
The number of points in B but not in A is 8 points.
Thus,
(f) To find :
The number of points not in B or not in A is 9 points.
Thus,
Step 7 of 7
Problem
The probability that an integrated circuit chip will have defective etching is 0.06, the probability
that it will have a crack defect is 0.03, and the probability that it has both defects is 0.02.
(a) What is the probability that a newly manufactured chip will have either an etching or a crack
defect?
(b) What is the probability that a newly manufactured chip will have neither defect?
Step 1 of 3
It is given that the probability that an integrated circuit chip will have defective etching is 0.06, the
probability that it will have a crack defect is 0.03, and the probability that it has both defects is
0.02.
Let us consider,
The event represents that the integrated circuit chip will have defective etching.
The event represents that the integrated circuit chip will have crack defect.
It is given that,
Step 2 of 3
(a) We have to find the probability that a newly manufactured chip will have either an etching or a
crack defect.
Therefore, the probability that a newly manufactured chip will have either an etching or a crack
defect is 0.07.
Step 3 of 3
(b) We have to find the probability that a newly manufactured chip will have neither defect.
Therefore, the probability that a newly manufactured chip will have neither defect is 0.93.
Problem
The probability that a new airport will get an award for its design is 0.16, the probability that it will
get an award for the efficient use of materials is 0.24, and the probability that it will get both
awards is 0.11.
(a) What is the probability that it will get at least one of the two awards?
(b) What is the probability that it will get only one of two awards?
Step 1 of 3
It is given that the probability that a new airport will get an award for its design is 0.16, the
probability that it will get an award for the efficient use of materials is 0.24, and the probability that
it will get both awards is 0.11.
Let us consider,
The event represents that a new airport will get an award for its design.
The event represents that a new airport will get an award for the efficient use of materials.
It is given that,
Step 2 of 3
(a) We have to find the probability that a new airport will get at least one of the two awards.
Therefore, the probability that a new airport will get at least one of the two awards is 0.29.
Step 3 of 3
(b) We have to find the probability that a new airport will get only one of two awards.
Therefore, the probability that a new airport will get only one of two awards is 0.18.
Step 1 of 4
From the information, consider the probabilities of the following events.
a)
Calculate .
Therefore, the calculated value of is .
Step 2 of 4
b)
Calculate .
Step 3 of 4
c)
Calculate .
Step 4 of 4
d)
Calculate .

Problem
It can be shown that for any three events A, B, and C, the probability that at least one of them will
occur is given by
Verify that this formula holds for the probabilities of Figure 1.
Figure 1
Step 1 of 1
It is given that for any three events A, B, and C, the probability that at least one of them will occur
is .
The formula is given below.
The Venn diagram for the data is shown below.
From the Venn diagram,
Consider R.H.S.,
Therefore, L.H.S. = R.H.S.
Hence verified.
Problem
Suppose that in the maintenance of a large medical-records file for insurance purposes the
probability of an error in processing is 0.0010, the probability of an error in filing is 0.0009, the
probability of an error in retrieving is 0.0012, the probability of an error in processing as well as
filing is 0.0002, the probability of an error in processing as well as retrieving is 0.0003, and the
probability of an error in processing and filing as well as retrieving is 0.0001. What is the
probability of making at least one of these errors?
Step 1 of 1
It is given that in the maintenance of a large medical records file for insurance purposes the
probability of an error in processing is 0.0010, the probability of an error in filing is 0.0009, the
probability of an error in retrieving is 0.0012, the probability of an error in processing as well as
filing is 0.0002, the probability of an error in processing as well as retrieving is 0.0003, and the
probability of an error in processing and filing as well as retrieving is 0.0001.
Let us consider,
The event represents that an error in processing.
The event represents that an error in filing.
The event represents that an error in retrieving.
It is given that,
We have to find the probability of making at least one of these errors
It is given that for any three events A, B, and C, the probability that at least one of them will occur
is .
The formula is given below.
Therefore, the probability of making at least one of these errors is 0.0027

Problem
If the probability of event A is p, then the odds that it will occur are given by the ratio of p to 1 – p.
Odds are usually given as a ratio of two positive integers having no common factor, and if an
event is more likely not to occur than to occur, it is customary to give the odds that it will not occur
rather than the odds that it will occur. What are the odds for or against the occurrence of an event
if its probability is
(a) ;
(b) 0.05;
(c) 0.80?
Step 1 of 3
event is more likely no to occur that to occur, it is customary to give the odds that it will not occur
rather than the odds that it will occur.
It is given that the probability of event A is , then the odds that it will occur are given by the
ratio of to .
We have to find the odds for or against the occurrence of an event with corresponding probability.
(a) It is given that the probability is .
We can write in form of odds ratio is given below.
The obtained probability is in the form .
Therefore, the odds for or against the occurrence of an event are 4 to 3.
Step 2 of 3
(b) It is given that the probability is .
Therefore, the odds for or against the occurrence of an event are 19 to 1 against to it.
Step 3 of 3
(c) It is given that the probability is .
Therefore, the odds for or against the occurrence of an event are 4 to 1.

Problem
Use the definition of Exercise 1 to show that if the odds for the occurrence of event A are a to b,
where a and b are positive integers, then
Exercise 1
(a) ;
(b) 0.05;
(c) 0.80?
Step 1 of 1
event is more likely no to occur that to occur, it is customary to give the odds that it will not occur
rather than the odds that it will occur.
Let us consider, the event A is dichotomous events that consist units having probability
, such that , where are positive integers.
Then the odds probability that it will occur are given by the ratio of to .
Consider,
Therefore, .
Hence it proved.
Problem
The formula of Exercise 1 is often used to determine subjective probabilities. For instance, if an
applicant for a job “feels” that the odds are 7 to 4 of getting the job, the subjective probability the
applicant assigns to getting the job is
(a) If a businessperson feels that the odds are 3 to 2 that a new venture will succeed (say, by
betting $300 against $200 that it will succeed), what subjective probability is he or she assigning
to its success?
(b) If a student is willing to bet $30 against $10, but not $40 against $10, that he or she will get a
passing grade in a certain course, what does this tell us about the subjective probability the
student assigns to getting a passing grade in the course?
Exercise 1
Use the definition of Exercise 2 to show that if the odds for the occurrence of event A are a to b,
where a and b are positive integers, then
Exercise 2
(a) ;
(b) 0.05;
(c) 0.80?
Step 1 of 3
(a) It is given that the businessperson feels that the odds are 3 to 2 that a new venture will
succeed.
We have to find the probability is he or she assigning to its success.
Given that,
The odds for or against the occurrence of an event that a new venture will succeed are 3 to 2.
The probability of odds is .
Therefore, the required probability is obtained below.
Therefore, the probability is he or she assigning to its success is 0.60.
Step 2 of 3
(b) It is given that the student is willing to bet $30 against $10, but not $40 against $10, that he or
she will get a passing grade in a certain course.
We have to find the subjective probability the student assigns to getting a passing grade in the
course.
Given that,
The odds for or against the occurrence of the student passing grades in the course are 3 to 1.

Step 3 of 3
The odds for or against the occurrence of the student passing grades in the course are 4 to 1.
Therefore, the subjective probability the student assigns to getting a passing grade in the course
is between 0.75 and 0.80. That is .
Problem
Subjective probabilities may or may not satisfy the third axiom of probability. When they do, we
say that they are consistent; when they do not, they ought not to be taken too seriously.
(a) The supplier of delicate optical equipment feels that the odds are 7 to 5 against a shipment
arriving late, and 11 to 1 against it not arriving at all. Furthermore, he feels that there is a 50/50
chance (the odds are 1 to 1) that such a shipment will either arrive late or not at all. Are the
corresponding probabilities consistent?
(b) There are two Ferraris in a race, and an expert feels that the odds against their winning are,
respectively, 2 to 1 and 3 to 1. Furthermore, she claims that there is a less-than-even chance that
either of the two Ferraris will win. Discuss the consistency of these claims.
Step 1 of 2
From the information, observe that the subjective probability may or may not satisfy the third
axiom of probability. Here, the subjective probability satisfies the third axiom of probability is say
that they are consistent.
a)
The supplier of delicate optical equipment feels that the odds are 7 to 5 against a shipment
arriving late.
The supplier of delicate optical equipment feels that the odds are 11 to 1 against it not arriving at
all.
The supplier feels that there is a 50/50 chance that such a shipment will either arrive late or not at
all.
The probability of shipment will arrive late is 0.5
The probability of shipment will arrive not at all is 0.5
These events are consistent. Since the probabilities of both events are independent. That is,
these events are satisfies the third axiom of probability and their intersection part is empty.
Step 2 of 2
b)
There are two Ferraris in a race and an expert feels that the odds against their winning.
The odds against the winning of first Ferrari car is 2 to 1
The odds against the winning second Ferrari car is 3 to 1
She claims that there is a less-than-even chance that either of the two Ferraris will win.
These events are not consistent. Since there is no equal chance and they are independent. That
is, these events are not satisfies the third axiom of probability and their intersection part is not
empty.
Problem
With reference to Figure 3.7, find P(I | D) and P(I | ), assuming that originally each of the 500
machine parts has the same chance of being chosen for inspection.
Step 1 of 3
It is given that 500 machine parts are inspected before they are shipped, that I denotes that a
machine part is improperly assembled, D denotes that it contains one or more defective
components, and the distribution of the 500 machine parts among the various categories. The
Venn diagram is given below.
Assume that the originally each of the 500 machine parts has the same chance of being chosen
for inspection.
From the Venn diagram, the assignments is given that,
Thus,
Step 2 of 3
To find :
Step 3 of 3
To find :
Thus,
Thus,
Therefore, and .
Problem
(a) Would you expect the probability that a randomly selected car will need major repairs in the
next year to be smaller, remain the same, or increase if you are told it already has high mileage?
Explain.
(b) Would you expect the probability that a randomly selected senior would know the second law
of thermodynamics, to be smaller, remain the same, or increase if the person selected is a
mechanical engineering major? Explain.
(c) In Part (a), identify the two events with symbols A and B and the conditional probability of
interest.
Step 1 of 3
(a)
It is expected that, the probability is increase, because car's repairs will be gradually increasing
as the time increases. Hence the cars performance is very poor in long run.
Step 2 of 3
(b)
The probability of a randomly selected senior is know the second law of thermodynamics, if the
selected person is mechanical engineering is same, because selected person already knows
second law of thermodynamics if he has a mechanical engineering major.
Step 3 of 3
(c)
Let the events are:
A: Randomly selected car will need major repairs.
B: Next year.
And, in symbolically, the conditional probability of randomly selected car having major repairs in
the next year is written as:
Problem
With reference to Exercise 1 and Figure 1, assume that each of 150 persons has the same
chance of being selected, and find the probabilities that he or she
(a) lives more than 3 miles from the center of the city given that he or she would gladly switch to
public mass transportation;
(b) regularly drives his or her car to work given that he or she lives more than 3 miles from the
center of the city;
(c) would not want to switch to public mass transportation given that he or she does not regularly
drive his or her car to work.
Exercise 1
information given in Figure 1 to find
(a) N(A);
(b) N(B);
(c) N(C);
(d) N(A ∩ B);
(e) N(A ∩ C);
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
(j) .
Figure 1
Step 1 of 5
It is given that among 150 persons interviewed as part of an urban mass transportation study,
some live more than 3 miles from the center of the city (A) , some now regularly drive their own
car to work (B), and some would gladly switch to public mass transportation if it were available
(C).
The event represents that person who lives more than 3 miles from the center of the city.
The event B represents that person who regularly drives their own car to work.
The event C represents that person who gladly switches to public mass transportation if it were
available.
It is given that,
Step 2 of 5
(a) We have to find the probability that he or she lives more than 3 miles from the center of the
city given that he or she would gladly switch to public mass transportation.
That is we have to find .

Therefore, the probability that he or she lives more than 3 miles from the center of the city, given
that he or she would gladly switch to public mass transportation is .
Step 3 of 5
(b) We have to find the probability that he or she regularly drives his or her car to work given that
he or she lives more than 3 miles from the center of the city.
Therefore, the probability that he or she regularly drives his or her car to work, given that he or
she lives more than 3 miles from the center of the city is .
Step 4 of 5
(c) We have to find the probability that he or she would not want to switch to public mass
transportation given that he or she does not regularly drives his or her car to work.
Step 5 of 5
Therefore, the probability that he or she would not want to switch to public mass transportation
given that he or she does not regularly drives his or her car to work is .
Problem
With reference to Figure 1, find
(a) P(A | B);
(b) ;
(c) ;
(d) ;
(e) ;
(f) ;
(g) ;
(h) .
Figure 1
Step 1 of 10
The Venn diagram for the data is shown below.
Step 2 of 10
From the Venn diagram,
Step 3 of 10
(a) To find :
Therefore,
Step 4 of 10
(b) To find :
Therefore,
Step 5 of 10
(c) To find :
Therefore,
Step 6 of 10
(d) To find :
Therefore,
Step 7 of 10
(e) To find :
Therefore,
Step 8 of 10
(f) To find :
Therefore,
Step 9 of 10
(g) To find :
Therefore,
Step 10 of 10
(h) To find :
Therefore,
Problem
With reference to the used car example and the probabilities given in Figure 3.8, find
(a) P(M1 | P1) and compare its value with that of P(M1);
(b) P(C3 | P2) and compare its value with that of P(C3);
(c) and compare its value with that of P(M1).
Step 1 of 7
It is given that the three alternatives for current mileage are denoted by , and , where
is low mileage. The price is either or , where are moderate; and the three
alternatives for operating costs are denoted by , where is inexpensive.
The tree diagram shows the path from left to right along the branches of the tree for 18
possibilities.
Step 2 of 7
(a) We have to find and compare its value with that of .
First find :
From the given tree diagram, we can observe that,
Step 3 of 7
Thus,
Therefore, low mileage and moderate are not independent.

Step 4 of 7
(b) We have to find and compare its value with that of .
First find :
Step 5 of 7
Thus,
Therefore, highly experience and highly fair are not independent.
Step 6 of 7
(c) We have to find and compare its value with that of .
First find :
Step 7 of 7
Thus,
Therefore, for particular element which has low mileage , moderate , and highly
experience is not independent of low mileage .
Problem
With reference to Exercise 1, find the probabilities that the airport will get the design award given
that
(a) it got the award for the efficient use of materials;
(b) it did not get the award for the efficient use of materials.
Exercise 1
The probability that a new airport will get an award for its design is 0.16, the probability that it will
get an award for the efficient use of materials is 0.24, and the probability that it will get both
awards is 0.11.
(a) What is the probability that it will get at least one of the two awards?
(b) What is the probability that it will get only one of two awards?
Step 1 of 3
It is given that the probability that a new airport will get an award for its design is 0.16, the
probability that it will get an award for the efficient use of materials is 0.24, and the probability that
it will get both awards is 0.11.
Let us consider,
The event represents that a new airport will get an award for its design.
The event represents that a new airport will get an award for the efficient use of materials.
It is given that,
Step 2 of 3
(a) We have to find the probability that the airport will get the design award given that it got the
award for the efficient use of materials.
We have to find :
Therefore, the probability that the airport will get the design award, given that it got the award for
the efficient use of materials is 0.4583.
Step 3 of 3
(b) We have to find the probability that the airport will get the design award given that it did not
get the award for the efficient use of materials.
We have to find :
Therefore, the probability that the airport will get the design award given that it did not get the
award for the efficient use of materials is 0.0658.
Problem
Prove that P(A | B) = P(A) implies that P(B | A) = P(B) provided that P(A) ≠ 0 and P(B) ≠ 0.
Step 1 of 1
We have to prove that implies that .
Consider,
Hence it proved.
Problem
In one area of the state, red cars are targeted by law enforcement for special attention. Assume
that the probability of a red car being stopped for speeding is .06 while the probability is only .02
for non-red cars. Taking, as an approximation for all cars in that area, the nation wide proportion
0.09 of red, find
(a) probability that a car will be stopped for speeding.
(b) probability that a car stopped for speeding is red.
Step 1 of 7
Consider the given probabilities
Step 2 of 7
P(red car being stopped for speeding)
P(red car not being stopped for speeding)
Step 3 of 7
P(non-red car being stopped for speeding)
P(red car not being stopped for speeding)
Step 4 of 7
P(a car is red)
Thus, P(car is not red)
Step 5 of 7
(a)
Find P(car will be stopped for speeding)
P(car will be stopped for speeding)
Step 6 of 7
P(car will be stopped for speeding)
Step 7 of 7
(b)
Find P(car stopped for speeding is red)
P(car stopped for speeding is red)
P(car stopped for speeding is red)

Problem
Given that P (A) = 0.60, P (B) = 0.40, and = 0.24, verify that
(a) P(A | B) = P(A);
(b) ;
(c) ;
(d) .
Step 1 of 4
It is given that .
(a) We have to verify that .
First, find :
Therefore,
Therefore, we can conclude that the events A and B are independent.
Step 2 of 4
(b) We have to verify that .
First, find :
Therefore,
Therefore, we can conclude that the events A and are independent.
Step 3 of 4
(c) We have to verify that .
First, find :
Therefore,
Step 4 of 4
(d) We have to verify that .
First, find :
Therefore,
Therefore, we can conclude that the events and B are independent.

Problem
Among the 24 invoices prepared by a billing department, 4 contain errors while the others do not.
If we randomly check 2 of these invoices, what are the probabilities that
(a) both will contain errors;
(b) neither will contain an error?
Step 1 of 2
a)
It is given that among the 24 invoices prepared by a billing department, 4 contain errors while the
others do not.
The billing department contains 4 errors and 20 non-error invoices out of 24 invoices.
So, the probability of getting an error on the first draw is
Probability of picking an invoice with error in second draw is
{For the second draw we have 23 invoices only 3invoices could have errors}
Thus, the probability that both will contain error is,
Therefore, the probability that both will contain errors, if we randomly check 2 of invoices is
.
Step 2 of 2
b)
The billing department contains 4 errors and 20 non-error invoices out of 24 invoices.
So, the probability of getting a non-error invoice on the first draw is
Probability of picking an invoice with non-error in second draw is
{For the second draw we have 23 invoices only 19 invoices could have non-errors}
Probability that neither will contain error is,
Therefore, the probability that neither will contain errors, if we randomly check 2 of invoices is
0.688.
Problem
Among 60 automobile repair parts loaded on a truck in San Francisco, 45 are destined for Seattle
and 15 for Vancouver. If two of the parts are unloaded in Portland by mistake and the “selection”
is random, what are the probabilities that
(a) both parts should have gone to Seattle;
(b) both parts should have gone to Vancouver;
(c) one should have gone to Seattle and one to Vancouver?
Step 1 of 7
Consider the given probabilities
Step 2 of 7
Total Number of parts
Number of parts going to Seattle
Number of parts going to Vancouver
Step 3 of 7
P(a part is going to Seattle)
Step 4 of 7
P(a part is going to Vancouver)
Step 5 of 7
(a)
Find P(both parts should have gone to Seattle)
This is a selection without replacement as once a part is unloade it is not put back for selection.
P(both parts should have gone to Seattle)
P(both parts should have gone to Seattle)
Step 6 of 7
(b)
Find P(both parts should have gone to Vancouver)
P(both parts should have gone to Vancouver)

P(both parts should have gone to Vancouver)
Step 7 of 7
(c)
Find P(one should have gone to Seattle and one to Vancouver)
P(one should have gone to Seattle and one to Vancouver)
P(one should have gone to Seattle and one to Vancouver)

Step 1 of 3
The probability of service calls made by contractor is 0.85.
That is,
The probability that there is complaint given that customer serviced by contractor is 0.10.
That is,
The probability of service calls made by own employees is 0.15.
That is,
The probability that there is complaint given that customer serviced by own employee is 0.05.
That is,
Step 2 of 3
a)
Find the probability that receiving a complaint.
That is find .
Therefore, the probability that receiving a complaint is
Step 3 of 3
b)
Find the probability that the complaint was from a customer serviced by the contractor.
Therefore, the probability that the complaint was from a customer serviced by the contractor is
Problem
If P(A) = 0.60, P(B) = 0.45, and = 0.27, are A and B independent?
Step 1 of 1
It is given that the probabilities .
If two events A and B are independent events if and only if, .
Consider R.H.S.:
Therefore, the given events A and B are independent, since .

Problem
If the odds are 5 to 3 that an event M will not occur, 2 to 1 that event N will occur, and 4 to 1 that
they will not both occur, are the two events M and N independent?
Step 1 of 2
An event M will not occur if the odds are 5 to 3.
An event N will occur if the odds are 2 to 1.
An event both M and N will not occur if the odds are 4 to 1.
The probability that an event M will not occur is,
The probability that an event N will occur is,
The probability that an event both M and N will not occur is,
Step 2 of 2
It is required to find whether M and N are independent or not.
Now,
And,
Therefore,
Thus, the given events M and N are not independent, since .

Problem
Find the probabilities of getting
(a) eight heads in a row with a balanced coin;
(b) three 3’s and then a 4 or a 5 in four rolls of a balanced die;
(c) five multiple-choice questions answered correctly, if for each question the probability of
answering it correctly is .
Step 1 of 3
(a) It is given that a balanced coin tosses eight times.
We have to find the probability of getting eight heads in a row with a balanced coin.
There are totally cases. That is .
The number of favorable cases is that eight heads in a row is only 1 .
That is,
Therefore, the probability of getting eight heads in a row with a balanced coin is .
Step 2 of 3
(b) It is given that the balanced die rolls four times.
We have to find the probability of getting three 3’s and then a 4 or a 5 in four rolls.
Here, given that the die is unbiased, so the events are equally likely. Then the probability of
occurrence of any number is .
Therefore, the probability of getting three 3’s and then a 4 or a 5 in four rolls is .
Step 3 of 3
(c) It is given that the test contains five multiple choice questions.
We have to find the probability of answering the five multiple choice questions correctly.
Given that the probability of answering the question correctly is .
Therefore, the probability of answering the five multiple choice questions correctly is .
Problem
For three or more events which are not independent, the probability that they will all occur is
obtained by multiplying the probability that one of the events will occur, times the probability that a
second of the events will occur given that the first event has occurred, times the probability that a
third of the events will occur given that the first two events have occurred, and so on. For
instance, for three events we can write
and we find that the probability of drawing without replacement three aces in a row from an
ordinary deck of 52 playing cards is
(a) If six bullets, of which three are blanks, are randomly inserted into a gun, what is the
probability that the first three bullets fired will all be blanks?
(b) In a certain city during the month of May, the probability that a rainy day will be followed by
another rainy day is 0.80 and the probability that a sunny day will be followed by a rainy day is
0.60. Assuming that each day is classified as being either rainy or sunny and that the weather on
any given day depends only on the weather the day before, find the probability that in the given
city a rainy day in May is followed by two more rainy days, then a sunny day, and finally another
rainy day.
(c) A department store which bills its charge-account customers once a month has found that if a
customer pays promptly one month, the probability is 0.90 that he will also pay promptly the next
month; however, if a customer does not pay promptly one month, the probability that he will pay
promptly the next month is only 0.50. What is the probability that a customer who has paid
promptly one month will not pay promptly the next three months?
(d) If 5 of a company’s 12 delivery trucks do not meet emission standards and 4 of the 12 trucks
are randomly picked for inspection, what is the probability that none of them meets emission
standards?
Step 1 of 4
(a)
We have to find the probability that the first three bullets fired will all be blanks.
There are totally 6 bullets.
The required probability is obtained below.
Therefore, the probability that the first three bullets fired will all be blanks is .
Step 2 of 4
(b)
We have to find the probability that in the given city a rainy day in May is followed by
two more rainy days, then a sunny day, and finally another rainy day.

Therefore, the probability that in the given city a rainy day in May is followed by two
more rainy days, then a sunny day, and finally another rainy day is .
Step 3 of 4
c)
We have to find the probability that a customer who has paid promptly one month will
not pay promptly the next three months.
Therefore, the probability that a customer who has paid promptly one month will not pay
promptly the next three months is .
Step 4 of 4
d)
We have to find the probability that none of them meets emission standards.
The probability that the company delivery trucks do not meet emission is .
Therefore, probability that none of them meets emission standards is

Step 1 of 1
It is given that the probability for a new worker who has attended the company’s training program
will meet the production quota is 0.83, and the probability that for a new worker who has not
attended the company’s training program is 0.35. Suppose 80% of all new workers attend the
training program.
Let us consider,
The event represents a new worker will meet the production quota.
The events represents all the new workers attend the training program.
Thus, it is given that,
The probability that all new workers attend the training program is,
The probability that a new worker who has attended the company’s training program will meet the
production quota is,
The probability that a new worker who has not attended the company’s training program will meet
the production quota is,
Here,
We have to find the probability that a new worker will meet the production quota.
The required probability can be done, using Bayes’ theorem.
Therefore, the probability that that a new worker will meet the production quota is .
Step 1 of 1
It is given that the probability for a new worker who has attended the company’s training program
will meet the production quota is 0.83, and the probability that for a new worker who has not
attended the company’s training program is 0.35. Suppose 80% of all new workers attend the
training program.
Let us consider,
The event represents a new worker will meet the production quota.
The events represents all the new workers attend the training program.
The probability that all new workers attend the training program is,
The probability that a new worker who has attended the company’s training program will meet the
production quota is,
The probability that a new worker who has not attended the company’s training program will meet
the production quota is,
Here,
We have to find the probability that a new worker who meets the production quota will have
attended the company’s training program.
Therefore, the probability that a new worker who meets the production quota will have attended
the company’s training program is 0.905.
Step 1 of 2
Let us consider,
The event represents the consulting firm rent cars have bad tires.
The event represents the rent cars from agency D.
The event represents the rent cars from agency E.
The event represents the rent cars from agency F.
The probability that rent cars from agency D is .
The probability that rent cars from agency E is .
The probability that rent cars from agency F is .
The probability that rent cars from agency D have bad tires is .
The probability that rent cars from agency E have bad tires is .
The probability that rent cars from agency F have bad tires is .
Step 2 of 2
Find the probability that the firm will get a car with bad tires.
Therefore, the probability that that the firm will get a car with bad tires is
Step 1 of 2
Let us consider,
The event represents the consulting firm rent cars have bad tires.
The event represents the rent cars from agency D.
The event represents the rent cars from agency E.
The event represents the rent cars from agency F.
The probability that rent cars from agency D is .
The probability that rent cars from agency E is .
The probability that rent cars from agency F is .
The probability that rent cars from agency D have bad tires is .
The probability that rent cars from agency E have bad tires is .
The probability that rent cars from agency F have bad tires is .
Step 2 of 2
Find the probability that the firm will get a car with bad tires rented by the firm came from agency
F.
That is, find .
The required probability is obtained below:
Therefore, the probability that that the firm will get a car with bad tires is
Step 1 of 4
The tree diagram is given below.
From the tree diagram, we can observe that,
Step 2 of 4
(a) To find :
Step 3 of 4
(b) To find :
Step 4 of 4
(c) To find :
Step 1 of 3
It is given that an assembly plant receives its voltage regulators from three different suppliers,
60% from supplier , 30% from suppliers , and 10% from supplier . Also 95% of the
voltage regulators from , 80% of the voltage regulators from , and 65% of the voltage
regulators from perform according to specifications.
It is given that,
Step 2 of 3
(a) We have to find the probability that a voltage regulator that performs according to
specifications came from supplier .
Therefore, the probability that a voltage regulator that performs according to specifications came
from supplier is 0.651.
Step 3 of 3
(b) We have to find the probability that a voltage regulator that performs according to
specifications came from supplier .
Therefore, the probability that a voltage regulator that performs according to specifications came
from supplier is 0.274.
Problem
With reference to the example, for a problem diagnosed as being due to an incomplete initial
repair, find the probability that the initial repair was made by
(a) Tom;
(b) Georgia;
(c) Peter.
Example
Four technicians regularly make repairs when breakdowns occur on an automated production
line. Janet, who services 20% of the breakdowns, makes an incomplete repair 1 time in 20; Tom,
who services 60% of the breakdowns, makes an incomplete repair 1 time in 10; Georgia, who
services 15% of the breakdowns, makes an incomplete repair 1 time in 10; and Peter, who
services 5% of the breakdowns, makes an incomplete repair 1 time in 20. For the next problem
with the production line diagnosed as being due to an initial repair that was incomplete, what is
the probability that this initial repair was made by Janet?
Source
Let A be the event that the initial repair was incomplete, B1 that the initial repair was made by
Janet, B2 that it was made by Tom, B3 that it was made by Georgia, and B4 that it was made by
Peter.
Substituting the various probabilities into the formula of Theorem 1, we get
and it is of interest to note that although Janet makes an incomplete repair only 1 out of 20 times,
namely, 5% of the breakdowns she services, more than 11% of the incomplete repairs are her
responsibility.
Theorem 1
If B1, B2,..., Bn are mutually exclusive events of which one must occur, then
for r = 1, 2,..., n.
Step 1 of 3
It is given that four technicians regularly make repairs when breakdowns occur on an automated
production line. Janet, who services 20% of the breakdowns, makes an incomplete repair 1 time
in 20; Tom, who services 60% of the breakdowns, makes an incomplete repair 1 time in 10;
Georgia, who services 15% of the breakdowns, makes an incomplete repair 1 time in 10; Peter,
who services 5% of the breakdowns, makes an incomplete repair 1 time in 20.
Let A be the event that the initial repair was incomplete, that the initial repair was made by
Janet, that the initial repair was made by Tom, that the initial repair was made by
Georgia, and that the initial repair was made by Peter.
(a) We have to find the probability that the initial repair was made by Tom.
We have to find :
Therefore, the probability that the initial repair was made by Tom is 0.686.
Step 2 of 3
(b) We have to find the probability that the initial repair was made by .
We have to find :
Therefore, the probability that the initial repair was made by Tom is 0.171.
Step 3 of 3
(c) We have to find the probability that the initial repair was made by Peter.
We have to find :
Therefore, the probability that the initial repair was made by Peter is 0.029.
Problem
Two firms V and W consider bidding on a road-building job, which may or may not be awarded
depending on the amounts of the bids. Firm V submits a bid and the probability is that it will get
the job provided firm W does not bid. The probability is that W will bid, and if it does, the
probability that V will get the job is only .
(a) What is the probability that V will get the job?
(b) If V gets the job, what is the probability that W did not bid?
Step 1 of 5
Define the following events
Step 2 of 5
W : W bids for the job
W’ : W does not bid for the job
V : V gets the job
V : V does not get the job
Step 3 of 5
Probabilities for the above events are
Step 4 of 5
(a)
Find P(V will get the job)
P(V will get the job) = P(V)
P(V will get the job)
Step 5 of 5
(b)
Find P(W did not bid given V gets the job)
P(W did not bid given V gets the job) = P(W’|V)

P(W did not bid given V gets the job)
Problem
Engineers in charge of maintaining our nuclear fleet must continually check for corrosion inside
the pipes that are part of the cooling systems. The inside condition of the pipes cannot be
observed directly but a nondestructive test can give an indication of possible corrosion. This test
is not infallible. The test has probability 0.7 of detecting corrosion when it is present but it also
has probability 0.2 of falsely indicating internal corrosion. Suppose the probability that any section
of pipe has internal corrosion is 0.1.
(a) Determine the probability that a section of pipe has internal corrosion, given that the test
indicates its presence.
(b) Determine the probability that a section of pipe has internal corrosion, given that the test is
negative.
Step 1 of 2
It is given that the inside condition of the pipes cannot be observed directly but a nondestructive
test can give an indication of possible corrosion. The test is not infallible. The test has probability
0.7 of detecting corrosion when it is present but it also has probability 0.2 falsely indicating
internal corrosion. The probability that any section of pipe has internal corrosion is 0.1.
Let us consider,
The event represents that the test detecting corrosion when it is present.
The event represents that the test falsely detecting corrosion when it is present.
The event represents that the pipe has internal corrosion.
From the given information,
The complimentary are,
(a) We have to find the probability that a section of pipe has internal corrosion, given that the test
indicates is presence.
Therefore, the probability that a section of pipe has internal corrosion, given that the test indicates
is presence is 0.28.
Step 2 of 2
(b) We have to find the probability that a section of pipe has internal corrosion, given that the test
is negative.
Therefore, the probability that a section of pipe has internal corrosion, given that the test is
negative is 0.04.
Problem
An East Coast manufacturer of printed circuit boards exposes all finished boards to an online
automated verification test. During one period, 900 boards were completed and 890 passed the
test. The test is not infallible. Of 30 boards intentionally made to have noticeable defects, 25 were
detected by the test. Use the relative frequencies to approximate the conditional probabilities
needed below.
(a) Give an approximate value for P[Pass test | board has defects].
(b) Explain why your answer in part a may be too small.
(c) Give an approximate value for the probability that a manufactured board will have defects. In
order to answer the question, you need information about the conditional probability that a good
board will fail the test. This is important to know but was not available at the time an answer was
required. To proceed, you can assume that this probability is zero.
(d) Approximate the probability that a board has defects given that it passed the automated test.
Step 1 of 5
Let denote the event that a circuit board passes the automated test.
The probability that a circuit board passes the automated test is,
Let be the event that the board is defective.
The probability that circuit board not pass the test given that board has defective is,
Step 2 of 5
a)
Find
That is find
Therefore, the value of is
Step 3 of 5
b)
The approximation is too small, because the boards ware intentionally made to have noticeable
defects.
Step 4 of 5
c)
Find the probability that manufactured board will have defects.
From the given information
By definition of total probability,

Therefore, the probability that manufactured board will have defects is
Step 5 of 5
d)
Find the probability that a board has defects given that it passed the automated test.
That is find
By Bayes’ theorem,
Therefore, the probability that a board has defects given that it passed the automated test is
Problem
(a) In a recent random check of 300 books housed in the Engineering Library, 27 were checked
out. For a randomly selected book today, what is the probability that it is currently checked out?
(b) Last year, 380 students applied for 28 internships administered by the university. Next year
you will apply for one of the 28 internships and would like to estimate the probability of receiving
one. Give your estimate and comment on one factor that might influence your estimate.
Step 1 of 2
(a) It is given that a recent random check of 300 books housed in the Engineering Library, 27
were checked out.
We have to find the probability that it is currently checked out, if a randomly selected book today.
Total number of books housed in the Library is,
The favorable outcomes is the number of checked out books in the Library is,
Therefore, the probability that is it is currently checked out, if a randomly selected book today
0.09.
Step 2 of 2
(b) It is given that the 380 students applied for 28 internships administered by the university for
last year.
We have to estimate the probability of receiving new one; will apply for the 28 internships.
The favorable outcomes is the number students apply for internships administered is,
Therefore, the probability that a receiving new one, will apply for the 28 internship is 0.074.
Problem
A salesperson of industrial chemicals has four customers in Sacramento, whom he may or may
not be able to visit on a 2-day trip to this city. He will not visit any of these customers more than
once.
(a) Using two coordinates so that (2,1), for example, represents the event that he will visit two of
his customers on the first day and one on the second day, draw a diagram similar to that of
Figure 3.1 showing the points of the corresponding sample space.
(b) List the points of the sample space that constitute the events A, B, and C that he will visit all
four of his customers, that he will visit more of this customers on the first day than on the second
day, and that he will visit at least three of his customers on the second day.
(c) Which of the three pairs of events, A and B, B and C, or A and C, are mutually exclusive?
Step 1 of 4
It is given that a salesperson of industrial chemicals has four customers in , whom he may or may
once.
The sample space for four customers in and they may or may not be able to visit trip is obtained
below.
Where the first coordinate is the number of customers visit in first day trip in Sacramento and the
second coordinate is the number of customers visit in second day trip in Sacramento.
Step 2 of 4
Step 3 of 4
(b) A is the event that he will visit all four of his customers.
That is,
B is the event that he will visit more of these customers on the first day than on the second day.
That is,
C is the event that he will visit at least three of his customers on the second day.
That is,
Step 4 of 4
(c) The events and contains all the elements that are in both and is given below.
That is,
That is,
That is,
Therefore, we can conclude that the three pairs of events are not mutually
exclusive, since the events are have common elements and are
mutually exclusive, since the events , have no elements in common.
Problem
With reference to the preceding exercise, express each of the following events symbolically by
listing its elements, and also express it in words:
(a) ;
(b)
(c) ;
(d) .
Step 1 of 4
It is given that a salesperson of industrial chemicals has four customers in , whom he may or may
once.
The sample space for four customers in and they may or may not be able to visit trip is obtained
below.
Where the first coordinate is the number of customers in and the second coordinate is the
customers may or may not be able to visit on a 2-day trip.
A is the event that he will visit all four of his customers.
That is,
B is the event that he will visit more of these customers on the first day than on the second day.
That is,
C is the event that he will visit at least three of his customers on the second day.
That is,
Step 2 of 4
(a) The event contains all the elements of the sample space that are not in is given below.
That is the events that he will visit at most three of his customers on the first day or the second
day.
Step 3 of 4
(b) The event contains all the elements that are in , in or in both is given below.
That is the events that he will visit at least 2 of his customers on the first day and four customers
on second day.
(c) The event contains all the elements that are in both and is given below.
That is the events that he will visit with 4 of his customers on the first day.
Step 4 of 4
(d) The event contains all the elements that are in both and is given below.
That is the events that he will visit with 2 and 3 of his customers on the first day.
Problem
(c) ;
(b) .
Step 1 of 2
We are supposed to verify the following relations.
(a) We are supposed to verify that
Step 2 of 2
(b) We are supposed to verify that

Problem
The quality of surround sound from four digital movie systems is to be rated superior, average, or
inferior, and we are interested only in how many of the systems get each of these ratings. Draw a
tree diagram which shows the 12 different possibilities.
Step 1 of 1
It is given that the quality of surround sound from four digital movie systems is to be rated
superior, average, or inferior.
The tree diagram that shows the system gets each of these ratings.
The tree diagram shows the 12 different possibilities for four digital movie systems of ratings
superior, average, or inferior.
Problem
Alarm units are to be connected at four fixed positions along a pipeline. In how many ways can
the four available alarm units be connected to the four positions along the line?
Step 1 of 1
It is given that alarm units are to be connected at four fixed positions along a pipeline.
We have to find the possible number of ways can the four available alarm units be connected to
the four positions along the line.
Here order is important, so we have to use permutations.
There are 4 fixed positions along a pipeline.
We can choose 4 alarm units be connected to the four positions along the line in ways.
The number of ways can the four available alarm units be connected to the four positions along
the line is obtained below.
Therefore, there is 24 ways in which four available alarm units be connected to the four positions
along the line.
Problem
In how many ways can two out of seven chemical engineers be assigned to a new project?
Step 1 of 1
We supposed to find the number of ways in which two out of chemical engineers be assigned to a
new project.
There are seven chemical engineers assigned to a new project.
We can choose 2 chemical engineers out of 7 chemical engineers in ways can be assigned
to a new project.
The number of ways in which 2 chemical engineers out of 7 chemical engineers can be assigned
to a new project is obtained below.
Therefore, there is 21 ways in which 2 chemical engineers out of 7 chemical engineers can be
assigned to a new project.
Problem
Refer to the example of motors for miniaturized capsules on page 56, but instead suppose that
20 motors are available and that 4 will not operate satisfactorily, when placed in a capsule. If the
scientist wishes to fabricate two capsules, with two motors each, find the probability that among
the four randomly selected motors
(a) all four operate satisfactorily;
(b) three operate satisfactorily and one does not.
Step 1 of 2
It is given that the next generation of miniaturized wireless capsules with active locomotion will
require two miniature electric motors to maneuver each capsule. Suppose 20 motors have been
fabricated but that, in spite of tests performed on the individual motors, 4 will not operate
satisfactorily when placed into a capsule.
(a) We have to find the probability that among the four randomly selected motors all four operate
satisfactorily, if the scientist wants to fabricate two capsules with 2 motors each.
There are equally likely ways of choosing 4 of 20 motors, so .
There are 4 will not operate satisfactorily when placed into a capsule, so there is 16 (= 20 – 4) will
good motors.
The number of favorable outcome is the number of ways in which four good motors can be
selected from 16:
The required probability that among the four randomly selected motors all four operate
satisfactorily is obtained.
Therefore, the probability that among the four randomly selected motors all four operate
satisfactorily is 0.376.
Step 2 of 2
(b) We have to find the probability that among the four randomly selected motors three operate
satisfactorily and one does not.
The number of favorable outcomes is the number of ways in which three operate satisfactory
motors and one unsatisfactory motor can be selected,
The required probability that among the four randomly selected motors three operate
satisfactorily and one does not is obtained.
Therefore, the probability that among the four randomly selected motors three operate
satisfactorily and one does not is 0.462.
Problem
Given P(A) = 0.35, P(B) = 0.40, and = 0.20, find
(a) ;
(b) ;
(c) ;
(d) .
(e) Are A and B independent?
Step 1 of 5
It is given that .
(a) To find :
Step 2 of 5
(b) To find :
Step 3 of 5
(c) To find :
Step 4 of 5
(d) To find :
Step 5 of 5
(e) We have to verify the events A and B are independent or not.
Consider,
Therefore, the events, A and B are not independent, since .

Problem
In a sample of 446 cars stopped at a roadblock, only 67 of the drivers had their seatbelts
fastened. Estimate the probability that a driver stopped on that road will have his or her seatbelt
fastened.
Step 1 of 1
It is given that a sample of 446 cars stopped at a roadblock, only 67 of the drivers had their
seatbelts fastened.
We have to estimate the probability that a driver stopped on that road will have his or her seatbelt
fastened.
There are totally 446 cars stopped at a roadblock, so .
The number of favorable outcomes is the number drivers had their seatbelts fastened, .
The required probability that a driver stopped on that road will have his or her seatbelt fastened is
obtained below.
Therefore, the probability that a driver stopped on that road will have his or her seatbelt fastened
is 0.150.
Problem
The marketing manager reported to the head engineer regarding a survey concerning the
company’s portable cleaning tool. He claims that, among the 200 customers surveyed, 165 said
the product is reliable, 117 said it is easy to use, 88 said it is both reliable and easy to use, and
33 said it is neither reliable nor easy to use. Explain why the head engineer should question this
claim.
Step 1 of 1
It is given that among the 200 customers surveyed, 165 said the product is reliable, 117 said it is
easy to use, 88 said it is both reliable and easy to use, and 33 said it is neither reliable nor easy
to use.
Let us consider,
The event represents that the product is reliable, the event represents that the product is
easy to use.
It is given that,
Which is contradiction, since total number of customers for researcher claim is greater than 200.
Problem
If the probabilities that a satellite launching rocket will explode during lift-off or have its guidance
system fail in flight are 0.0002 and 0.0005, find the probabilities that such a rocket will
(a) not explode during lift-off;
(b) explode during lift-off or have its guidance system fail in flight;
(c) neither explode during lift-off nor have its guidance system fail in flight.
Step 1 of 3
It is given that the probability that a satellite launching rocket will explode during lift-off or have its
guidance system fail in flight are 0.0002 and 0.0005.
Let us consider,
The event represents that a satellite launching rocket will explode during lift-off.
The event B represents that a satellite launching rocket will guidance system fail in flight.
It is given that
We observe that explode during lift-off and the guidance system fail in flight of the satellite
launching rocket is independent events.
So,
(a) We have to find the probability that such a rocket will not explode during lift-off.
We have to find :
Therefore, the probability that such a rocket will not explode during lift-off is 0.9998.
Step 2 of 3
(b) We have to find the probability that such a rocket will explode during lift-off or have its
guidance system fail in flight.
We have to find :
Therefore, the probability that such a rocket will explode during lift-off or have its guidance
system fail in flight is 0.9998.
Step 3 of 3
(c) We have to find the probability that such a rocket will neither explode during lift- off nor have
its guidance system fail in flight.
We have to find :
Therefore, the probability that such a rocket will neither explode during lift- off nor have its
guidance system fail in flight is 0.9993.
Problem
Given P(A) = 0.20, P(B) = 0.45, and = 0.09, verify that
(a) P(A | B) = P(A);
(b) ;
(c) P(B | A) = P(B);
(d) .
Step 1 of 4
It is given that .
We have to verify the following relations.
(a) We have to verify that .
First, find :
Therefore,
Step 2 of 4
(b) We have to verify that .
First, find :
Therefore,
Therefore, we can conclude that the events A and are independent.
Step 3 of 4
(c) We have to verify that .
First, find :
Therefore,
Step 4 of 4
(d) We have to verify that .

First, find :
Therefore,
Therefore, we can conclude that the events and B are independent.

Problem
If events A and B are independent and P(A) = 0.45 and P(B) = 0.30, find
(a) ;
(b) P(A | B)
(c) ;
(d) .
Step 1 of 4
Suppose that the events A and B are independent and .
(a) We have to find :
Step 2 of 4
(b) We have to find :
Step 3 of 4
(c) We have to find :
Step 4 of 4
(d) We have to find :

Problem
The following frequency table shows the classification of 58 landfills in a state according to their
concentration of the three hazardous chemicals arsenic, barium, and mercury.
Barium
High Low
Mercury Mercury
High Low High Low
High 1 3 5 9
Arsenic
Low 4 8 10 18
If a landfill is selected at random, find the probability that it has
(a) a high concentration of mercury;
(b) a high concentration of barium and low concentrations of arsenic and mercury;
(c) high concentrations of any two of the chemicals and low concentration of the third;
(d) a high concentration of any one of the chemicals and low concentrations of the other two.
Step 1 of 4
From the information, observe that 58 landfills in a state according to their concentration of the
three hazardous chemicals.
The classification table is as follows:
a)
Calculate the probability that selected landfill is a high concentration of mercury.
The total number of cases is 58.
From the table, observe that the number of landfills of high concentration of mercury with high
concentration of Barium is 5.
From the table, observe that the number of landfills of high concentration of mercury with low
concentration of Barium is 15.
Therefore, the total favourable cases to the high concentration of mercury is 20.
Now, the required probability is,
Step 2 of 4
b)
Calculate the probability that the selected landfill is high concentrated of barium and low
concentrated of arsenic and mercury.
Consider A is the event that represents the land files of high concentrated of Barium with low
concentrated of Mercury.
Consider B is the event that represents the landfills with low concentrated arsenic.
From the information, observe that the number of landfills of high concentrated of Barium with low
concentrated of Mercury and low concentrated arsenic is 8.
Therefore,
Step 3 of 4
c)
Calculate the probability that the selected landfill with high concentration of any two of the
chemicals and low concentration of the third.
Consider E is the event that represents the number of landfills of High concentration of Barium
with both high and low concentrations of Mercury.
Consider F is the event that represents the number of landfills of low concentrated arsenic.
The number of landfills of High concentration of Barium with both high and low concentrations of
Mercury and low concentrated arsenic is 12
Therefore,
Step 4 of 4
d)
Calculate the probability that the selected landfill with high concentration of any one of the
chemicals and low concentration of the other two.
Consider is the event that represents the landfills of low concentration of Barium with low
concentration of Mercury.
Consider is the event that represents the landfills of both low and high concentration of
arsenic.
The favourable number of cases of landfills of low concentration of Barium with low concentration
of Mercury and both low and high concentration of arsenic is 27
Therefore,
Problem
Refer to Exercise 1. Given that a landfill, selected at random, is found to have a high
concentration of barium, what is the probability that its concentration is
(a) high in mercury?
(b) low in both arsenic and mercury?
(c) high in either arsenic or mercury?
Exercise 1
The following frequency table shows the classification of 58 landfills in a state according to their
concentration of the three hazardous chemicals arsenic, barium, and mercury.
Barium
High Low
Mercury Mercury
High Low High Low
High 1 3 5 9
Arsenic
Low 4 8 10 18
If a landfill is selected at random, find the probability that it has
(a) a high concentration of mercury;
(b) a high concentration of barium and low concentrations of arsenic and mercury;
(c) high concentrations of any two of the chemicals and low concentration of the third;
(d) a high concentration of any one of the chemicals and low concentrations of the other two.
Step 1 of 4
It is given that the frequency table shows that classification of 58 landfills in a state according to
their concentration of the three hazardous chemicals arsenic, barium, and mercury.
Step 2 of 4
(a) We have to find the probability that its concentration is high in mercury, given that it is a high
concentration of barium.
Therefore, the probability that its concentration is high in mercury, given that it is a high
concentration of barium is 0.3125.
Step 3 of 4
(b) We have to find the probability that its concentration is low in both arsenic and mercury, given
that it is a high concentration of barium.
Therefore, the probability that its concentration is low in arsenic and mercury, given that it is a
high concentration of barium is 0.50.
Step 4 of 4
(c) We have to find the probability that its concentration is high in either arsenic or mercury, given
that it is a high concentration of barium.
Therefore, the probability that its concentration is high in arsenic or mercury, given that it is a high
concentration of barium is 0.5625.
Problem
An explosion in an LNG storage tank in the process of being repaired could have occurred as the
result of static electricity, malfunctioning electrical equipment, an open flame in contact with the
liner, or purposeful action (industrial sabotage). Interviews with engineers who were analyzing the
risks involved led to estimates that such a explosion would occur with probability 0.25 as a result
of static electricity, 0.20 as a result of malfunctioning electric equipment, 0.40 as a result of an
open flame, and 0.75 as a result of purposeful action. These interviews also yielded subjective
estimates of the prior probabilities of these four causes of 0.30, 0.40, 0.15, and 0.15, respectively.
What was the most likely cause of the explosion?
Step 1 of 3
It is given that the interviews with engineers who were analyzing the risks involved led to
estimates that such an explosion would occur with probability 0.25 as a result of static electricity,
0.20 as a result of mal-functioning electric equipment, 0.40 as a result of an open flame, and 0.75
as a result of purposeful action.
These interviews also yield subjective estimates of the prior probabilities of these four causes of
0.30, 0.40, 0.15, and 0.15, respectively.
Let us consider,
The event represents the risks of explosion.
The event represents static electricity.
The event represents mal-functioning electric equipment.
The event represents static open flame.
The event represents purposeful action.
It is given that,
Step 2 of 3
The probability of total sample space is given as,
Step 3 of 3
Now, find out the most likely cause of explosion.
As per the requirement, find the conditional probability of each cause given for explosion.
The means find
By definition of Bayes’ theorem,

From the above results, it can be observed that
Therefore, the purposeful action is more likely, since risks of explosion with purposeful action
have more probability compared with others.
Step 1 of 4
Let denote the students using laptop.
The probability of students using laptop is 0.9.
That is,
Let denote the students using tablet.
The probability of students using tablet is 0.3.
That is,
Let denote the students using both laptop and tablet.
The probability of students using both laptop and tablet is 0.2
That is,
Step 2 of 4
a)
Find the probability that the student does not use a laptop but uses a tablet.
That is, find
Therefore, the probability that the students does not use a laptop but uses a tablet is
Step 3 of 4
b)
Find the probability that the students use exactly one of the devices.
That is, find
Therefore, the probability that the students use exactly one of the devices is
Step 4 of 4
c)
Find the probability of using a laptop given that the student uses at least one of the two devices.
That is, find
Therefore, the probability of using a laptop given that the student uses at least one of the two
devices is
Problem
Amy commutes to work by two different routes A and B. If she comes home by route A, then she
will be home no later than 6 P.M. with probability 0.8, but if she comes home by route B, then she
will be home no later than 6 P.M. with probability 0.7. In the past, the proportion of times that Amy
chose route A is 0.4.
(a) What proportion of times is Amy home no later than 6 P.M.?
(b) If Amy is home after 6 P.M. today, what is the probability that she took route B?
Step 1 of 3
Let us consider,
The event represents that she will chose the route to come home.
The event represents that Amy chose route A.
The event represents that Amy chose route B.
It is given that,
Step 2 of 3
a)
Find the proportion of times is Amy home no later than 6 PM.
That is, find
By using Bayes’ probability, we can do the following problem.
The required probability for the given data is obtained below:
Therefore, the proportion of times is Amy home no later than 6 P.M is
Step 3 of 3
b)
Find the probability that she took route B, given that Amy is home after 6 P.M. today.
That is, find .
By using Bayes’ probability, we can do the following problem.
The required probability for the given data is obtained below.
Therefore, the probability that she took route B, given that Amy is home after 6 P.M. today is

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Chapter 3, Problem 1E

An environmental engineer suspects mercury contamination in an area which contains three

It is given that an environmental engineer suspects mercury contamination in an area which

We have to draw a diagram for the sample space of 12 outcomes.

T is the event that none of the streams is contaminated.

U is the event that fewer lakes than streams are contaminated.

An environmental engineer suspects mercury contamination in an area which contains three

It is given that an environmental engineer suspects mercury contamination in an area which

We have to draw a diagram for the sample space of 12 outcomes.

Let T is the event that none of the streams is contaminated.

An environmental engineer suspects mercury contamination in an area which contains three

It is given that an environmental engineer suspects mercury contamination in an area which

T is the event that none of the streams is contaminated.

U is the event that fewer lakes than streams are contaminated.

That is the events that none of the lakes or streams is contaminated.

That is the events that at least one of the streams is contaminated.

(a) F = {(1,0), (1,1)}

(b) G = {(0,2), (1,1), (2,0)}

That is the events that work on the car is average.

(d) With reference to part (b), are B and D mutually exclusive?

(a) We have to draw a diagram for the sample space of 6 outcomes.

The Venn diagram is given below.

With reference to Exercise 1, what events are represented by

(a) regions 1 and 3 together;

(b) regions 3 and 4 together;

(c) regions 1, 2, and 3 together?

The Venn diagram is given below.

With reference to Figure 3.4, what events are represented by

(b) regions 4 and 6 together;

(c) regions 7 and 8 together;

(d) regions 1, 2, 3 and 5 together?

The Venn diagram is given below.

(a) none of the major defects;

(b) a shaft that is large and windings improper;

The Venn diagram is given below.

It is given that a motor will have none of the major defects.

but the electrical connections are satisfactory.

Use Venn diagrams to verify that

We are supposed to verify the following relations.

We are supposed to verify that

We are supposed to verify that

We are supposed to verify that

There are 3 different positions; set 2 switches in 3 different positions in ways.

One engineering group consists of 6 men and 4 women.

One engineering group consists of 6 men and 4 women.

But, the number ways to choose 2 men out of the 6 is,

It is given that there are 9 cars in a race.

for the second place in ways.

the third place in ways.

of these n objects taken all together is .

The word “class” has 5 letters, that is .

Therefore, the number of permutations of the word class is obtained below.

Here is order is important, so we can use permutations.

Therefore, the required number of ways is obtained below.

Here order does not matter, so we have to use combinations.

There are 15 locations for a new warehouse.

Here order does not matter, so we have to use combinations.

There are 18 robotic arms for a special welding job.

(a) get the one that is defective;