ENR202 Mechanics of Materials Lecture 1B Slides and Notes

Slide 1

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ENR202 Mechanics of Materials Lecture 1B Slides and Notes

Slide 2

Lecture 1b – Stress and strain

(w1,w2,w3)

ENR 202 Mechanics of Materials

Welcome to Lecture Summary 1b for Mechanics of Materials. The most important

concept to keep in mind for this course is safety principles. Before anything else,
you must make sure your structure is safe. The second principle is serviceability.
You must make sure that your structure will not grossly deform. Then you can
consider economic design. The foundations for structural design are based on
structural analysis and equilibrium equations. Equilibrium equations calculate all
forces in all directions to be zero. For example, if you have a plane structure, all the
forces in two directions must equal zero, and the moment of all forces taken at any
point must together equal zero. This is what an equilibrium equation means. If you
need to calculate reaction forces, you use a ‘’free body diagram’’. In a free body
diagram, you remove support and replace the reaction forces. These are the basic
principles of mechanics. We will also be looking at other basic concepts such as
stress and strain. Stress is a safety issue, and strain is a serviceability issue.

Note that throughout all the lecture summaries for Mechanics of Materials, you will
see live links, denoted by the letters W, P and V (for example, the three webpage
links after the title in this slide). These links point to web pages, presentations and
videos which will enhance your understanding of the content. You can pause the
presentation at any time to access these links, and then go back to the presentation
when you have finished looking at them.
ENR202 Mechanics of Materials Lecture 1B Slides and Notes

Slide 3

ENR202 1b -- Slide No. 3

Requirements for Students

• To get familiar with the new concepts

of internal forces, stress and strain
(w1,w2)
• To get familiar with Free Body
Diagram method
(w1,w2,w3,w4,w5,v1)

You will need to become familiar with the principles behind internal forces (and
internal effect), stress and strain. We use the free body diagram method to calculate
the internal forces. Click on the live links (the letters w and v) to access more
detailed resources for each of these concepts.
ENR202 Mechanics of Materials Lecture 1B Slides and Notes

Slide 4

ENR202 1b -- Slide No. 4

Contents

• What are internal forces?

• What are stress and strain? (v1)
• Free Body Diagram method to calculate internal forces

So in this lecture summary, we will look at what internal forces are, what stress and strain are, and how to use the Free Body
Diagram method to calculate internal forces.
ENR202 Mechanics of Materials Lecture 1B Slides and Notes

Slide 5

ENR202 1b -- Slide No. 5

Internal forces (v1)

• Force occurs inside a structural member,

exerted from one part on the other part.
• Examples:

Force P acting at point

C, is exerted from part
AC on part BC.

In this example, we have a bar subjected a force P acting at point A and another
force in the equal and opposite direction at point B, as shown in the figure. I repeat
one more time that the two forces are equal and are in opposite directions, so they
create a balanced force system, and all parts of the bar will be in equilibrium.

We know that if the structure is in equilibrium, it means all part of the structure are in
equilibrium. If you would like to calculate the internal forces at Point C, we cut the bar
at cross section point C as shown in the figure. The structure is divided into 2 parts,
and both parts are in equilibrium based on the equilibrium concept. One is part AC
and the other is part BC. Now, let’s consider the BC part. Imagine part AC is a
support to part BC. The force coming from part AC is a reaction force of the AC
support.

As we discussed earlier, in the Free-body diagram concept, we remove all supports

from the object and replace them with reaction forces. So, we remove the part AC
and replace it with a reaction force at point C. By using an equilibrium equation, all
forces in a horizontal direction are equal to zero, so the reaction force at C is equal
to P. This reaction force is an external force of part BC. However, this reaction force
P at point C is an internal force of the whole bar AB.

So you can see that if you try to calculate the internal force, you have to use the
equilibrium concept and free body diagram concept.
ENR202 Mechanics of Materials Lecture 1B Slides and Notes

Slide 6

ENR202 1b -- Slide No. 6

Normal Stresses

considering a prismatic
bar, loaded by axial
forces P at the ends

To investigate the internal stresses

produced in the bar, using the method of
section. Make a cut at section mn, we
call this section as cross section.

We now know the internal force acting at C. If we cut the section at C point that is
perpendicular to axis of the bar, we say it is the C cross section. We call the intensity
of the internal force over the cross section ‘stress’.
ENR202 Mechanics of Materials Lecture 1B Slides and Notes

Slide 7

ENR202 1b -- Slide No. 7

Normal Stress (w1,w2)

The intensity of force

(force per unit area)
is called the stress.

P

A
Assume the stress has a uniform distribution over
the cross section, from the equilibrium of body,
this resultant must be equal in magnitude
and opposite in direction to the applied load P.

We use sigma to denote the stress. The intensity of the force means force per unit
area. It is equal to P divided by A, because the total internal force acting at C is P.
You use P divided by A to get the intensity of the force – that is, the stress.
ENR202 Mechanics of Materials Lecture 1B Slides and Notes

Slide 8

ENR202 1b -- Slide No. 8

Normal and Shear Stresses (p1)

Z

 Stress acts perpendicular

z
to the cut surface, it is called
Normal Stress (). (w1)
t
X

t Stress acts parallel

Y
to the surface,it is called
Shear Stress (t).

Unit: N/m2 (Pa), N/mm2=MPa=Pa x 106

Suppose we cut the structure into two parts. Then, we consider the one of the cutting
surfaces of the structure. We may have forces in different directions. The intensity
of the force on that surface is called stress. Therefore, we may have stresses in
three different directions. The component of stress in the Z direction is perpendicular
to the cutting surface, called normal stress. We use sigma to denote normal stress.
The component of stress in the X direction and the component of stress in the Y
direction are parallel to the surface. We call these the shear stresses, and we use
tou to denote shear stress. Therefore, we have two kinds of stresses, one is normal
stress and the other one is shear stress. Once again, normal stress means stress
acting perpendicular to the cutting surface, shear stress means stress acting parallel
to the cutting surface.

For example if you pull a bar, you have tension stress, which is normal stress. This
is different to shear stress, which is similar to frictions. The unit of the stress is force
divided by area. So we consider the force in Newton and area in square meters.
The stress unit is Newtons per square meter, which is also called Pascals. So we
consider force in Newtons and area in square millimetres. The stress unit is N per
square mm, also called Mega Pascals. Note the equation N/m2=106 N/mm2.
ENR202 Mechanics of Materials Lecture 1B Slides and Notes

Slide 9

ENR202 1b -- Slide No. 9

Tensile and Compressive Stresses

For a normal stress, when the bar is
stretched by the force P, the resulting
stresses are tensile stresses, if they are
in reversed direction, we obtain
compressive stresses.

Average Normal Stress: the stresses

are uniformly distributed through the
cross section.

F F F F
Tensile Compressive

In normal stress, if a bar is stretched or expanded by force P, the resultant stress is

tensile. The bar will get longer in length and thinner in cross section. If we apply
forces in the reverse direction, we obtain compressive stress, and compressive
stress will cause the bar get shorter in length but expand in cross section. Change in
either length or cross section is called deformation. Tensile force or compressive
force act perpendicular to the cross section and the average normal stress is
uniformly distributed throughout the cross section, so we average the force over the
cross section area. So force divided by area equals average normal stress.
ENR202 Mechanics of Materials Lecture 1B Slides and Notes

Slide 10

ENR202 1b -- Slide No. 10

Normal Strain (v1,p1)

L
Consider an axially loaded bar
undergoes a change in length,
d becoming longer in tension and
shorter in compression.

P
The total change in length
P
is d. The elongation per unit
d length is called strain.

L  is called normal strain, because it’s
associated with normal stresses. 
Numerical values of strain are
usually very small, especially for is the ratio of the lengths, it’s a
structural materials. dimensionless quantity. It has no unit.

If we apply tensile force or compressive force on the bar, we can say that the bar is
getting longer or shorter. The total change in length of whole bar called delta. Delta
is the deformation of the whole bar. The elongation or contraction per unit length is
called strain. We use the symbol epsilon to denote the strain. Epsilon is equal to
delta divided by L, where L is the original length of the bar. The average deformation
for the whole length is called normal strain. Because strain is the ratios of lengths, it
doesn’t have any unit. Strain is usually very small in real structures. For example, in
steel structures, strain can be as small as 0.1%, so we cannot see that small
deformation.
ENR202 Mechanics of Materials Lecture 1B Slides and Notes

Slide 11

ENR202 1b-- Slide No. 11

Important

The above equations for stress and strain can

be used for loads of any magnitude and for any
material. The principal requirement is that the
deformation of the bar be uniform, the bar be
prismatic, the loads act through the centroids of
the cross section, and the material be
homogeneous (has the same physical and
mechanical properties throughout its volume).

The equations for stress and strain can be used for loadings of any magnitude and
any material. The principal requirement is that deformation of the bar is uniform. The
bar should be straight and have a constant cross section throughout its length. The
loadings act at centroid of the cross section. The material is also uniform.
ENR202 Mechanics of Materials Lecture 1B Slides and Notes

Slide 12

ENR202 1b -- Slide No. 12

Example
Example : The bar has a constant width of 35mm and
a thickness of 10mm. Determine the maximum
average normal stress in the bar when it’s subjected
to the loading shown.

Normal force
diagram

In this example, we have a bar with different parts. We have a load acting at point A
of 12 Kilo Newtons, a load acting at point B which is altogether 18 Kilo Newtons, a
load acting at point C which is altogether 8 Kilo Newtons, and a load acting at point
D of 22 Kilo Newtons. The cross section of the bar is 35 millimeters in width and 10
millimeters in thickness. We want to calculate the maximum normal average stress in
a bar.

We know that stress is equal to internal force divided by area. To calculate the
maximum stress, we need to calculate the maximum internal forces.

(Note: If you have a non-uniform bar, that means different cross sectional areas at
different points. If you want to work out maximum stress for different cross sectional
areas, you need to consider the minimum cross sectional area too. Stress is
denoted by sigma, which is equal to internal force divided by the area of the cross
section. So, you have consider maximum internal force or minimum cross sectional
area. However, in this example, the area of the cross section is uniform. That means
that there is a uniform cross sectional area throughout length of the bar.)

Now let’s calculate the maximum internal forces. There are different loads acting at
points A, B, C, and D. So, we want to work out maximum internal forces in the AB,
BC and CD parts of the structure. If we cut any cross section between B and A and
use an equilibrium equation (that is, all forces in horizontal directions equal zero), we
have internal force PAB equal to 12 Kilo Newtons. That means that part AB has
internal normal force of 12 Kilo Newtons.

Then we consider part BC, and cut at any point in that part. We have an external
force of 12 Kilo Newtons acting at point A, and an external force altogether of 18 Kilo
ENR202 Mechanics of Materials Lecture 1B Slides and Notes

Newtons acting at point B. We use the equilibrium equation and calculate the
internal force PBC to be equal to 30 Kilo Newtons.

Use same process for part CD. Cut at any cross section in CD, and consider the
right part of the bar. The external force acting at D point is 22 Kilo Newtons. Apply
the equilibrium equation. The internal force in CD is 22 Kilo Newtons.

Now we know that there is an internal force of 12 Kilo Newtons in part AB, 30 Kilo
Newtons in part BC, and 22 Kilo Newtons in part CD. Our aim is to calculate
maximum normal stress. Maximum normal stress occurs in part BC equal to internal
force in part BC divided by the cross sectional area of BC, which is 35 millimeters
multiplied by 15 millimeters.
ENR202 Mechanics of Materials Lecture 1B Slides and Notes

Slide 13

ENR202 1b -- Slide No. 13

Example contd...

By inspection, the largest loading is in region

BC, where PBC = 30 kN. Since the cross-
sectional area of the bar is constant, the largest
average normal stress also occurs within this
region of the bar
Average normal stress

PBC 30 103 N
 BC    85.7 MPa
A 35 10mm 2

So, the maximum average normal stress is equal to 30 Kilo Newtons divided by the
area of cross section. Convert force Kilo Newtons into Newtons. The area of the
cross section is 35 mmms times 10 mms, which is equal to 350 square mms. That is
85.7 Newtons per square mm (also called Mega Pascals).
ENR202 Mechanics of Materials Lecture 1B Slides and Notes

Slide 14

ENR202 1b -- Slide No. 14

Direct Shear (p1)

Free
body
diagram
Rigid
suppo
rt

The bar fails along

the planes identified
by AB and CD

Let’s look at shear stress. As an example, we have a short beam, supported by

points A and C. There is a load P acting on the beam, if we cut the cross sections at
points A and C as shown in the figure. If we analyse part AC, we have an external
force P between points A and C. As I mentioned before, if the structure is in
equilibrium, it means all parts in the structure are in equilibrium. Therefore, the AC
part is in equilibrium. So, we must have upward direction balanced forces on cutting
surfaces. These forces counterbalance force P, so we have two forces in cutting
surfaces and the direction of these two forces is parallel to the cutting surface, so
we denote with V for shear force. Shear force divided by the area of the cutting
surface is called averaged shear stress.
ENR202 Mechanics of Materials Lecture 1B Slides and Notes

Slide 15

ENR202 1b -- Slide No. 15

Example

In this example, the two parts are connected by a bolt. If we have a connection
bolted together, and an equal force P in opposite directions as shown in the figure,
the bolt transfers the load P from one part to the other part. We can cut the cross
section of bolt, and consider any one of the parts. The connection is in equilibrium,
so any part in the connection is also in equilibrium. You must have forces at the
cutting surfaces of the bolt cross section. This force at the cutting surface is equal to
external force and parallel to the cutting surface of the bolt cross section.
ENR202 Mechanics of Materials Lecture 1B Slides and Notes

Slide 16

ENR202 1b -- Slide No. 16

Shear Stress and Strain (v1,v2)

Shear stress - stresses act parallel or

tangential to the surface. The average shear
stress distributed over each sectioned area is
defined by:
V tavg is in the same direction as V,
t avg  also called as direct shear.
A
Shear is caused by the direct action of the
applied load P. This type of shear often occurs
in various types of simple connections that
use blots, pins, welding materials, etc.

The Shear stress which is acting parallel to the cutting surface is equal to the shear
force divided by the cutting surface area, called the average shear stress. It is
denoted by the symbol tou acting in the same direction as shear force V.
ENR202 Mechanics of Materials Lecture 1B Slides and Notes

Slide 17

ENR202 1b -- Slide No. 17

Single Shear

Single shear: are often referred to as lap

joints, the surface is subjected to a single
shear force V = P.

In this example, the connection of the bolt is resisted by the external force at only
one shearing area. So we called this a single shear.
ENR202 Mechanics of Materials Lecture 1B Slides and Notes

Slide 18

ENR202 1b -- Slide No. 18

Double Shear (v1)

Double shear: are often referred to as

double lap joints. V = P/2.

In this connection, the middle plate is subjected to force P, and the top and bottom
plates are acting at half force P. We cut the bolt between the top and middle plates,
and the bottom and middle plates cross section. Then, we analyse the middle plate
with two shearing surfaces on the bolt. Total force is P shared by both shearing
surfaces by half force P. So, this connection is a double shear. In figure C, the
plates are joined by glue.
ENR202 Mechanics of Materials Lecture 1B Slides and Notes

Slide 19

ENR202 1b -- Slide No. 19

Shear Strain (w1) – Pure Shear (w1)

Shear Strain - The change in angle that

occurs between two lines segments that
were originally perpendicular to one
another. This angle is measured in
radians (rad).

Shear strain occurs due to shear force. The shear force will cause the object to
change in angle, resulting in shear strain. Shear strain is measured in radians.
ENR202 Mechanics of Materials Lecture 1B Slides and Notes

Slide 20

ENR202 1b -- Slide No. 20

Difference between Normal and Shear

Strain (w1)
It should be noticed that:
Normal strains cause a change in
volume of the rectangular element.
Shear strains cause a change in its
shape.

The difference between normal strain and shear strain is that normal strain causes a
change in the volume of the object. For example, if we have tension, the bar gets
longer and longer. However, shear strain only changes the shape, only changes
the angle. There is no change in volume of the object due to shear strain.
ENR202 Mechanics of Materials Lecture 1B Slides and Notes

Slide 21

ENR202 1b -- Slide No. 21

Allowable Stress (p1)

To ensure safety, it is necessary to choose

an allowable stress that restricts the applied
load to one that is less than the load the
member can fully support.

One of the most important concepts in this lecture is allowable stress. To make sure
the structure is safe, we need to know the allowable stress. If you have a structural
member, we can do an experimental test on this structural member, and work out
ultimate load (that means the maximum load that the member can carry before it will
break or damage). However, in reality, we cannot use ultimate loads, we just work
out the safety load using allowable stress. The safety or allowable load is smaller
than the structure member can carry.
ENR202 Mechanics of Materials Lecture 1B Slides and Notes

Slide 22

ENR202 1b -- Slide No. 22

Factor of Safety

One method of specifying the allowable load

for the design or analysis of a member is to
use a number called the factor of safety (F.S.)
which is a ratio of the failure load Pfail divided
by the allowable load, Pallow :
Pfail
F .S . 
Pallow

Here Pfail is found from experimental

testing of the material and F.S. is
based on the experience.

Similar to the allowable stress concept, we have the factor of safety concept. The
factor of safety means the failure load divided by the allowable load. If we have a
structure member, we can work out the failure load based on an experimental test.
Considering the factor of safety of the structure, the allowable load is equal to the
failure load divided by the safety factor. That means that in reality we use allowable
load. This allowable load is smaller than the failure load, so we make sure the
structure is safe.
ENR202 Mechanics of Materials Lecture 1B Slides and Notes

Slide 23

ENR202 1b -- Slide No. 23

Factor of Safety contd...

If the load applied to the member is

linearly related to the stress developed
within the member, =P/A and tavg=V/A,
then:
 fail t fail
F .S .  or F .S . 
 allow t allow

The F.S. is always chosen to be greater than 1

to avoid the potential for failure. Specific values
depend on the types of materials and the intended
purpose of the structure or machine.

The factor of safety may also be defined based on maximum stress and allowable
stress. That means that some kinds of material have failure stress or ultimate stress,
which we know from an experimental test. We know that allowable stress is equal to
failure stress divided by the factor of safety. Of course, the safety factor will be
larger than one. We have another factor of safety related to shear stress, and this
safety factor is equal to failure shear stress divided by allowable shear stress.
ENR202 Mechanics of Materials Lecture 1B Slides and Notes

Slide 24

ENR202 1b -- Slide No. 24

Design Philosophy and Limit States

The allowable stress approach was based on a

single factor of safety. The limitations of this type
of F.S. design have been known since the 1970s.
Design of complex systems requires more
sophisticated probability-based methods and limit
states design method, which allows for a structure
must simultaneously satisfy a variety of different
design requirements concerning both strength and
serviceability, has been widely adopted.

Design philosophy and limit states. In the 1970s, we used only one safety factor, the
maximum loadings acting on the structure.
In the limit state design method, we use multi safety factor. For example, we use
different safety factors for materials based on test results (for example, steel
maximum stress is 300 Mega Pascals, and we consider the one safety factor is 1.5,
so we can use only 200 Mega Pascals for steel). Another safety factor for loadings.
For example, if we consider dead load, we may use a safety factor equal to 1.2. If
we consider the live load, we have some other safety factor equal to 1.5. So we use
different kinds of safety factors for different things, for dead load, live load and
materials. This is design philosophy.
ENR202 Mechanics of Materials Lecture 1B Slides and Notes

Slide 25

ENR202 1b -- Slide No. 25

Exercise 1
Example :Determine the intensity w of the
maximum distributed load that can be supported
by the hanger assembly so that an allowable
shear stress of tallow = 93MPa is not exceeded
in the 10 mm diameter bolts at A and B,
and an allowable tensile stress of allow = 150MPa
is not exceeded in the 12 mm diameter rod AB.

0.9m

1.2m 0.6m

In this example, we have a beam and a hanger bolted at joint A. The bolt allowable
shear stress is equal to 93 Mega Pascals. The bolt diameter is10 mms, and hangar
allowable tensile stress is 150 Mega Pascals. The diameter of rod AB is 12 mms,
and we need to calculate how much load can be applied on the beam. That means
we just want to know the maximum uniform distributed load ‘w’. That is maximum
load acting on the beam.

Pause this presentation now and try to work out this example. The solution is on the
next two slides.
ENR202 Mechanics of Materials Lecture 1B Slides and Notes

Slide 26

ENR202 1b -- Slide No. 26

Exercise 1 Solution (1)

For the solution, you have to calculate the maximum load the rod can carry, the
maximum load the bolt can carry.
ENR202 Mechanics of Materials Lecture 1B Slides and Notes

Slide 27

ENR202 1b -- Slide No. 27

Exercise 1 Solution (2)

Now, consider the free body diagram of the beam. We have external loading w.
Here, the length of the beam is 1.8 meters. The total uniform distributed load on the
beam is equal to 1.8 times ‘w’. The vertical component from the rod is 8.8 Kilo
Newtons (calculated in the previous slide). Therefore, we use the equilibrium
equation that covers the moments about C: that is, the total load on the beam times
the distance of 0.9 meters, because the total length of the beam 1.8 meters, and the
resultant of the uniformly distributed load acting in the middle of the beam. The
resultant load on the beam times 0.9 meters should be equal to 8.8 times the
distance between points A and C, which is 1.2 meters. Finally we find the resultant
load on the beam as equal to 11.73 Kilo Newtons. Therefore, the uniformly
distributed load is equal to 11.73 Kilo Newtons divided by the total length of the
beam (1.8 meters) which is 6.5 Kilo Newtons per meter, so this is the maximum load
that can apply on the whole structure.

In this example, you must understand the calculation of the vertical component and
horizontal component of the rod, and the maximum tension that the rod can carry,
and the maximum shear force the bolt can transfer. So you calculate the maximum
allowable tension in the rod, and allowable shear force on the bolt, and you choose
minimum one as safe one can apply on the rod. Finally, calculate the maximum load
that can apply to the whole structure.
ENR202 Mechanics of Materials Lecture 1B Slides and Notes

Slide 28

ENR202 1b -- Slide No. 28

THANK YOU

In this lecture summary, we have covered several basic concepts: internal force,
stress, and strain, and how to use a free body diagram to work out internal forces.
Thank you.