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INTERNATIONAL ISO
STANDARD 19901-4

Second edition
2016-07-15

Petroleum and natural gas

industries — Specific requirements
for offshore structures —
Part 4:
Geotechnical and foundation design
considerations
Industries du pétrole et du gaz naturel — Exigences spécifiques
relatives aux structures en mer —
Partie 4: Bases conceptuelles des fondations

Reference number
ISO 19901-4:2016(E)

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ISO 19901-4:2016(E)


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All rights reserved. Unless otherwise specified, no part of this publication may be reproduced or utilized otherwise in any form
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ISO 19901-4:2016(E)


Contents Page

Foreword...........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................v
Introduction............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... vii
1 Scope.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 1
2 Normative references....................................................................................................................................................................................... 1
3 Terms and definitions...................................................................................................................................................................................... 2
4 Symbols and abbreviated terms............................................................................................................................................................ 4
4.1 General............................................................................................................................................................................................................ 4
4.2 Symbols for shallow foundations design........................................................................................................................... 4
4.3 Symbols for pile foundations design..................................................................................................................................... 7
4.4 Symbols for soil-structure interaction for auxiliary subsea structures, risers
and flowlines........................................................................................................................................................................................... 10
4.5 Symbols for design of anchors for stationkeeping systems........................................................................... 11
4.6 Abbreviated terms............................................................................................................................................................................. 12
5 General requirements...................................................................................................................................................................................13
5.1 General......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 13
5.2 Design cases and safety factors.............................................................................................................................................. 14
5.3 Characteristic values of soil properties........................................................................................................................... 14
5.4 Testing and instrumentation.................................................................................................................................................... 15
6 Geotechnical data acquisition and identification of hazards...............................................................................16
6.1 General......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 16
6.2 Shallow geophysical investigation....................................................................................................................................... 16
6.3 Geological modelling and identification of hazards.............................................................................................. 17
6.3.1 General................................................................................................................................................................................... 17
6.3.2 Earthquakes....................................................................................................................................................................... 17
6.3.3 Fault planes........................................................................................................................................................................ 17
6.3.4 Seafloor instability....................................................................................................................................................... 17
6.3.5 Scour and sediment mobility.............................................................................................................................. 18
6.3.6 Shallow gas......................................................................................................................................................................... 18
6.3.7 Seabed subsidence....................................................................................................................................................... 18
6.4 Carbonate soils...................................................................................................................................................................................... 19
7 Design of shallow foundations.............................................................................................................................................................19
7.1 General......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 19
7.2 Principles................................................................................................................................................................................................... 20
7.2.1 General principles......................................................................................................................................................... 20
7.2.2 Sign conventions, nomenclature and action reference point.................................................. 21
7.2.3 Action transfer................................................................................................................................................................. 21
7.2.4 Idealization of foundation area and the effective area concept............................................ 21
7.3 Acceptance criteria and design considerations........................................................................................................ 22
7.3.1 Action and material factors.................................................................................................................................. 22
7.3.2 Use in design...................................................................................................................................................................... 22
7.3.3 Special cases...................................................................................................................................................................... 23
7.3.4 Additional design considerations.................................................................................................................... 24
7.3.5 Alternative method of design based on yield surfaces................................................................. 26
7.3.6 Selection of soil parameter values for design....................................................................................... 27
7.4 Stability of shallow foundations............................................................................................................................................ 27
7.4.1 Assessment of bearing capacity........................................................................................................................ 27
7.4.2 Assessment of sliding capacity.......................................................................................................................... 29
7.4.3 Assessment of torsional capacity.................................................................................................................... 31
7.5 Serviceability (displacements and rotations)............................................................................................................ 31
7.5.1 General................................................................................................................................................................................... 31
7.5.2 Displacement under static loading................................................................................................................ 31
7.5.3 Displacement under dynamic and cyclic actions............................................................................... 34

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7.5.4 Other contributors to foundation settlement....................................................................................... 34

7.6 Other design considerations..................................................................................................................................................... 34
7.6.1 Hydraulic stability........................................................................................................................................................ 34
7.6.2 Installation, retrieval and removal................................................................................................................. 34
8 Pile foundation design..................................................................................................................................................................................35
8.1 Pile capacity for axial compression..................................................................................................................................... 35
8.1.1 General................................................................................................................................................................................... 35
8.1.2 Axial pile capacity......................................................................................................................................................... 36
8.1.3 Skin friction and end bearing in cohesive soils................................................................................... 37
8.1.4 Skin friction and end bearing in cohesionless soils......................................................................... 38
8.1.5 Skin friction and end bearing of grouted piles in rock.................................................................. 40
8.2 Pile capacity for axial tension................................................................................................................................................... 41
8.3 Axial pile performance................................................................................................................................................................... 41
8.3.1 Static axial behaviour of piles............................................................................................................................. 41
8.3.2 Cyclic axial behaviour of piles............................................................................................................................ 41
8.4 Soil reaction for piles under axial compression....................................................................................................... 41
8.4.1 Axial shear transfer t–z curves.......................................................................................................................... 41
8.4.2 End bearing resistance–displacement, Q–z, curve........................................................................... 42
8.5 Soil reaction for piles under lateral actions................................................................................................................. 44
8.5.1 General................................................................................................................................................................................... 44
8.5.2 Lateral capacity for soft clay................................................................................................................................ 45
8.5.3 Lateral soil resistance–displacement p−y curves for soft clay............................................... 45
8.5.4 Lateral capacity for stiff clay................................................................................................................................ 45
8.5.5 Lateral soil resistance–displacement p–y curves for stiff clay............................................... 46
8.5.6 Lateral capacity for sand......................................................................................................................................... 47
8.5.7 Lateral soil resistance – displacement p–y curves for sand..................................................... 48
8.6 Pile group behaviour........................................................................................................................................................................ 49
8.6.1 General................................................................................................................................................................................... 49
8.6.2 Axial behaviour............................................................................................................................................................... 49
8.6.3 Lateral behaviour.......................................................................................................................................................... 50
9 Pile installation assessment...................................................................................................................................................................50
9.1 General......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 50
9.2 Drivability studies.............................................................................................................................................................................. 51
9.3 Obtaining required pile penetration.................................................................................................................................. 51
9.4 Driven pile refusal.............................................................................................................................................................................. 52
9.5 Pile refusal remedial measures............................................................................................................................................... 52
9.5.1 Review of hammer performance..................................................................................................................... 52
9.5.2 Re-evaluation of design penetration............................................................................................................. 52
9.5.3 Modifications to piling procedures................................................................................................................ 52
9.6 Selection of pile hammer and stresses during driving....................................................................................... 53
9.7 Use of hydraulic hammers........................................................................................................................................................... 53
9.8 Drilled and grouted piles.............................................................................................................................................................. 54
9.9 Belled piles............................................................................................................................................................................................... 55
9.10 Grouting pile-to-sleeve connections................................................................................................................................... 55
9.11 Pile installation data......................................................................................................................................................................... 55
9.12 Installation of conductors and shallow well drilling............................................................................................ 55
10 Soil-structure interaction for auxiliary subsea structures, risers and flowlines............................56
11 Design of anchors for floating structures.................................................................................................................................56
Annex A (informative) Additional information and guidance.................................................................................................57
Bibliography.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 175

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ISO 19901-4:2016(E)


Foreword
ISO (the International Organization for Standardization) is a worldwide federation of national standards
bodies (ISO member bodies). The work of preparing International Standards is normally carried out
through ISO technical committees. Each member body interested in a subject for which a technical
committee has been established has the right to be represented on that committee. International
organizations, governmental and non-governmental, in liaison with ISO, also take part in the work.
ISO collaborates closely with the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) on all matters of
electrotechnical standardization.
The procedures used to develop this document and those intended for its further maintenance are
described in the ISO/IEC Directives, Part 1. In particular the different approval criteria needed for the
different types of ISO documents should be noted. This document was drafted in accordance with the
editorial rules of the ISO/IEC Directives, Part 2 (see www.iso.org/directives).
Attention is drawn to the possibility that some of the elements of this document may be the subject of
patent rights. ISO shall not be held responsible for identifying any or all such patent rights. Details of
any patent rights identified during the development of the document will be in the Introduction and/or
on the ISO list of patent declarations received (see www.iso.org/patents).
Any trade name used in this document is information given for the convenience of users and does not
constitute an endorsement.
For an explanation on the meaning of ISO specific terms and expressions related to conformity assessment,
as well as information about ISO’s adherence to the World Trade Organization (WTO) principles in the
Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) see the following URL: www.iso.org/iso/foreword.html.
The committee responsible for this document is ISO/TC 67, Materials, equipment and offshore structures
for the petroleum, petrochemical and natural gas industries, Subcommittee SC 7, Offshore structures.
This second edition cancels and replaces the first edition (ISO  19901-4:2003), which has been
technically revised.
ISO 19901 consists of the following parts, under the general title Petroleum and natural gas industries —
Specific requirements for offshore structures:
— Part 1: Metocean design and operating considerations
— Part 2: Seismic design procedures and criteria
— Part 3: Topsides structure
— Part 4: Geotechnical and foundation design considerations
— Part 5: Weight control during engineering and construction
— Part 6: Marine operations
— Part 7: Stationkeeping systems for floating offshore structures and mobile offshore units
— Part 8: Marine soil investigations
The following part is under preparation:
— Part 9: Structural integrity management
ISO 19901 is one of a series of standards for offshore structures. The full series consists of the following
International Standards which are relevant to offshore structures for the petroleum and natural gas
industries:
— ISO 19900, Petroleum and natural gas industries — General requirements for offshore structures

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— ISO 19901 (all parts), Petroleum and natural gas industries  — Specific requirements for offshore
structures
— ISO 19902, Petroleum and natural gas industries — Fixed steel offshore structures
— ISO 19903, Petroleum and natural gas industries — Fixed concrete offshore structures
— ISO 19904, Petroleum and natural gas industries — Floating offshore structures
— ISO 19905-1, Petroleum and natural gas industries  — Site-specific assessment of mobile offshore
units — Part 1: Jack-ups
— ISO/TR 19905-2, Petroleum and natural gas industries — Site-specific assessment of mobile offshore
units — Part 2: Jack-ups commentary and detailed sample calculation
— ISO 19905-3, Petroleum and natural gas industries  — Site specific assessment of mobile offshore
units — Part 3: Floating units (under preparation)
— ISO 19906, Petroleum and natural gas industries — Arctic offshore structures
Other ISO standards can have implications for the geotechnical design of foundations for offshore
structures, in particular:
— ISO 13623 (all parts), Petroleum and natural gas industries — Pipeline transportation systems
— ISO 13628 (all parts), Petroleum and natural gas industries  — Design and operation of subsea
production systems

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ISO 19901-4:2016(E)


Introduction
The International Standards for offshore structures, ISO 19900 to ISO 19906, constitute a common basis
covering those aspects that address design requirements and assessments of all offshore structures
used by the petroleum and natural gas industries worldwide. Through their application, the intention
is to achieve reliability levels appropriate for manned and unmanned offshore structures, whatever the
type of structure and the nature of the materials used.
It is important to recognize that structural integrity is an overall concept comprising models for
describing actions, structural analyses, design rules, safety elements, workmanship, quality control
procedures and national requirements, all of which are mutually dependent. The modification of one
aspect of design in isolation can disturb the balance of reliability inherent in the overall concept or
structural system. The implications involved in modifications, therefore, need to be considered in
relation to the overall reliability of all offshore structural systems.
For foundations, some additional considerations apply. These include the time, frequency and rate at
which actions are applied, the method of foundation installation, the properties of the surrounding soil,
the overall behaviour of the seabed, effects from adjacent structures and the results of drilling into the
seabed. All of these, and any other relevant information, need to be considered in relation to the overall
reliability of the foundation.
These International Standards are intended to provide wide latitude in the choice of structural
configurations, materials and techniques without hindering innovation. The design practice for the
foundations of offshore structures has proved to be an innovative and evolving process over the years.
This evolution is expected to continue and is encouraged. Therefore, circumstances can arise when the
procedures described herein or in ISO 19900 to ISO 19906 (or elsewhere) are insufficient on their own
to ensure that a safe and economical foundation design is achieved.
Seabed soils vary. Experience gained at one location is not necessarily applicable at another, and extra
caution is necessary when dealing with unconventional soils or unfamiliar foundation concepts. Sound
engineering judgment is therefore necessary in the use of this part of ISO 19901.
For an offshore structure, the action effects at the interface between the structure’s subsystem and
the foundation’s subsystem(s) are internal forces, moments and deformations. When addressing
the foundation’s subsystem(s) in isolation, these internal forces, moments and deformations can be
considered as actions on the foundation’s subsystem(s) and this approach is followed in this part of
ISO 19901.
Some background to and guidance on the use of this part of ISO 19901 is provided for information in
Annex A. Guidance on foundations in carbonate soils is provided for information in A.6.4, but there is, as
yet, insufficient knowledge and understanding of such soils to produce normative requirements.
In this part of ISO 19901, in accordance with the latest edition of the ISO/IEC Directives, Part 2, the
following verbal forms are used:
— ‘shall’ and ‘shall not’ are used to indicate requirements strictly to be followed in order to comply
with the document and from which no deviation is permitted;
— ‘should’ and ‘should not’ are used to indicate that among several possibilities one is recommended
as particularly suitable, without mentioning or excluding others, or that a certain course of action is
preferred but not necessarily required, or that (in the negative form) a certain possibility or course
of action is deprecated but not prohibited;
— ‘may’ and ‘need not’ are used to indicate a course of action permissible within the limits of the
document;
— ‘can’ and ‘cannot’ are used for statements of possibility and capability, whether material, physical
or causal.

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INTERNATIONAL STANDARD ISO 19901-4:2016(E)

Petroleum and natural gas industries — Specific

requirements for offshore structures —
Part 4:
Geotechnical and foundation design considerations

1 Scope
This part of ISO 19901 contains provisions for those aspects of geoscience and foundation engineering
that are applicable to a broad range of offshore structures, rather than to a particular structure type.
Such aspects are:
— site and soil characterization;
— identification of hazards;
— design and installation of shallow foundations supported by the seabed;
— design and installation of pile foundations;
— soil-structure interaction for auxiliary structures, e.g. subsea production systems, risers and
flowlines (guidance given in A.10);
— design of anchors for the stationkeeping systems of floating structures (guidance given in A.11).
Particular requirements for marine soil investigations are detailed in ISO 19901-8.
Aspects of soil mechanics and foundation engineering that apply equally to offshore and onshore
structures are not addressed. The user of this part of ISO 19901 is expected to be familiar with such
aspects.
ISO  19901-4 outlines methods developed primarily for the design of shallow foundations with an
embedded length (L) to diameter (D) ratio L/D < 1 (Clause 7) and relatively long and flexible pile
foundations with L/D > 10 (Clause 8). This part of ISO 19901 does not apply to intermediate foundations
with 1 < L/D < 10. Such intermediate foundations, often known as ‘caisson foundations’, comprise either
shallow foundations with skirts penetrating deeper into the seabed than the width of the foundation,
or shorter, more rigid and larger diameter piles than those traditionally used for founding offshore
structures. The design of such foundations can require specific analysis methods; it is important
that any extrapolation from the design methods described in this part of ISO  19901 to intermediate
foundations be treated with care and assessed by a geotechnical specialist.

2 Normative references
The following documents, in whole or in part, are normatively referenced in this document and are
indispensable for its application. For dated references, only the edition cited applies. For undated
references, the latest edition of the referenced document (including any amendments) applies.
ISO 19900, Petroleum and natural gas industries — General requirements for offshore structures
ISO 19901-1, Petroleum and natural gas industries  — Specific requirements for offshore structures  —
Part 1: Metocean design and operating considerations
ISO 19901-2, Petroleum and natural gas industries — Specific requirements for offshore structures —
Part 2: Seismic design procedures and criteria

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ISO 19901-3, Petroleum and natural gas industries  — Specific requirements for offshore structures  —
Part 3: Topsides structure
ISO 19901-5, Petroleum and natural gas industries  — Specific requirements for offshore structures  —
Part 5: Weight control during engineering and construction
ISO 19901-6, Petroleum and natural gas industries  — Specific requirements for offshore structures  —
Part 6: Marine operations
ISO 19901-7:2013, Petroleum and natural gas industries — Specific requirements for offshore structures —
Part 7: Stationkeeping systems for floating offshore structures and mobile offshore units
ISO 19901-8, Petroleum and natural gas industries  — Specific requirements for offshore structures  —
Part 8: Marine soil investigations
ISO 19902, Petroleum and natural gas industries — Fixed steel offshore structures
ISO 19903, Petroleum and natural gas industries — Fixed concrete offshore structures
ISO 19905-1, Petroleum and natural gas industries — Site-specific assessment of mobile offshore units —
Part 1: Jack-ups
ISO 19906, Petroleum and natural gas industries — Arctic offshore structures
ISO/TR 19905-2, Petroleum and natural gas industries  — Site-specific assessment of mobile offshore
units — Part 2: Jack-ups commentary and detailed sample calculation

3 Terms and definitions

For the purposes of this document, the terms and definitions given in ISO 19900, ISO 19901 (all parts)
and the following apply.
3.1
action
external load applied to the structure (direct action) or an imposed deformation or acceleration
(indirect action)
Note  1  to  entry:  An imposed deformation can be caused by fabrication tolerances, differential settlement,
temperature change or moisture variation. An earthquake typically generates imposed accelerations.

[SOURCE: ISO 19900:2013, 3.1]

3.2
action factor
partial safety factor applied to a design action
3.3
basic variable
one of a specified set of variables representing physical quantities which characterize actions,
environmental influences, geometric quantities, or material properties including soil properties
[SOURCE: ISO 19900:2013, 3.7]
3.4
characteristic value
value assigned to a basic variable associated with a prescribed probability of not being violated by
unfavourable values during some reference period
Note 1 to entry: The characteristic value is the main representative value. In some design situations a variable
can have two characteristic values, an upper and a lower value.

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Note  2  to entry:  For variable actions, the characteristic value corresponds to either of the following (see
ISO 2394:2015, 2.2.30):

— an upper value with an intended probability of not being exceeded or a lower value with an intended
probability of being achieved, during some specific reference period;

— a nominal value, which may be specified in cases where a statistical distribution is not known.

[SOURCE: ISO 19900:2013, 3.10]

3.5
design actions
combination of representative actions and partial safety factors representing a design situation for use
in checking the acceptability of a design
3.6
design value
value derived from the representative value for use in the design verification procedure
[SOURCE: ISO 19900:2013, 3.18]
3.7
drained condition
condition whereby the applied stresses and stress changes are supported by the soil skeleton and do
not cause a change in pore pressure
[SOURCE: ISO 19901‑8:2014, 3.11]
3.8
effective foundation area
reduced foundation area having its geometric centre at the point where the resultant action vector
intersects the foundation base level
3.9
limit state
state beyond which the structure no longer satisfies the relevant design criteria
[SOURCE: ISO 19900:2013, 3.2]
3.10
material factor
partial safety factor applied to the characteristic strength of the soil, the value of which reflects the
uncertainty or variability of the material property
Note 1 to entry: See ISO 19900.

3.11
representative value
value assigned to a basic variable for verification of a limit state
[SOURCE: ISO 19900:2013, 3.38]
3.12
resistance
capacity of a component, or a cross-section of a component, to withstand action effects without failure
[SOURCE: ISO 19900:2013, 3.39]
3.13
resistance factor
partial safety factor applied to the characteristic capacity of a foundation, the value of which reflects
the uncertainty or variability of the component resistance including those of material property

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3.14
scour
removal of seabed soils caused by currents, waves and ice
[SOURCE: ISO 19900:2013, 3.43]
3.15
seabed
materials below the seafloor, whether of soils such as sand, silt or clay, cemented materials or of rock
Note 1 to entry: Offshore foundations are most commonly installed in soils, and the terminology in this part of
ISO 19901 reflects this. However, the requirements equally apply to cemented seabed materials and rock. Thus,
the term ‘soil’ does not exclude any other material at or below the seafloor.

3.16
seafloor
interface between the sea and the seabed
3.17
serviceability
ability of a structure or structural member to perform adequately for a normal use under all
expected actions
[SOURCE: ISO 2394:2015, 2.1.32]
3.18
settlement
permanent downward movement of a structure as a result of its own weight and other actions
3.19
strength
mechanical property of a material indicating its ability to resist actions, usually given in units of stress
Note 1 to entry: See ISO 19902.

3.20
undrained condition
condition whereby the applied stresses and stress changes are supported by both the soil skeleton and
the pore fluid and do not cause a change in volume
[SOURCE: ISO 19901‑8:2014, 3.42]

4 Symbols and abbreviated terms

4.1 General
Commonly used symbols are listed in 4.2 to 4.5; other symbols are defined in the text following the
applicable formula. It should be noted that symbols can have different meanings between formulae.

4.2 Symbols for shallow foundations design

A actual (cross-sectional plan) foundation area

A′ effective foundation area depending on eccentricity of actions

Ah vertical projected area of the foundation in the direction of sliding

Ap projected area of skirt tip

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As side surface area of skirt embedded at a particular penetration depth

Aidealized idealized rectangular foundation area, for irregular foundation shapes

bc , b q , b γ bearing capacity correction factors related to foundation base inclination

B minimum lateral foundation dimension (also foundation width)

B′ minimum effective lateral foundation dimension (also foundation effective width)

C compression index of soil over loading range considered

dc, dq, dγ bearing capacity correction factors related to foundation embedment depth

D foundation diameter (for circular foundations)

Db depth below seafloor to foundation base level

e eccentricity of action

e0 initial void ratio of the soil

e1 eccentricity of action in coordinate direction 1

e2 eccentricity of action in coordinate direction 2

f unit skin friction resistance along foundation skirts during installation

F bearing capacity correction factor to account for undrained shear strength heterogeneity

gc, gq, gγ correction factors related to seafloor inclination

G elastic shear modulus of soil

h soil layer thickness

H horizontal action

Hb horizontal action on effective area component of the base

Hd design value of resistance to pure sliding

ΔHd horizontal soil resistance due to active and passive earth pressures on foundation skirts

Hult ultimate horizontal capacity in yield surface design method

ic, iq, iγ bearing capacity correction factors related to foundation action inclination

Kc , Kq , Kγ correction factors that account for inclined actions, foundation shape, depth of embedment,
inclination of base, and inclination of the seafloor

Kp coefficient of passive earth pressure

Krd drained horizontal soil reaction coefficient

Kru undrained horizontal soil reaction coefficient

L maximum lateral foundation dimension (also foundation length)

L’ maximum effective lateral foundation dimension (also foundation effective length)

M overturning moment

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Mult moment capacity in yield surface design method

Nc undrained bearing capacity factor, equal to 5,14

Nq, Nγ drained bearing capacity factors, as a function of ϕ′

p′in in situ effective overburden stress at skirt tip level inside the skirts of a skirted foundation

p′out in situ effective overburden stress at skirt tip level outside the skirts of a skirted foundation

q unit end bearing resistance on foundation skirt tip, during penetration

qd design value of vertical bearing resistance in the absence of horizontal actions

Q vertical action

Qf skirt friction resistance

Qp end bearing resistance from skirt tips

Qr soil resistance during skirt penetration

Qult vertical capacity in yield surface design method

R radius of the base of a circular foundation

RP reference point for action transfer

su undrained shear strength

su0 undrained shear strength at foundation base level (skirt tip level for skirted foundations)

su,ave average undrained shear strength from seafloor to foundation base level

su,2 equivalent undrained shear strength below foundation base

sc, sq, s γ bearing capacity correction factors related to foundation shape

T torsional moment

uQ , uH vertical and horizontal displacements at foundation base level

β ground inclination angle in radians, in calculation of inclination factors

δ interface friction angle between soil and foundation

Δσ′v,z increment of effective vertical stress in a given soil layer at the specified time due to the in-
crement of vertical action applied to foundation

ϕ′ effective angle of internal friction angle of the soil for plane strain conditions

γ′ submerged unit weight of soil

γL live load partial factor

γm material factor

κ rate of increase of undrained shear strength with depth

σ′v0,z effective overburden stress at level of a given soil layer

σ′v0 in situ effective overburden stress at foundation base level (skirt tip level when skirts are used)

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ν Poisson’s ratio of the soil

υ foundation base inclination angle in radians, in calculation of inclination factors

θM, θT displacements at foundation base level under overturning and torsion loading

4.3 Symbols for pile foundations design

Apile π ⋅ D2
gross end area of pile, Apile =
4

2
Aw D 
Ar pile displacement ratio, Ar = =1− i 
Apile  D 
 

Aw cross-sectional area of pile annulus, Aw =

π
4
(
⋅ D 2 − Di2 )
As side surface area of pile in soil

C1, C2, C3 dimensionless coefficients determined as function of ϕ′, for p–y curves for sand

D pile outside diameter

Di pile inside diameter, Di = D – 2 WT

D50 mean soil particle diameter

DCPT diameter of CPT tool, DCPT = 36 mm for a standard cone penetrometer with a cone area of
1 000 mm2

Dr relative density of sand, for CPT-based methods 1 and 4

ES initial modulus of subgrade reaction

f unit skin friction

f(z) unit skin friction at depth z

fc(z) unit skin friction in compression at depth z

fp(z) unit skin friction between sand soil plug and inner pile wall, for CPT-based method 4

f t(z) unit skin friction in tension at depth z

f lim limiting unit skin friction value

h distance above pile tip = L – z

J dimensionless empirical constant, for p–y curves for clay

k initial modulus of subgrade reaction, for p–y curves for sand

K0 coefficient of lateral earth pressure at rest

L embedded length of pile below original seafloor

Ls length of soil plug in sand layers

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Nq dimensionless bearing capacity factor

p mobilized lateral capacity, for p–y curves

pa atmospheric pressure (pa = 100 kPa)

Pd,e design value of axial action on the pile, determined from a coupled linear structure and non-
linear foundation model using the design actions for extreme conditions

Pd,p design value of axial action on the pile, determined from a coupled linear structure and non-
linear foundation model using the design actions for permanent and variable actions or the
design axial action for operating situations

pr representative value of lateral capacity, for p–y curves, in unit of force per unit length of pile

prd representative value of deep lateral capacity, for p–y curves, in unit of force per unit length of pile

prs representative value of shallow lateral capacity, for p–y curves, in unit of force per unit
length of pile

p′m(z) in situ effective mean stress at depth z

Po pile outer perimeter = π D

q unit end bearing at pile tip

qc (z) CPT cone resistance at depth, z, in stress units

qc,f (z) reduced CPT cone resistance at depth, z, to account for general scour

qc,av,1,5D average value of qc (z) between 1,5 D above pile tip and 1,5 D below pile tip

qc,tip CPT cone resistance at pile tip

Q mobilized end bearing capacity in Q–z curves

Qf,c skin friction capacity in compression

Qf,t skin friction capacity in tension

Qf,i,clay cumulative skin friction capacity of clay layers within soil plug, for CPT-based method 3

Qlim limiting unit end bearing value

Qp end bearing capacity

Qr representative value of axial pile capacity

Qr,c representative value of axial pile capacity in compression

Qr,t representative value of axial pile capacity in tension

su undrained shear strength

su(z) undrained shear strength at depth z

WT pile wall thickness

t mobilized skin friction for axial shear transfer t–z curves

tmax maximum skin friction for axial shear transfer t–z curves

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tres residual skin friction for t–z curves

y lateral pile displacement, for p–y curves

z depth below original seafloor

z local pile axial displacement, for axial shear transfer t–z curves

z axial pile tip displacement, for Q–z curves

zR depth below seafloor to bottom of reduced resistance zone, for p–y curves for uniform clays

z′ final depth below seafloor, after general scour

zpeak axial pile displacement at which maximum soil-pile skin friction, tmax, is reached, for t–z curves

zres axial pile displacement at which residual soil-pile skin friction, tres, is reached, for t–z curves

α dimensionless skin friction factor, for cohesive soils

β dimensionless skin friction factor, for cohesionless soils

δcv constant volume friction angle at sand-pile wall interface

εc strain at one-half maximum deviator stress, for p–y curves for soft clay

ϕ′ effective angle of internal friction of sand, for drained triaxial conditions

γ′ submerged soil unit weight

γ pile unit weight of pile (steel, concrete, etc.)

γ water unit weight of water

γR,Pe partial resistance factor for extreme conditions

γR,Pp partial resistance factor for permanent and variable actions for operating situations

Ψ parameter to determine the dimensionless skin friction factor, for clays = su(z) / σ’vo (z) at depth z

σ′ho(z) in situ effective horizontal stress at depth z

σ′vo (z) in situ effective vertical stress at depth z

σ’vo,tip in situ effective vertical stress at pile tip

ΔzGS global scour depth

ΔzLS local scour depth

e base natural logarithms approximately 2,718

ln natural logarithm (base e)

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4.4 Symbols for soil-structure interaction for auxiliary subsea structures, risers and
flowlines

D flowline, or pipeline, diameter

fc dimensionless cyclic factor

ft dimensionless time factor

fV dimensionless velocity factor

Gmax initial elastic (small strain) shear modulus of soil

H lateral (horizontal) soil resistance

Kmax maximum value of normalized secant stiffness on initial unloading or reloading

IP plasticity index of soil

kv secant stiffness of equivalent spring = ΔQ / Δz

N integrated normal contact force

Nc dimensionless bearing capacity factor

Qsmax maximum suction (uplift) force, per unit length of pipeline

Qu limiting penetration resistance, per unit length of pipeline

su undrained shear strength

suDSS undrained shear strength obtained in direct simple shear mode

sur remoulded undrained shear strength

T drained axial resistance per unit length of pipeline

V vertical action on pipeline

z depth to flowline, or pipeline, invert

ΔQ change in vertical force, per unit length of pipeline

Δz change in vertical displacement

Δzb uplift (break-out) displacement

δ interface friction angle at soil–pipeline interface

μ pipeline–soil friction coefficient

ζ dimensionless enhancement factor

ζt dimensionless time factor

ζV dimensionless velocity factor

θD ′ half-angle of pipeline–soil contact perimeter

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4.5 Symbols for design of anchors for stationkeeping systems

a acceleration of a gravity embedded anchor

A fluke area of a drag anchor

Aeff effective area of a plate anchor accounting for shape and projected area

Ain plan view inside area of suction anchor pile where underpressure is applied during installation

Ainside inside lateral area of suction anchor pile wall

Ap projected area of a gravity embedded anchor/line

Atip tip cross-sectional area of an anchor pile

Awall sum of inside and outside wall areas of an anchor pile

B fluke width of a drag anchor

CD drag coefficient of a gravity-embedded anchor/line

f coefficient of friction between chain or wire rope and the seafloor

Fb bearing resistance of a penetrating gravity-embedded anchor/line

Fdrag hydrodynamic drag force action on a gravity-embedded anchor/line

Ff frictional resistance of a penetrating gravity-embedded anchor/line

Fmax ultimate holding capacity (UHC) of a plate anchor

FOSaxial factor of safety with respect to axial loading of anchor

FOScombined factor of safety with respect to combined axial and lateral loading of anchor

FOS lateral factor of safety with respect to lateral loading of anchor

H horizontal action component

H holding capacity of drag anchor under horizontal action

L fluke length of a drag anchor

Lcw length of chain or wire rope in contact with the seafloor

m mass of a gravity-embedded anchor

n dimensionless holding capacity factor for a drag anchor

Nc dimensionless bearing capacity factor

Pcw holding capacity of mooring line chain or wire rope

Qtot total penetration resistance of an anchor pile

Qside resistance along the sides of an anchor pile

Qtip resistance at the tip of an anchor tip

Se soil strength strain rate factor

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