Religions and Festivals of Bangladesh

A. Religions of Bangladesh

1. Islam in Bengal

Islam came to Bengal comparatively late. Within about one hundred years of its advent,
Islam penetrated into northwestern India, and Arabian traders came into contact with the
coastal regions of India, including Bengal. But it took about five hundred years for
Muslim political power to reach Bengal. According to unconfirmed traditions, some
Muslim sufi-saints came to Bengal even before the political conquest, but Islam actually
entered in full force with the Turkish conquest towards the beginning of the 13th century.
Bangladesh is today a Muslim majority country; about 90% of her population belong to
the Islamic faith.

During the first three hundred years or so of Muslim rule, Bengal was ruled by the Turks
of one or the other group- the Khaljis, the Ilbaris and the Qaraunahs. The Abyssinian
slaves occupied the throne for a few years in the late 15th century and then came
successively the Sayyids, the Afghans and the Mughals. So broadly speaking, the Muslim
rulers of Bengal belonged to three racial groups- the Turks, the Afghans and the Mughals.
The last were originally linked with the Turks.

Islam entered Bengal both by land and water. By land the Turkish conquerors came with
their religion, culture and concept of governance, while the Arab traders came through
waterway. They also came with their religion and culture, with a purpose different from
that of the Turks. The influence of the Arabs in some parts of Bengal, particularly in the
coastal region of Chittagong is remembered through traditions. But the Arabs probably
did not affect the society as deeply as was done by the Turkish conquerors.

The Turks came with the avowed intention of establishing political power. The Arabs
came to trade in the trading season, and left when the season was over. But for the
Turkish conquerors the situation was different. They conquered, established a kingdom
and a government and took other steps to strengthen their position. Ever since the
establishment of the first Muslim kingdom in Bengal there was a continuous flow of
Muslims into Bengal. There came the soldiers, who were, in fact the backbone of
political power; the religious learned people, the Sayyids, Ulama and the Mashayikhs to
disseminate religion; the civil servants, experts in politics, finance and governance; the
traders and businessmen, and also the artisans and craftsmen. They all came in search of
employment and /or better livelihood. The Mongol destruction of the Baghdad Caliphate
in the thirteenth century led to widespread displacement of Central Asian Muslims, who
took refuge in the capitals of Delhi and LAKHNAUTI. They even spread to the outlying
places. Muslims coming from the cultural centres of central Asia were welcomed, they
were known as aizza ('respectable') and given suitable employment.

When the Muslim Kingdom was established in Lakhnauti, it was, theoretically at least, a
part of the Abbasid Caliphate. Though the caliph's power was dwindling, he was
considered the supreme spiritual head of Sunni Muslims all over. The Muslims of Bengal
also shared this view and some early Muslim sultans of Bengal actually imprinted the
names of Abbasid caliphs on their coins. Some others, who did not actually inscribe the
name of the caliph, assumed titles inscribed on their coins, denoting their allegiance to
the institution of the Caliphate. Be that as it may, the Muslim kingdom of Bengal in the
pre-Mughal period was for all practical purposes an independent kingdom. During this
whole period, the Bengal rulers took the title of sultan, thus proclaiming the character of
the Kingdom as a Sultanate. Some Bengal sultans assumed the title of Khalifah
themselves. The Caliphate of Baghdad came to an end long before the establishment of
Mughal rule in India (or in Bengal). So they had nothing to do with that institution. The
Mughals took the imperial title of shahinshah (king of kings), and they gave the title of
sultan to their princes. Bengal, or Subah Bangalah, was all through a province of the
Mughal empire.

Islam, which came in the wake of the Turkish conquest, changed the socio-religious
pattern of Bengal. Politically, it sowed the seeds of Muslim rule, but socially it planted a
Muslim society, opening the gate of Bengal to numerous immigrants from the then
Muslim world, which affected the existing society enormously. The spread of Islam in
Bengal was a lengthy process.

Bakhtyar's kingdom was only a nucleus and the Muslims took more than two hundred
years to bring the whole of Bengal under their control. In 1338 Bengal witnessed the
beginning of an independent Sultanate under FAKHRUDDIN MUBARAK SHAH. From this
time onward, for two hundred years, Bengal remained independent. This was a period of
overall development of the country both politically and culturally. But the most important

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development of this period was that the country for the first time received a name, ie
Bangalah. Before this there was no geo-political unity of Bengal, no common name for
the whole country. Bengal was known by the names of its different units, Gauda, Radha,
Vanga etc. After Sultan Shamsuddin ILIYAS SHAH conquered all these three regions and
united the whole of Bengal, the name Bangalah emerged and he earned for himself the
title of Shah-i-Bangalah and Sultan-i-Bangalah. Henceforth, the Muslim kingdom of
Bengal came to be known as the kingdom of Bangalah. Historians began to call the
kingdom Bangalah instead of Lakhnauti, and foreigners also used this name, whence
came the Mughal subah Bangalah and the British province of Bengal.

The independent Sultanate saw the expansion of Muslim power which spread into every
nook and corner of the country, up to KAMARUPA in the north, Tippara in the east and the
sea in the south. Chittagong was conquered by Fakhruddin Mubarak Shah (1338-1349),
Faridpur was conquered by JALALUDDIN MUHAMMAD SHAH (1415-1432) and renamed
FATHABAD. Khan Jahan brought the Khulna-Jessore area under the Muslim rule in the
reign of NASIRUDDIN MAHMUD SHAH (1435-1459) and RUKNUDDIN BARBAK SHAH (1459-
1474) conquered Bakerganj. The expansion of Muslim power in Bengal was now
complete, and the Muslim kingdom of Lakhnauti founded by Muhammad BAKHTIYAR
KHALJI was turned into the Muslim Kingdom of Bengal. The Mughals took over this
kingdom. After the death of AURANGZEB, when Mughal power declined, Bengal like
other provinces of the empire was ruled by the NAWABS more or less independently. This
position continued up to the BATTLE OF PALASHI, 1757.

The establishment of Muslim rule was not an end in itself, for Muslim power had to be
sustained in a country where a large number of non-Muslims had been living from time
immemorial. These indigenous people were diametrically opposed to the incomers in
every aspect of religious, social and cultural life; they were opposed not only in their
fundamental beliefs but also in their day to day life from birth to death. So the Muslim
rulers of Bengal, from the beginning till the end, built up institutions to disseminate
Islamic learning and culture among those who professed the Islamic faith. They built
mosques, MADRASAHs and KHANQAHs for this purpose. Mosques form an important
feature of Muslim society and culture, because they afford opportunity to offer prayers,
one of the fundamental pillars of the Islamic faith. In fact when a new area was brought
under control and a Muslim settlement was established, a mosque was built to facilitate
offering of prayers by the Muslims. Thus numerous mosques were built during Muslim
rules down to the 18th century; a few hundred are still extant so that they can be used as
prayer houses, while many have perished. Those which are still extant were pucca

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constructions, but there must have been numerous mud houses or thatched houses built
for offering prayers whose existence or numbers cannot be ascertained.

Many Arabic or Persian inscriptions still exist, either fixed on the walls of the mosques,
or displaced and removed to museums or other safer places. The inscriptions reveal that
the mosques were built at the initiative of rulers or their officers. The inscriptions
generally begin with either a verse of the Holy QURAN or a HADITH of the Prophet (Sm)
or both, promising the builder the rewards that await him in the next world for founding
such religious institutions. The rulers therefore built mosques in full realisation of their
performance of a religious duty.

Similarly madrasahs or schools or colleges were built to afford facilities to young

Muslims to receive education. Mosques also served as maktabs to impart elementary
religious education to the children. There were many madrasahs to impart elementary
education, and also institutions of higher learning, particularly in the towns and cities.
The rulers got the madrasahs built at state expense, but some were also built by individual
philanthropists. Some of the institutions, called dar-ul-khairat or bina-ul-khair, were
residential institutions, where teachers and students were provided board and lodging.
Religious persons like the Ulama and the Sufis also built Madrasahs, but they were state
patronised. The higher institutions of learning imparted instructions on ilm-i-deen and
ilm-i-shara. Ilm-i-deen or religious knowledge and ilm-i-shara or knowledge of shariah
may mean many things. In those days, as in the present day, a person had to pursue his
study up to a certain level to become an Alim, and the subjects which he had to study
were the Quran, Hadith, Tasawwaf, Mantiq, Kalam, and such other subjects, as also the
Arabic and Persian languages.

Khanqahs were built to afford facilities to the sufi-saints to pursue their spiritual activities
with their followers. They were built either by the rulers or by the Sufis themselves, but
they received state patronage. Khanqahs of some of the very famous saints like Shaikh
JALALUDDIN TABRIZI, SHAH JALAL, Shaikh NUR QUTB ALAM survives even today.
Khanqahs of Sufis of the Mughal period are also extant. The Muslim rulers granted lands
for the maintenance of mosques, madrasahs and khanqahs. They also granted lands to the
Muslim learned people like Ulama and Mashayikh for their sustenance. They were
granted by way of inam (rewards), wazifa (stipends) and madad-i-maash (assistance for
subsistence). The Ulama and Mashayikh, therefore, enjoyed economic security so that
they could engage themselves in the pursuit of knowledge and meditation. The Muslim
rulers always encouraged Muslim Ulama, Sufis and other religious leaders, built religious
institutions and thus helped the growth of a Muslim society in Bengal.

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The building up of Muslim society in Bengal was a long process of gradual growth. The
composition of the society quite naturally differed from century to century with the
immigration of foreign Muslims and the conversion of local people. The early
immigrants were TURKS, and they belonged to different stocks, like the Khaljis, the
Ilbaris and the Qaraunahs. Their supporters also came from far-off places. Arabs and
Persians also came, and included people from various professions and other trades. One
Bengal sultan, Ruknuddin Barbak Shah imported a good number of Abyssinian slaves to
guard the palace and the royal family, and this added a new element in the Muslim
society.

With the occupation of Delhi by the Mughals, the Afghans lost control over northern
India and they spread over outlying provinces including Bengal. The Afghans also
became rulers in Bengal and their supremacy continued for several decades. Then came
the Mughals and a fresh wave of Muslim migration to Bengal started. Mughal supremacy
in Bengal lasted for several hundred years. So long the Muslim immigrants in Bengal
were almost all Sunnis, and Shias were few and far between. With the supremacy of the
Mughals there came IRANIANs, mostly belonging to the Shia community.

The Mughal SUBAHDARs, some of whom were of royal blood were highly cultured. Many
scholarly persons from Upper India and outside made their homes and settled in this rich
province. The increase of oceanic communications between Bengal and the Persian Gulf
countries in the 17th century, tempted cultured Shias, Persian scholars, physicians,
philosophers and traders to come and settle in Bengal. A voyage from Bandar Abbas or
Basra to HUGHLI was much easier and cheaper than the overland journey across upper
India, either through the Afghan passes or via the port of Surat.

Although Shias started coming to Bengal after the Mughal conquest or even before, they
came in larger number from the beginning of the 17th century after JAHANGIR's accession
to the throne. After his marriage with Nur Jahan, a shiaite lady, her family became the
controlling power of Mughal polities. Members of that family also came to Bengal as
subahdars and held many other high posts. In the reigns of Jahangir and SHAHJAHAN, a
large number of Persian poets adorned the court of Bengal subahdars. Even the court of
SHAH SHUJA, who was himself a staunch Sunni, was surrounded by a good number of
Shia scholars. Of course, he had received his education under a Shiah teacher and his
wife and mother belonged to Shia families.

Great Mughal subahdars like MIR JUMLA and SHAISTA KHAN were Shias. They were
accompanied to Bengal by many Shia followers who occupied important posts. Shaista

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Khan came to Bengal with half a dozen grown up children, who were all trained soldiers
and efficient administrators. From the provincial capital down to the SARKARs and
PARGANAs, from the military department to the rent receiving stations, Iranians and Shias
were found thronging along with Sunnis and others. From MURSHID QULI KHAN to
SIRAJUDDAULA, ie till the 18th century, the subahadars or nawabs, as they were called
then, were all Shias. During this time the Shias became predominant in all branches of
administration, in the army, navy (nawara), in the revenue and other departments.

The nawabs, particularly Murshid Quli Khan and his son-in-law SHUJAUDDIN KHAN
appointed their relatives to the key positions of the state; during the time of ALIVARDI
KHAN, though Hindu officials did go up the ladder, he also confined the most important
offices to his relatives, particularly his family members, children of his brother who were
all his sons-in-law. So, although initially Sunni Muslims predominated in Bengal society,
during the closing years of Muslim rule they gradually yielded place to Shias.

Chittagong being an important seaport, the Arab, Persian and many other foreign traders
went there for commerce and trade. Prospects of better livelihood in the newly conquered
country and prospects of lucrative trade were responsible for attracting foreign Muslims
to this country. While some may have left, many settled here in Bengal. There were also
cases of conversion of local people to Islam; the question of conversion is of special
significance and will be taken up later in this essay. There were also the children of
mixed marriages; many immigrants including the rulers accepted local wives and there
are examples of children of such marriages attaining high ranks in society, according to
the status of their respective fathers.

So it is found that there were many elements in Muslim society, the Turks, the Afghans,
the Mughals, the Arabs, the Persians, the local converts etc. How were these various
people integrated into the society? The earliest reference to different groups in society is
found in a proclamation of Sultan FIRUZ SHAH TUGHLAQ issued to the people of
Lakhnauti on the eve of his invasion of Bengal in 1354 AD. The proclamation was
addressed to the (i) Saadat, Ulama, Mashayikh and others of similar nature; (ii) the
Khans, Maliks, Umara, Sadrs, Akaber and Maarif and their retinue and followers. A
Hindu poet, writing in 1495 AD, refers to the Mughals, Pathans, Shaikh, Sayyid, Mulla
and QAZI. In the early 16th century DUARTE BARBOSA wrote about the wealthy Arabs,
Iranians, Abyssinians and Indians of GAUR and also about the high living standard of
these Muslims. The proclamation of Firuz Shah Tughlaq, an official document, addressed
those whose co-operation and help were needed and sought against his opponent, the
sultan of Bengal. So they were the people who formed the upper class of the society, the

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Ashraf as they are called. They belonged to the religious class, the Saadat, Ulama, and
Mashayikh, and the official class, the Khans, Maliks and Umara.

The Saadat or the Sayyids were the descendants of the Prophet (Sm), the Ulama or the
Alims were those who were well versed in the Islamic sciences or theology. They
received training in Muslim Law, Logic, Arabic Letters and religious literature. The
Mashayikh or the Sufi-Saints were spiritual persons, sometimes otherworldly or ascetic.
Of these the theologians, ie the Ulama occupied a special position, because they occupied
judicial and other religious offices. They were the exponents of the Law, having
sufficient knowledge and expertise to arbitrate disputes. The word Shaikh literally means
old, but technically it means doctor in Muslim Law and Theology. In this sense Shaikhs
were Ulama but they were Ulama who had themselves attained or helped others attain
spiritual development.

The Sufis of Bengal were called Shaikh, because they actually devoted themselves to the
teaching of Islamic sciences alongside their mystic devotions. The Sufis were also called
Makhdums, ie those who are served. Shaikh or Makhdum, by whatever name the Sufis
were called, were people who were spiritually developed and who adhered to the spirit of
Islam. They were renowned for their simplicity of life, strength of character, devotion to
faith and peaceful pursuits, They influenced the people and society very deeply. The
other groups of Muslims were the Khans, Maliks etc who belonged to the official class
and bureaucracy; they were the army personnel and civil servants who ran the
administration and were the backbone of Muslim political power.

At the time of the Muslim conquest, Bengal was predominantly a Hindu-Buddhist

country. The proportion of Hindus and Buddhists cannot be ascertained, but it is a fact
that Buddhists ruled Bengal for several centuries, though before Bakhtyar's conquest
Hindus, the Senas, were holding political power. Raja LAKSMANASENA was then ruling
over the whole of Bengal. Moreover, non-Aryan elements were always present in Bengal,
particularly outside the urban centres and in the river-girt Bangalah; and Buddhism which
was uprooted from the land of its birth, ie North India, had been a great competitor of
Hinduism on the eve of the Muslim conquest.

The non-Aryan elements had somehow identified themselves with the Buddhists and thus
when Hindu-Buddhist rivalry was very much present in the society, Islam came as a
relieving force, in which many found an easy opening to salvation and success. This
probably led to the conversion of local people to Islam. It is interesting to note that
whereas in northern India, the place under imperial domination for centuries, Islam was

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confined to urban centres, in deltaic Bengal it captured the rural society. The large
number of Muslims in this area was not so much due to the introduction of foreign blood
into the country as to the conversion of indigenous population for whom the rigid caste
system of Hinduism had become intolerable. There is hardly any evidence of forcible
conversion in the context of India or Bengal.

During several hundred years of Muslim rule, it is not expected that all rulers were free
from religious bias or the desire to win converts even by coercion, but there is a
consensus that its extent was very limited. The theory of political patronage also cannot
explain the mass conversion to Islam that took place in Bengal because a large number of
Hindus occupied state services including the office of ministers. Hinduism had prohibited
the outcast from residing in the same village as the twice-born Brahman, had forced him
to perform the most menial and repulsive occupations and had virtually treated him as an
animal undeserving of any pity; but Islam announced that the poor, as well as the rich, the
slave and his master, the peasant and the prince, were all equal in the eye of God. Above
all, the Brahmans held out no hopes of a future world to this most virtuous helot, while
the Mulla not only pronounced assurances of felicity in this world but of an indefeasible
inheritance in the next. So the 'hewers of wood and the drawers of water', many a
despairing chandal and kaibartta joyfully embraced Islam, a religion that proclaimed the
equality of man.

The reasons for conversion may be either mundane, eg for gaining royal favour, job
opportunities and economic gains, or genuine love for the faith and desire to be free from
oppression from people belonging to higher castes. The last mentioned cause seems to
have played a greater part in the matter of conversion in Bengal. Islam with its social
justice, principles of equality and fraternity came to the downtrodden people as a saviour
when the entire local society was steeped in inequality and caste oppression. And their
models in Muslim society were certainly not the kings and nobles, but the Sufis and
Ulama whose unostentatious life must have set an example.

It is unnecessary to speculate what percentage of Muslims adhered to the fundamental

principles of Islam ie Salat (prayers), Saum (fastings), Zakat (poor rates) and Hajj
(pilgrimage to the holy cities), because it was incumbent for Muslims to follow them.
There were facilities for practising the fundamentals and religious leaders were there to
preach them.

The great majority of the people, particularly those who entered the fold of Islam later
could not be as religious. It is not unnatural that some popular elements had crept into the

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general belief of the Muslims. It should be conceded that many of the converted Muslims
retained their long-inherited customs, social behaviour and even love for Hindu epics.
Jola (weavers), mukeri (livestock holders), pithari (cake-sellers), Kabari (fish-mongers),
garasal (converts of mixed origin), sanakar (loom-maker), hajam (circumciser), Tirakar
(bow-maker), kagaji (paper-maker), Kalandar (wandering faqir or holy men), darji
(tailors), rangrez (dyers), Kal (those who beg for alms at night), kasai (beef-sellers), gola
or goala (milk-men) etc retained their old professions. Some of these groups were linked
with the village economy, others to the textile industry and still others like the tirakar
provided weaponry to the armed forces while the kagaji or paper-maker supplied paper
for the use of civil servants in the offices and teachers and students for writing books.
They continued the professions in which they were engaged before accepting Islam.

Centuries of contact between the Hindus and the Muslims had profoundly influenced
both, so that the social and religious life of the Muslims profoundly influenced Hinduism,
and in the same manner some practices of the Hindus entered into the life of the Muslims.
As a result some popular elements are also found in the religious practices of the
Muslims. The most important popular element is found in Pirism. The Persian word Pir is
now very loosely used, denoting those spiritual guides for which the Arabic words,
Shaikh, Murshid were formerly used.

In Bengal there also developed Satya-Pir and Panch-Pir movements and a good number
of books were written on the Satya-Pir cult. While the Muslim writers call him Satya-Pir,
to the Hindus he was known as Satya-Narayana. In fact, there is no difference between
Satya Pir and Satya Narayana. Satya-Pir or Satya-Narayana worship could be noticed in
the northern and western parts of Bengal even in the beginning of the 20th century. But
the traditions about them may go as far back as the 16th century. The worship of Panch-
Pir also gained popularity. Though Panch-Pir dargahs are found in several places, no
accepted list of five Pirs is available. The names vary in the lists, though one or two
names of local Pirs are found common in all. A number of imaginary Pirs also receive
reverence from the credulous masses. They are given different names like Manik Pir,
Ghora Pir, Kumbhira Pir and Madari Pir. Offerings are made to them seeking relief from
dangers. For example, offerings of milk and fruits are made to Manik Pir, and folk songs
known as Manik Pirer Gan are composed and sung in various parts.

In some dargahs people bind coloured threads to the branches of nearby trees and/or
stones or walls are washed with lime. Sometimes people offer edibles to fish or tortoises
in tanks attached to the dargahs. The fish or tortoises are called madari. The disciples of

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Badiuddin Shah Madar are called Madari, but the name Madari given to the fish or
tortoise shows that the people have forgotten its original connotation.

Mullaism is another element of popular Islam. Mullas are usually consulted by the
ordinary and less educated Muslims and they help the village Muslims in performing
marriage ceremonies, killing animals on festive and religious occasions, giving taviz
(amulet) to the seekers of relief from evils. They also teach children in mosques and
maktabs and are paid for their services.

The Muslims also venerate stone representations of the footprint of the Prophet (Sm). In
Bangladesh there are several buildings containing the footprint eg KADAM RASUL at
Nabiganj, Dhaka, Kadam Mubarak at Chittagong town and Kadam Rasul at Bagicha Hat,
Chandanaish, Chittagong. The Shias also brought some practices and ceremonies. The
most important of them is linked with the tragic death of Imam Husain (R) and his family
at Karbala, the Muharram festival. In the late Mughal period, the festival was observed
ceremoniously in places like Dhaka and Murshidabad.

The Shia nawabs and high officials spent huge amount of money in observing it. Muslim
poets have also written on Muharram. Folk songs called jarigan are very popular even
today. In the past Taziah processions were organised with pomp, splendour and also grief
in remembrance of the Karbala tragedy. The birth, marriage and death of Muslims are
guided by set rules, but here also Hindu practices have infiltrated. In their social life also
the Muslims were influenced by some Hindu practices. For example, the Ashraf and
Atraf (or Ajlaf) difference among Muslims was not much different from the caste
distinction of the Hindus. In the first half of the Muslim period, the social difference was
not so acute, but during the Mughal period when Islam spread to the nooks and corners of
the country, particularly in the river-girt area, the cultivators, the weavers, and others who
adopted similar professions were relegated to the lower or Atraf class. Economically
backward people also belonged to the Atraf class.

The advent of Islam in Bengal gave the Brahmanical ascendancy a rude shock. The
importance of the superior castes in both political and social life was greatly reduced. It
was not only Islam but several other forces, such as the Manasa, Chandi and Dharma
cults, that were opposed to the Brahmancial system and were more amenable to the
proselytizing influence of Islam. In their attempt to face these challenges, the Brahamins
further tightened their caste rules. The attitude of the Brahmins is exemplified by the
foundation of the Navadvipa school of Nyaya, the composition of a number of smrti texts
by Raghunandan and his contemporaries and general revival of the culture embodied in

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the Sanskrit texts. This was, however, a negative approach; instead of liberalising the
rules and thus keeping the lower class Hindus, Vaishyas and Shudras, away from the
influence of Islam, they tightened the caste restrictions and thus isolated themselves
further from the people. They lost their hold over society and in eastern and southern
Bengal adherents to the local cults of Manasa, Chandi and the Nathas far outnumbered
others.

It was not possible for the Brahmins to keep themselves aloof for long. Living in the
same country, contact with the Muslims, Buddhists and other lower class Hindus, whom
they treated as mlechchhas or untouchables, was inevitable. This affected their caste
purity. Association with the Muslims was called Yavana-dosa (dosa meaning offence).
Besides Yavana-dosa, being childless, going to brothels, marrying within the community,
marrying wicked girls, killing Brahmins, committing adultery or fornication could affect
the social life of Brahmins and entitled them to lose their caste sanctity. So there was a
reaction among the Brahmins themselves against this negative and suicidal policy. The
idea gained ground in some sections that unless the Brahmins could keep pace with the
challenge of time and liberalise their social restrictions, they would not be able to stem
the tide of Islam. This group represented the progressive element and their chief exponent
was SRI CHAITANYA, the founder of Gaudiya VAISNAVISM.

Chaitanya was a great reformer who advocated a casteless society. So the most important
influence of Islam in Bengal is to be found in the diminishing superiority of the
Brahmins, the social revolution among the Brahmins themselves, prominence of local
cults like those of Manasa, Chandi and Natha, and finally the rise of Gaudiya Vaisnavism
as a means of saving Hinduism, chiefly with its casteless appeal.

The Muslims brought with them their food habits, culinary art and dress, but they had to
adjust these to the local climate. Islamic architecture was developed before the Muslims
came to Bengal. This architecture with its true arch, dome, minar etc took the place of the
false arch and skyline or pyramidal shape. Both religious and secular buildings
represented Muslim architecture. The religious buildings were mosques and mazars
(tomb), whereas the secular buildings were of miscellaneous kinds, like the houses,
pavilions, gates, wells, bridges, gardens etc. The Muslims also introduced mortar in their
buildings. But the most important contribution of the Muslims in Bengal was the growth
of Bengali literature. Muslims came to Bengal with two languages, Arabic as the
language of religion and Persian as the language of culture. They also had their mother
tongue, Turkish or Poshtu as the case may be. In Bengal the languages were Bengali and
Sanskrit. But Sanskrit was the language of both religion and culture.

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The Brahmins considered it sacrilegious to write religious books in a language other than
that of the Vedas, ie Sanskrit. The shudras had no access to the religious texts. The
Brahmincal ascendancy in the Hindu period was, therefore, a great barrier to the growth
of Bengali literature. In the Hindu period, the court language was also Sanskrit. So the
rulers and the educated people were interested in the Sanskrit language only. After the
Muslim conquest, the position changed; Persian became the court language and Sanskrit
receded to the background. Local talents got momentum in cultivating their own
language and literature.

Fortunately, the Muslim rulers were tolerant. They encouraged the cultivation of local
language and literature, patronised Hindu poets and thus some very important books were
written in the Sultanate period. Almost all these poets received patronage from the
Muslim rulers. The names of Barbak Shah, HUSAIN SHAH, NUSRAT SHAH and the Muslim
officers, PARAGAL KHAN, Chute Khan may be mentioned in this connection. From the
16th century onwards, Muslim poets themselves wrote poems in Bengali. Besides, as an
impact of Muslim rule, many Arabic and Persian words became assimilated into the
Bengali language. The loan words in Bengali from these languages may be several
hundred or even thousand and thus the Bengali vocabulary has been enriched. The
Muslims also introduced romantic literature in Bengali. Whereas the Hindus wrote
chiefly on religious themes centring round gods and goddesses, the Muslims introduced
love-stories of men and women.

The Muslims came in contact with the local people in various ways. In their military
establishments such as thanas, or the settlements of peaceful persons, they could not
remain isolated and confined amongst themselves. In their day to day life, in the market
places, bazaars, in the ports and in the trading stations, people of both the communities
came closer. The Mughal revenue system brought the people even closer. Todar Mal's
elaborate land revenue system, called zabti, was never applied in Bengal but ambitious
local Muslims and Hindus, of both of whom the mother tongue was Bengali, were now
forced to learn Persian to get a share in the extended secretarial work of the Mughal
provincial administration.

In Bengal the state revenue was collected through middlemen. Unlike the sultans of
Bengal, the Mughal subahdars had no occasion to learn Bengali, and hence the agents of
local ZAMINDARs at the courts of subahdars had to be masters of Persian. Thus Persian
culture infiltrated from the subahdar's court to that of the Rajas and zamindars of Bengal.
During the early period of Mughal rule, the higher posts in the revenue, accounts and
secretarial departments were reserved for Muslims and Hindus from Upper India, such as

12
the Khatris from the Panjab and Agra and Lalas from the U.P. From the time of Murshid
Quli Khan the policy was abandoned; he established a local dynasty, and the high posts
also passed into the hands of local Hindus and Muslims; these people were well-versed in
Persian. Thus Persian spread in Bengali Hindu society no less than among the Muslims.
Thus Islam, which came to Bengal a few hundred years after its birth, influenced the
people and the society of this county very deeply.

(Abdul Karim)

2. Hinduism in Bengal

13
Though Sanatana Dharma or Hinduism generally means a plethora of gods and
goddesses and colourful or horrific rituals, Hinduism is a profound philosophy dating
back to at least 2500 BC and evolving over time through interpretations and reform
movements.

The Vedas Hinduism draws its inspiration from the VEDAS, which are more a record than
an interpretation of religious experience.

The Vedas contain praises of different deities, such as AGNI, Indra, Varuna, etc, who are
deified forms of different aspects of nature. These gods are powerful entities, competent
to bestow bounteous gifts on those who pray to them.

The Vedas comprise of four parts, each of which developed in different periods of the
Vedic Age. The first phase of the Vedic period is marked by the composition of the
Sanghitas, four collections of hymns dedicated to one or the other aspect of the Supreme
Truth. The second phase is characterised by the composition of the Brahmanas, texts
which describe the rituals associated with sacrifice. The third phase of the Vedic period is
characterised by the composition of the Aranyakas, which describe different methods of
spending one's life in the forest and of how to develop one's spiritual self. The fourth
phase is characterised by the UPANISADs, which record the human urge to unravel the
mysteries of the universe. Vedic literature, thus, moves from the craving for physical
satisfaction of material needs to the eternal aspiration of the human mind.

The Bhagavadgita, the Gospel of Hinduism The BHAGAVADGITA is the gospel of

Hinduism. According to the Bhagavadgita, the religion it propounds is not restricted to a
particular community or time, but is an eternal religion handed down to humanity through
the ages. The Sanskrit word dharma, employed in the Bhagavadgita, does not refer to the
faith professed by a particular community or section but rather to a religion capable of
being practised by all human beings irrespective of faith or creed.

Varnashrama-dharma The Manusmrti, the oldest Indian law book, propounds the
scheme of Varnasrama-dharma, which is still followed by Hindus, though in a much
diminutive form. The Purusasukta of the Rg Veda contains the germ of this scheme,
where all of society is regarded as the universal or social man. According to this trope,
from the head of this collective social man the BRAHMAN was born, from his arms the
KSATRIYA, from his trunk the VAISHYA, and from his leg the SHUDRA. The Purusasukta
laid the foundation of the Caste System, by classifying human beings into four
psychophysical types: (a) the Brahman or the man of knowledge, of science, of literature,

14
of thought and learning, (b) the Ksatriya, the man of action and valour, (c) the Vaisya, the
man of desire, of business enterprise, and (d) the Sudra, the man of little intelligence,
incapable of going beyond low limits and dealing with abstract ideas, the man who is fit
only for manual labour. .

The four ends of life The goal of life, according to Hinduism, is the attainment of moksa
(salvation), deliverance from all sorrow, doubt, and fear, signifying the sense of liberation
from the bondage of the ego. When human beings attain liberation, they realise the
identity of their individual selves with the self of the universe. However, this is the last of
the four ends of life: dharma (religion), artha (wealth), kama (libidinal satisfaction) and
moksa.

The law of karma Hinduism is also characterised by the law of karma, or action, the
belief that all events follow from the action done either in this birth or in a previous birth.
The soul is eternal and cannot be confined to a single birth nor can it be destroyed after a
few brief years on earth. The wheel of life therefore goes on revolving, enabling the
individual to progress a few steps in each birth on the road to liberation. The ultimate
objective is always liberation or cessation of embodiment, resulting from the union of the
individual self with the self of the universe.

The great majority of Indians still believe in the doctrine of re-birth and the concomitant
doctrine of karma, which says that man is reborn in happy or unhappy conditions
according to his work in a previous life. This doctrine in its Buddhist form has affected
more than half of Asia. This provided a practical sanction against perpetration of
misdeeds, as it was believed that this would lead to inevitable suffering while righteous
conduct would bring happiness in the next life. Though Buddhism and Jainism were
'reformations' of Hinduism, they emerged as separate religions.

It is interesting to note that though the concept of a formless and absolute infinite
(Brahman) was floated by the Upanisads, the idea gradually changed and the concept of a
personal god whom the average human could love and comprehend gradually emerged.
This transition was easy and natural, and almost inevitable, because the human mind
finds it difficult to establish a relationship with an impersonal god. The Upanisadic
doctrine of an impersonal god was fused with the devotional worship of a personal god
and a beginning was thus made which led to almost revolutionary changes.

Fortunately Bengal was saved from this degradation by CHAITANYA, who elevated the
passions of Radha and Krishna to a high spiritual plane and stressed the emotional at the

15
cost of the ceremonial side of religion. His piety, devotion and fervour introduced a pure
and spiritual element in VAISNAVISM, which offered a bright and refreshing contrast to
the religion promulgated by Vallavacharya.

In addition to the purification of the Bhakti cult and its elevation to a high spiritual level,
these Vaisnava teachers, together with Chaitanya, have made other notable contributions.
These may be summed up as (1) preaching in the vernacular; (2) ignoring caste
distinctions and admitting even the lowest castes to their fold; and (3) rejecting rites and
ceremonials as useless and laying stress on morality and purity of the heart. While
Ramananda and Chaitanya allowed some image worship, others carried this last feature
to an extreme form, discarding all images.

The eighteenth century was marked by the impact of western thought, leading to the
religious reforms of the nineteenth century and bringing back the rationalism of the fifth
century BC. Raja RAMMOHUN ROY was its great exponent. The new spirit led to the
foundation of the Brahma Samaj (including Prarthana Samaj), the Arya Samaj, and the
Theosophical Society on the one hand, and all-round reform in orthodox Hindu religion
and society on the other.

The close of the century saw the advent of Sri RAMAKRISHNA who sought to reconcile not
only the rationalist doctrine with the emotionalism and ritualistic orthodoxy of the earlier
ages, but also the seemingly different conflicting religions. His disciple, SWAMI
VIVEKANANDA, gave a definite shape to his views. Formulating the teaching of his master
into a definite creed, Vivekananda founded the RAMAKRISHNA MISSION which is now a
potent force in India as well as in other countries. Vivekananda propounded the doctrine
that all religions, if truly followed, are but different ways to salvation, and there is no
inherent conflict between one religion and another. The Ramakrishna Mission synthesises
the varied cultures of India, combining the philosophy of the Upanisads and Sankara
with theistic beliefs, the pursuit of abstract principles with meditation and devotion.
While the rituals of the Vedic religion are performed with meticulous care, it observes no
distinctions of caste and creed and honours not only Buddha and Chaitanya, but JESUS
Christ, HAZRAT MUHAMMAD (Sm), and Zoroaster.

Hinduism in Bangladesh Vedic Hinduism developed slowly in Bengal and merged with
folk religion and local customs. Though Bengali Hindus revere the Vedas as their
scriptures, the Gita, Chandi, Bhagavata, Ramayana and Mahabharata are more popular.
Though due to the division of India and various political and social factors, there is a
dilution of the religion, the basic principles of Hinduism inform the beliefs and practices

16
of this community. Hindus are mainly guided by Shruti, Smrti, TANTRA and Purana.
Similarly, the caste divisions though they persist do so in a weakened form.

The religious rites of the Hindus of Bangladesh are similar to those of the Hindus of
WEST BENGAL. The worship of the mother goddess dominates, under various forms. The
autumnal DURGA PUJA is the main religious festival. This is followed in importance by
SARASWATI Puja. The goddess Kali or Shyama is celebrated as the goddess of Sakti and
worshipped everywhere in Bangladesh. Another form of the goddess Durga is as
Jagaddhatri, and JAGADDHATRI PUJA is also celebrated in Bengal, but on a smaller scale.
The goddess Laksmi is worshipped in almost all the Hindu houses as the goddess of
wealth. Every household has an altar to Laksmi, who is worshipped every Thursday.
Brahmin priests, who preside over the other pujas, are not needed at this weekly worship.
LAKSMI PUJA is celebrated, in particular, on the autumnal full moon after Durga Puja.
Other pujas and festivals include DOLAYATRA, RATHAYATRA, Jhulanayatra, Rasayatra,
Kartik Puja, Shivachaturdashi, Nila Puja, Annapurna Puja, Ganga Puja, Siddheshvari
Puja, Ratanti Kalika Puja, Naga Puja, MANASA Puja, Surya Puja, Ganesh Puja,
VISHVAKARMA PUJA, SHITALA Puja etc. JANMASTAMI, the birth of Krishna is celebrated
with grand processions in different cities of the country, including Dhaka. Daksinaraya
and Banabibi Puja are held in the SUNDARBANS area of southern Bengal.

Some pujas are celebrated by different groups or professions. For example, businessmen
worship Ganesh, while blacksmiths and carpenters worship Visvakarma. Saraswati is
mainly worshipped by students, who believe that the goddess of learning will be pleased
and bless them so that they will do well in their studies. Manasa is generally worshipped
for protection against snake bites, and Sitala and OLA DEVI are worshipped for protection
against small pox and cholera.

Some pujas are specifically for the purpose of getting some desired object or avoiding
some misfortune. Among these pujas are Shani Puja, Satyanarayana Puja, Aksayatrtiya,
Sitanavami, BHRATRDVITIYA, Jamaisasthi, Katyayanivrata, Chaitra Sangkranti,
Savitrivrata, Shivaratrivrata, Vipattarinivrata, Mangalachandivrata, Suvachanivrata,
Mahalaya, Dipavali, Pausaparvana etc. Sani Puja, for example, is held to placate the god
Sani, so that his cruel glance does not bring misfortune. Bhratrdvitiya and Jamaisasthi
seek blessings for brother and son-in-law respectively. Young girls observe Savitrivrata
and Shivaratrivrata in order to get good husbands. In addition, there are harvest
celebrations such as NAVANNA. KIRTAN songs form part of religious practices. Fasting as
a religious obligation or for a vow is mostly observed by women.

17
In Bangladesh most Hindus worship sakara Brahma (different gods and goddesses), but
there are also a few who worship nirakara Brahma (god without form), among them the
followers of Brahmo Samaj and Swarupananda Brahmachari. There are many followers
of Vaisnavism, founded by Chaitanya in Bangladesh. In addition there are many
followers of saintly figures such as RAMAKRISHNA, LOKANATH BRAHMACHARI,
Ramathakur, JAGADBANDHU, ANUKULCHANDRA, Swami Pranavananda, Swami
Dayananda, HARICHAND THAKUR, Anandamurti etc.

The religious and social reform movements headed by Raja Rammohun Roy and ISWAR
CHANDRA VIDYASAGAR influenced this area also. SATI was abolished by the British
colonial rulers, along with Gauridana and Kulin polygamy.

(Ramaranjan Mukherjee)

3. Buddhism in Bengal

Bangladesh (historical Bengal) holds a unique place in the history of Indian Buddhism at
least for two reasons. First, Bengal was the last stronghold of Indian Buddhism where it
survived as a socio-cultural force until the twelfth century AD, despite its disappearance
from other parts of the sub-continent. Secondly, it is generally claimed that Bengal was
the home of a degenerate form of Buddhism known as Tantric Buddhism. Tantric
Buddhism is a later development in Bengal and therefore it remains to be seen what
specific factors are responsible for turning the pure form of Buddhism into tantricism and
whether the mystic and esoteric practices in the Buddhism of Bangladesh are of
distinctively Bengali origin.

It is in association with the rule of emperors and kings and their support and sympathy for
Buddhism at different periods of time that the history of Indian Buddhism, and hence of
the Buddhism of Bangladesh, should be seen. The success of the Buddha's missionary
activities during his lifetime and afterwards as well as the thriving of Buddhism both as
religion and civilization in different parts of India were largely due to the patronage of
kings such as Bimbisara, Ashoka, Kaniska etc. down to the Palas and Chandras of Bengal
in the twelfth century AD. Although not all monarchs patronized Buddhism, and some of

18
them were even hostile to its progress, Buddhism nevertheless was able to prosper and
flourish in Bengal over a period of more than eight hundred years.

It is possible that Buddhism entered Bengal before Asoka's time. After attaining
enlightenment, the Buddha is said to have delivered his first sermon at Saranath and then
moved to Magadha, Koshala, Vaishali and other places within what was known as
Majjhimadesha or Madhyadesha. In the Divyavadana, the eastern boundary of the
Majjhimadesha is said to have extended as far as PUNDRAVARDHANA (North Bengal).
Furthermore, the Buddha is said to have received considerable support from King
Bimbisara of Magadha who not only dedicated Venuvana as a residence for monks, but
also remained his close friend and a great patron of his Dhamma throughout his life.
Since Bengal was adjacent to Magadha, it is possible that the Buddha had visited parts of
Bangladesh as suggested by Hiuen Tsang, who notes that Asoka had erected stupas at
various places in Bengal and Orissa to commemorate these visits.

Asoka's Reign and the Post-Maurya Period Epigraphic and other sources reveal that
Buddhism had established a powerful footing in Bengal during Asoka's reign. The
discovery of a Mauryan inscription in Brahmi characters at MAHASTHAN in the district of
BOGRA bearing the name Pudanagala (Pundranagara) and the recovery of many Mauryan
coins and other artifacts dating from the fourth and third centuries BC suggest that the
Gangetic delta was under the control of the Mauryan empire. The Chinese traveller, I-
tsing, is said to have noticed Asoka's stupas near TAMRALIPTI (Tamluk) and
Karnasuvarna (modern Burdwan and Murshidabad districts) in WEST BENGAL, in
Pundravardhana (North Bengal) and in SAMATATA (Bangladesh). The port of Tamralipti
to the west of the Bhagirathi-Hughli river, in particular, played an important role during
Asoka's rule. It was from here, according to Mahavangsa, that the Buddhist mission from
Asoka's capital city, Pataliputra, sailed for Ceylon to spread the message of the Buddha.

With the fall of the Mauryan Empire, Buddhism lost its royal patronage. Pusyamitra
killed his master, Brhadratha, and captured the throne of Magadha, founding the Sunga
dynasty in the second century BC. With the advent of the Sungas, Buddhism had its first
setback. The once thriving religion declined not merely for lack of royal patronage but,
most importantly, because of the hostile attitude of the Sunga kings towards Buddhism
and the Sangha.

However, some Indian scholars are of the opinion that the orthodox Sunga kings were not
intolerant towards Buddhism and that Buddhism prospered during the time of the Sunga
kings. The existence of Buddhism in Bengal in the Sunga period can also be inferred

19
from a terracotta tablet that was found at Tamralipti and is on exhibit at the Asutosh
Museum, UNIVERSITY OF CALCUTTA.

Buddhism received a further impetus from the Kushanas in the first century AD when
Kaniska raised Buddhism to the status of a state religion, erected stupas and chaityas,
built monasteries and, like Asoka, sent missions abroad. The discovery of Buddha
images, copper and gold coins and inscriptions also clearly throw light on the flourishing
condition of Buddhism during the reign of Kaniska.

Gupta Era As devout adherents of a Brahminical faith (Parama-Bhagavatas), the Gupta

emperors patronized and revived Brahminism, but they also possessed a tolerant outlook
which allowed Buddhism to flourish. Moreover the rise of the two powerful cults of
Saivism and VAISNAVISM brought Buddhism closer to HINDUISM. In its spiritual nihilism,
Buddhism was approximated to the Bhakti movements so much so that, in the middle of
the 6th century AD, the Buddha was accepted as an AVATAR of VISHNU.

According to Chinese sources, Maharaja Gupta or Shri Gupta, the first ruler of the Gupta
dynasty, built a Buddhist temple and offered it to Buddhist monks from China along with
a gift of twenty-four villages. This temple is believed to have remained a sacred place till
the 7th century AD. Samudra Gupta, despite being a devout worshipper of Vishnu,
proved to be a great patron of Buddhism. It was during his reign that cultural relations
between India and Ceylon were established, his teacher and guide, the celebrated
Buddhist scholar Vasubandhu, was appointed minister, and, with the permission of the
Ceylonese King Meghavanna, a monastery was built at Bodh-Gaya for the monks and
pilgrims of Ceylon. Chandra Gupta II who, like his father Samudra Gupta, was a devout
Vaisnava by faith, gave full freedom to the practice of other faiths in his empire.

During his visit to Bengal, Fa-hien is said to have travelled eastward along the course of
the Ganges, coming across Buddhist stupas and monks at different places. In Tamralipti,
he is said to have spent two years and visited twenty-two monasteries, inhabited by
monks who lived in accordance with the Buddhist Vinaya.

There is archaeological evidence to corroborate Fa-hien's account about the thriving state
of Buddhism in the Gupta period. An inscription found at Gunaigarh near COMILLA,
bearing the year 188 of the Gupta era (506 or 507 AD), records a gift of land by Maharaja
Vainya Gupta in favour of the Buddhist Avaivarttika Sangha of the Mahayana sect. The
Sangha founded by the Acharya Shantideva was housed in a monastery called Ashrama-
Vihara which was dedicated to Avalokiteshvara. The inscription also refers to other

20
Buddhist monasteries, one of which was known as Raja-Vihara or the royal vihara. Two
Buddhist sculptures, a standing image of the Buddha found at Biharail in RAJSHAHI
district and a gold-plated bronze image of Manjushri discovered at Balai Dhap mound at
Mahasthana in Bogra, also bear testimony to the flourishing state of Buddhism during the
rule of the Gupta kings.

Both Hinayana and Mahayana continued to flourish side by side during the Gupta period.
Buddhist inscriptions, seals, images and manuscripts in Gupta characters, discovered
from the sites of different archaeological excavations, testify to the flourishing state of
the early Hinayana schools, namely, the Sarvastivadins, the Sammatiyas or the
Vatsiputriyas and Sthavirvadins. But gradually, Hinayana lost its hold and gave way to
Mahayana. Mahayana, with its ultra-altruistic principles, its scope for devotion and
worship, and its opening of the state of Bodhisattvahood to recluses and laity, began to
capture the imagination of common people and became an important religious movement.
As Mahayana grew popular, Bodhisattvas such as Manjusri, Avalokitesvara and the
goddess PRAJNAPARAMITA assumed important positions

Hiuen Tsang visited India in the 7th century AD and visited almost all the major places
associated with Buddhism in Bangladesh. According to him, there were six or seven
Buddhist monasteries at Kajangala near Rajmahal, housing over three hundred monks. In
the northern part of the country, he also claimed to have seen a belvedere built of stone
and brick, with a broad and high base, artistic ornamentation and distinct carved images
of the Buddha and the devas. At Pundravardhana he is said to have found twenty
Buddhist monasteries with more than 3,000 monks who practised both Hinayana and
Mahayana. The magnificent Po-shi-po, with spacious halls and storeyed chambers,
occupied by over 700 monks, was located in the vicinity of the capital of
Pundravardhana. There is also mention of a temple with an image of Avalokitesvara not
far from this establishment, which attracted visitors from far and near.

Fa-hien tells us that when he visited India in the 5th century AD, some of the old
Buddhist centres like Kapilavastu and Saraswati were in a neglected and ruinous state,
while Pataliputra, Mathura, Bodh-gaya, Sarnath and Nalanda were flourishing as active
centres of Buddhism. The great monastery of Nalanda, which was founded by Kumara
Gupta Mahendraditya, rose to prominence in the Gupta period and in course of time
turned into a university and became the greatest centre of Buddhist learning in Asia.
From an early date, the Buddhists of Bengal were closely linked with this great
institution, although it was situated in Magadha. Prior to Hiuen Tsang's visit to Nalanda,
Acharya Dharmapala had been the high priest of its monastery. He was succeeded by his

21
disciple Acharya SHILABHADRA, a scion of a Brahmana king of Samatata. It was under
Silabhadra's guidance that Hiuen Tsang studied Buddhist philosophy, including the
VEDAS and Sangkhya Shastras, for five years. Not only scholars from Bengal but also its
kings, the Guptas, the Palas etc., contributed to the development of the great institutions
at Nalanda.

Post-Gupta Age In the post-Gupta period, Harsavardhana gave Buddhism a new impetus.
But in the 6th century AD, when Shashanka came to the throne, he was hostile to
Buddhism. According to Hiuen Tsang's account, Shashanka ordered the extermination of
the Buddhist monks in and around Kushinagara; he cut down the holy Bodhi tree of Gaya
and threw into the Ganges a sacred stone bearing the footprints of the Buddha. He is also
said to have removed a Buddha image from a temple close to the Bodhi tree and replaced
it with an image of SHIVA.

In sharp contrast to Shashanka's persecution of Buddhism, the reign of Emperor

Harsavardhana (606-647 AD) was one of resurgence and renewed progress and
development. Despite being a worshipper of Shiva and Surya, Harsa had great leanings
towards Buddhism, with both his elder brother, Rajyavardhana, and sister Rajyashri being
devout Buddhists. Harsa was at first a devotee of the Hinayana sect, but, in later life,
became an ardent follower of Mahayana. Some of his notable contributions to the cause
of Buddhism include erecting stupas on the banks of the Ganges, building monasteries at
places sacred to Buddhism, and forbidding the slaying of animals. Another of his
important contributions to Buddhism was his convening regularly the quinquennial
convocation in which he gave away in religious alms everything he possessed. Harsa
used to summon Buddhist monks once a year for religious discussions. Harsa was
specially attached to Nalanda and extended help liberally.

After Harsavardhana, the Khadga dynasty is said to be the first Buddhist dynasty to rule
an independent Bengal between the 7th and 8th centuries AD. The discovery of two
copperplates, one at Ashrafpur, 30 miles north-east of DHAKA and another at Deulbari, 14
miles south of Comilla, gives us valuable information about this royal dynasty. These
copperplates mention the names of three kings, Khadgodyama, Jatakhadga and
Devakhadga, and include the names of the queen and the son of Devakhadga, Prabhavati
and Rajaraja or Rajarajabhata. I-tsing's account notes that as many as fifty-six Buddhist
priests from China visited India and its neighbouring areas in the latter half of the seventh
century AD. One of these monks, Sheng-chi, who visited Samatata, mentions Rajabhata
as its king and describes him as an ardent worshipper of the three gems (Triratna), i.e.,
the Buddha, Dhamma and Sangha. There were 30 monasteries with more that 4,000

22
monks in Samatata alone during the pilgrim's visit. It is clear from all these that during
the reign of the Khadga kings, Buddhism continued to flourish in Bengal in the seventh
century AD.

Rule of the Pala Dynasty The Pala rule may be regarded as the golden age of Buddhism
in Bengal. The Palas were devout Buddhists (Parama-saugata) who were, however,
equally sympathetic to other faiths. They invoked the Buddha at the beginning of their
official records. Buddhism survived and flourished in Bengal for four centuries under the
patronage of the Pala kings, while it was almost wiped out in other parts of India. At the
same time, it also became a dominant international force, extending its influence to Tibet
in the north and the Malaya peninsula in the south.

Archaeological and epigraphic evidence testifies to the lavish patronage of the Palas
towards the cause of Buddhism. Instances of the Palas' patronage of Buddhism are
numerous. King Gopala, according to Tibetan tradition, built a monastery at Nalanda and
established many religious schools. According to Taranatha, many distinguished
Buddhist teachers flourished during the reign of Gopala, prominent among them being
Danashila, Vishesamitra, Sura and Prajñavarman. The Odantapuri Vihara was a specimen
of rare architectural beauty. The famous Sam-ye monastery of Tibet is said to have been
built on the model of this great vihara.

DHARMAPALA continued the religious policy of his father Gopala and extended his liberal
support to Buddhist establishments. He is said to have founded the famous Vikramashila
Vihara on a hill top on the bank of the Ganges in Magadha. The vihara soon rose to
prominence as an international university, second only to Nalanda, maintaining contact
with Tibet and graced by the presence of Tibetan scholars throughout the Pala rule. Many
of the Vikramashila scholars, who once numbered 3000 in the 12th century AD,
composed numerous books in Sanskrit and also translated them into Tibetan. The
curricula of the university included logic, metaphysics, grammar, tantras, rituals etc.
Importantly, the reigning monarch of the land awarded degrees to students.

Dharmapala is also known to have built a monastery at Somapura, in Rajshahi district.

The SOMAPURA MAHAVIHARA, Naogaon which became a model for many monasteries in
South-east Asia, stands as a magnificent testament to the Pala patronage of Buddhism.
Dharmapala is also said to have established as many as fifty religious schools designed to
teach Buddhist philosophy and to study Prajnaparamita in particular. He was a great
patron of the Buddhist writer, Haribhadra, and, during his reign, as in his father's, many

23
distinguished Buddhist teachers, such as Purnavardhana, Prabhakara, Kalyanagupta,
Sagaramegha, Bhuddhajñapada, flourished.

Under DEVAPALA, the Pala empire reached the zenith of its glory, and Bengal became a
paramount power. Devapala is said to have granted an endowment of five villages for the
upkeep of a monastery founded by King Balaputradeva of Java, Sumatra and Malaya.
Not only did he complete the Somapura establishment, he also showed keen interest in
the well-being of the Vikramshila Vihara. Mahipala I, the ninth king of the Pala dynasty
and rightly called the founder of the second Pala empire, is responsible for the revival of
the past glory of the Buddhist establishments. He repaired the Buddhist monuments at
Nalanda and constructed two new temples at Bodh-Gaya. Many famous monasteries were
built during the Pala period of which mention may be made of Jagaddala, Traikutaka,
Pandita, Devikota, Pattikeraka, Sannagara, Phullahari and Vikramapuri.

Buddhism flourished during the reign of the Chandra dynasty in HARIKELA (eastern and
southern parts of Bengal). The discovery of a large Buddha stupa, Salbana Vihara and
other inscriptions at the Mainamati hills, four miles to the west of Comilla, still bears
testimony to the condition of Buddhism during the Chandra kings. According to Tibetan
sources, Buddhist tantricism flourished under the Chandra rule. The famous Buddhist
scholar of VIKRAMAPURA, ATISH DIPANKAR SRIJNAN, is believed to be related to this
Chandra dynasty.

The Pala Kingdom was not only the last stronghold of dying Buddhism in India, it was
also responsible for the rise of Tantric Buddhism. This new phase of Mahayana
Buddhism has been variously designated by Charles Eliot and others as 'late',
'degenerate', and 'corrupt'. Such allegations are based on the assumption that when
Buddhism entered Bengal, it gradually came under the powerful influence of tantric
beliefs and practices, including what are known as sexo-yogic practices, which made it
fall away from the purity of its early form and eventually develop into what came to be
known as esoteric or magical Buddhism.

Professor Trevor Ling opines that in Bengal from the time of Asoka to the Pala period,
both the Hinayana and Mahayana, not the tantric, forms of Buddhism were practised. He
describes the classical pattern of Buddhism as a three-cornered relationship between
Sangha, king and people and emphasizes that the Buddhism of the Pala period was a true
representative example of this classical pattern. Trevor Ling and many others believe that
the Pala rule in Bengal heralded an era of progress in culture, religion, education,
literature, art and sculpture. Amongst other achievements of the Palas, Ling has

24
particularly mentioned their active patronage of Bangla language and literature. It was in
a popular new language, a proto-Bangla form, that the Buddhist poets composed what are
known to be the first poems of Bangla literature, the famous CHARYAPADA, a Tantric work
of twenty-three Buddhist Tantrikists known as Siddhas.

Tantric Buddhism The term tantra has several meanings; but when it is applied, in its
special technical sense, to a religion, the religious system assumes some fundamental
features with emphasis laid on the use of such practices as mystic syllables ( MANTRAS),
magical diagrams (yantras), ritualistic circles (MANDALAs), physical gestures (mudras),
spells (dharanis), etc. To these are added the elements of sex-play (maithuna), psycho-
physical discipline (YOGA), a pantheon of gods, worship and ritualism, magic, sorcery,
charms, necromancy, astrology, symbolism, alchemy, the principle of an apparent duality
in an absolute non-duality, co-efficiency of the female partner and the concept of the
Great Delight (mahasukha) born of the union of male and female. Two of the earliest
available texts on Tantric Buddhism are the Guhyasamajatantra and
Manjushrimulakalpa, the former dealing with yoga and anuttarayoga (tantric forms of
meditation), and the latter with mantras, mudras, mandalas, etc. In the
Manjusrimulakalpa are also given instructions for painting the different gods and
goddesses of the Tantric pantheon. Amongst other tantric works are mentioned
Hevajratantra, Samvaratantra, Kalachakratantra, Jnanasiddhi, Karandavyuhasutra,
Nilakanthadharani and Mahapratyangiradharani.

This mystic form of Buddhism developed in Bengal during the Pala period and its
profound impact entirely changed the course and history of Buddhism. This medieval
Buddhist movement was founded by the tantric acharyas known as Siddhas who are
traditionally believed to be men of psychic and supernatural powers. In the Buddhist
tradition, the number of the Siddhas is put at eighty-four. Some of the principal figures
amongst the Siddhas are Sarahapa, Nagarjuna, Tilopa, Naropa, Advayavajra, KAHNAPA,
Savarapa, Luipa, Bhusuku, Kukkuripa, Dombi and Indrabhuti.

Decline and Resurgence Buddhism, as a typical tantric form of mysticism, reached a

stage in Bengal in the hands of the Siddhas where it was easily assimilated to Shaktism.
The fusion between Saktism and Buddhist mysticism gave rise to new schools of Saktism
and some forms of popular religion in which Buddhism is said to have survived, despite
its decline in the face of Brahmanism.

The Senas, who followed the Palas, were orthodox followers of Saivaism or Vaisnavism
and had little sympathy with Buddhism. Deprived of royal support, Buddhism soon began

25
to decline and disintegrate. Its institutions disappeared and those which lingered on could
not withstand the onslaught of MUHAMMAD BAKHTYAR KHALJI . Buddhist monks who
outlived persecution by Muslim invaders fled to Nepal, Tibet or Bhutan. The Buddhist
laity were either converted to Islam or were integrated into the fold of Brahmanism.
Buddhism, as a separate entity, was almost extinct, surviving in many debased forms of
popular practices such as DHARMA THAKUR puja or the puja of JAGANNATH.

The decline of Buddhism, however, did not result in its total disappearance from the land
of its birth, and it continued to survive in various forms of popular worship, rites and
rituals until its resurgence in modern India. With its rediscovery in its parent country, the
traditions of Buddhism were significantly recognized so that the Asokan pillar, the sacred
Wheel of Law (Dharmachakra) and the Singhanada sculpture from Saranatha are now a
part of Indian national life and heritage. The renewal of Buddhism in India today is
attributed to Dr BR Ambedkar, the architect of the Indian Constitution, who led the mass
conversion of millions of untouchables or 'Scheduled Castes' to Buddhism in 1956. In
Bengal, however, the revival of Buddhism seems to have taken place centuries before Dr
BR Ambedkar's introduction of the neo-Buddhist movement in Maharastra and other
places. In the districts of CHITTAGONG and the CHITTAGONG HILL TRACTS, the south-
eastern parts of Bangladesh, a Buddhist minority had been practising Theravada long
before the Moghuls and the British arrived in Bengal. In course of time, these Buddhists
reformed their Sangha and in 1887 founded the Chittagong Buddhist Association,
believed to be the first Buddhist society to be formed in the sub-continent.

(Niru Kumar Chakma)

4. Christianity in Bengal

26
Christianity came to Bengal initially with the Portuguese in the 16th century AD. For two
centuries missionary work was carried on mainly by two Roman Catholic orders: the
Jesuits and the Augustinians. In 1598-9 the Jesuits established a school and hospital at
Hughli, where the Portuguese had obtained permission from the Emperor AKBAR to
settle. The Jesuits remained in Bengal until their suppression by the Pope in the late 18th
century. But it was the Augustinians who were responsible for the major part of Christian
activity. They established a monastery at Hughli in 1599, from where they reached out to
other centres including DHAKA. By about 1630 there were 7000 Christians at Hughli,
consisting of Portuguese, their Eurasian descendants, and converts, including slaves. The
monastery was destroyed when SHAHJAHAN attacked Hughli in 1632, but the
Augustinians were subsequently allowed to resettle at Bandel, where they built a church
which still survives.

The Portuguese had been able to settle at CHITTAGONG in the 16th century under the
auspices of the King of Arakan. The Augustinians established themselves there in 1621,
and baptised thousands who had been captured in the piratical raids in the GANGES delta
area. Later in the 17th century Nagari became an important centre, following the
conversion of about 20,000 mainly low-caste Hindus by Antonio de Rozario, son of the
raja of Bhushna (Jessore), who had himself converted to Christianity. By the 1690s there
were 13 Augustinian churches in Bengal, but the majority of Christians received only
rudimentary instruction and tended to migrate to new centres as they rose in importance-
including the English settlement at Kolkata from 1690, where the Augustinians built a
chapel. In 1696 the French appointed a Jesuit to serve the Christians at Chandannagar.
The Armenians built a church at Chinsura in 1695 and subsequently others at Kolkata and
Dhaka.

The British EAST INDIA COMPANY appointed chaplains to minister to its agents, and the
Anglican bishopric of Kolkata was established in 1813-4. But prior to 1813 the Company
banned missionary work for fear of antagonising the people; subsequently it was allowed
within an official policy of religious neutrality. Nevertheless, Protestant activity can be
dated from 1793, when WILLIAM CAREY of the Baptist Missionary Society arrived. In
1800 Carey settled in the Danish enclave of SERAMPORE together with Joshua Marshman
and William Ward.

This 'Serampore Trio' embarked upon a remarkable range of activities. They established
elementary schools, whose curriculum included an introduction to modern science,
geography and history. They prepared textbooks in BANGLA for these schools, printed at
the press which they had set up. In 1817 they joined with others to found the CALCUTTA

27
SCHOOL-BOOK SOCIETY , which soon published thousands of copies for use in elementary
schools. In 1818 they established SERAMPORE COLLEGE, to provide higher education in
arts, science and theology for Christian and non-Christian students; King Frederik VI of
Denmark granted it a charter in 1827. It proved over-ambitious for the resources available
and underwent a period of decline in the later 19th century, but was revived by Herbert
Howells in 1910 to become the centre for theological education in India.

Apart from textbooks, the Serampore Baptists made other contributions to the
development of the Bangla Language. These included a dictionary and grammar; a
translation of the BIBLE, subsequently improved upon by others; and the periodicals
Digdarshan and Samachar Darpan, which represent the beginnings of the Bangla press.
They also founded The Friend of India, ancestor of The Statesman. Another area in which
Carey made a lasting contribution was botany and agriculture. He created a botanical
garden at Serampore, obtained seeds from abroad and acclimatised new plants. He also
took a leading part in the establishment (1820) of what became the Agri-Horticultural
Society of India. The Serampore Baptists also sought to influence public opinion and
government against the cruel practices which existed in contemporary HINDUISM, such as
infanticide at Sagar Island and SATI, on which they undertook a survey which indicated
its frequency.

Other Protestant missionary societies followed the Baptist Missionary Society to Bengal
after 1813, notably the London Missionary Society, the Church Missionary Society, and
the Church of Scotland. The Church Missionary Society, an Anglican society, provided
the initial support, from 1821, for Mary Ann Cooke, a pioneer in the establishment of
girls' schools. Then in 1830 the Church of Scotland missionary ALEXANDER DUFF arrived
in Kolkata and proceeded to set a new standard for Christian education. He founded a
school which achieved a rapid and lasting success, developing eventually into Scottish
Church College. Duff condemned rote-learning and stressed the vital role of the teacher
in evoking the interest and understanding of the pupil. He also believed in developing the
whole person and made provisions for exercises and games. His insistence on English as
the medium of instruction left a more debatable legacy. It was imitated by other
missionaries, and his example was one factor in causing the government in 1835 to
decide to devote its funds to western education through the medium of English.

The missionaries' linguistic and educational work represents their main contribution to
the development of modern Bengal. But they saw their prime purpose as evangelistic:
trying to convince people that their salvation lay in Christ alone. In this they achieved
little: the Baptists had converted not more than 3000 by 1838, including some from other

28
Christian churches, despite having established missions across Bengal, including in
Dhaka and Chittagong. Conversions were inhibited by family and social ostracism, and in
the rural areas by opposition from zamindars. Duff concentrated on the Bengali Hindu
INTELLIGENTSIA, already influenced by Western secular ideas: a few individuals
converted, some of whom-notably KRISHNA MOHAN BANERJI-went on to distinguished
careers. Mass conversions were unusual: one such movement occurred in the
Krishnanagar area in the late 1830s, particularly among the KARTABHAJAs. Many of the
ideas of this sect were already in line with Christian ones. Moreover, the kartabhajas were
afflicted by economic and environmental problems, and so they were ready to respond to
the preaching of Christian missionaries. The Baptists achieved some success around
BARISAL, where their Christian community, mainly of Namasudra origin, numbered 4278
by 1877. But such communities were poor and therefore long dependent on missionary
society support, which reinforced the tendency for missionary paternalism.

The missionaries' attitude to Hinduism and ISLAM tended to be highly critical and
confrontational for most of the 19th century. This naturally provoked considerable
Bengali resentment, and by the mid-1840s effective counter-arguments were forthcoming
from the Kolkata intelligentsia. But the missionary challenge also stimulated reform
movements in Hinduism, such as the BRAHMA SAMAJ and the TATTVABODHINI SABHA.
With the Muslims, they found more religious common ground but an even greater
reluctance to convert. The missionaries, however, had a real concern for the plight of the
rural poor. For example, in 1861, JAMES LONG, of the Church Missionary Society,
arranged for the translation of the play Nildarpan which depicted the damaging effects of
the system of INDIGO cultivation, for which he was sued by the planters.

In his respect for Indian culture, Long was exceptional among the British in mid-19th
century India, but by the end of the century missionaries were beginning to show a deeper
and more sympathetic understanding of Hinduism and Islam. This was exemplified by JN
Farquhar, who became secretary of the Calcutta YMCA in 1902. Farquhar's scholarly
interest in Hinduism found its counterpart in that of the Baptist Bevan Jones for Islam-he
worked in Dhaka between 1909 and 1930.

The Roman Catholic Church was re-established on a stronger footing in 1834, when a
Vicar Apostolic was appointed by the Papacy, independent of Portuguese jurisdiction.
Belgian Jesuits assumed responsibility in 1859, and re-founded St Xavier's College,
Kolkata, which rapidly became a prestigious centre of secondary and higher learning. An
archdiocese of Kolkata was created in 1886 and new orders entered, including the Holy
Cross Fathers in East Bengal.

29
The missionaries continued to invest substantially in education, with elementary and
secondary schools, university colleges, and student hostels. The Oxford Mission to
Bengal, an Anglican brotherhood, also developed an industrial school at Behala, south of
Kolkata, in 1909. Some medical work was undertaken, including a Baptist Missionary
Society hospital at Chandraghona from 1908 and subsequently also a leprosy centre, and
a Church Missionary Society hospital eventually located at Baollobhpur.

Carey, Marshman, and Ward had realised that Christianity would most effectively be
spread in India by Indians, but in practice the foreign missionaries had remained
predominant. So a century later Christianity was widely seen as a foreign importation,
and, partly now in response to the national movement, there was a serious move towards
Indianisation. Thus more Indian clergy were trained and ordained; the first Indian
principal for Serampore College was appointed in 1949. In 1930 the Anglican Church in
India became independent of the Church of England, and in 1950 the first Indian bishop
of Calcutta, AN Mukherjee, was consecrated. In 1935 Baptist work in Bengal, including
that of the BMS missionaries, became the responsibility of the local church: the Bengal
Baptist Union.

After independence and PARTITION, Dhaka became the seat of a Roman Catholic
archbishop and an Anglican bishop. North India (including WEST BENGAL) and PAKISTAN
saw a historic movement towards union between the Anglican and several other
Protestant denominations, which was achieved for both countries in November 1970.
Thus when Bangladesh became independent in 1971 there was a Church of Bangladesh,
formed from the union of the Anglican and Presbyterian communities. By 2001 this had
two dioceses and about 14,000 members. The number of Baptists total 136,000: this
includes the congregations founded by the Baptist Missionary Society, now the
Bangladesh Baptist Sangha. The largest denomination is the Roman Catholic, with well
over 200,000 adherents out of a total estimated Christian population of perhaps half a
million.

(Michael A Laird)
[Abridged]

[Sirajul Islam (Ed.) Banglapedia, Vol. 5: PP. 87 – 93, 309 – 315; Vol. 2: PP. 293 –
299 Vol. 3: PP. 22 – 24]

B. Festivals in Bangladesh

30
1. Eid-ul Fitr

As the most important religious festival for the majority Muslims, the celebration of Eid
ul-Fitr has become a part of the culture of Bangladesh. The Government of Bangladesh
declares holiday for three days on Eid-ul Fitar. People living in towns having their
families or parents in villages go to their country homes to meet relatives and celebrate
the festival together. All outgoing public transport from the major cities become highly
crowded and in many cases the fares tend to rise in spite of government restrictions.

Adult Muslim males in Bangladesh assemble at the Eid Ghah for prayer in the morning
of the Eid day

On Eid day, Eid prayers are held all over the country, in open areas like fields or else
inside mosques. In Dhaka, the largest Eid prayer is held at the national Eidgah. All major
mosques including the Baitul Mukarram also holds prayers. The biggest congregation of
Bangladesh is held at Sholakia in Kishoreganj, where about half a million people join the
Eid prayer.[3] After the Eid prayers people return home, visit each other's home and eat
sweet dishes called shirni. Throughout the day gentlemen embrace each other. It is also
customary for junior members of the society to touch the feet of the seniors, and seniors
returning blessings (sometimes with a small sum of money as a gift).

In the rural areas Eid festival is observed with great fanfare. In some areas Eid fares are
arranged. Different types of games including boat race, kabbadi, other traditional
Bangladeshi games as well as modern games like football and cricket are played on this
occasion.

In urban areas people play music, visit each other's houses and eat special food. Watching
movies and television programs has also become an integral part of Eid celebration in
urban areas. All local TV channels air special program for several days for this occasion.

2. Eid-ul Azha

31
The celebration of Eid ul-Azha is similar to Eid ul-Fitar in many ways. The only big
difference is the Qurbani or sacrifice of domestic animals on Eid ul-Adha. Numerous
temporary marketplaces of different sizes called Haat operate in the big cities for sale of
Qurbani animals (usually cows and goats).

In the morning on the Eid day, immediately after the prayer, capable people arrange to
slaughter their animal of choice. Less affluent people also take part in the festivity by
visiting houses of the affluent who are taking part in qurbani. After the qurbani a large
portion of the meat is given to the poor people.

Although the religious doctrine allows the sacrifice anytime over a period of three days
starting from the Eid day, most people prefer to perform the ritual on the first day of Eid .
However, the public holiday spans over three to four days. Many people from the big
cities go to their ancestral houses/homes in the villages to share the joy of the festival
with friends and relatives.

(Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia)

3. Pahela Baishakh

First day of the Bangla year. Pahela Baishakh is celebrated in a festive manner in both
Bangladesh and West Bengal. In Bangladesh Pahela Baishakh is a national holiday.
Pahela Baisakh falls on April 14 or 15.

Under the Mughals, agricultural taxes were collected according to the Hijri calendar.
However, as the Hijri calendar is a lunar calendar, the agricultural year does not coincide
with the fiscal. As a result, farmers were hard-pressed to pay taxes out of season. In order
to streamline tax collection, the Mughal Emperor AKBAR ordered a reform of the
calendar. Accordingly, Fatehullah Shirazi, a renowned scholar and astronomer,
formulated the Bangla year on the basis of the lunar Hijri and Bangla solar calendars. The
new Fasli San (agricultural year) was introduced on 10/11 March 1584, but was dated
from Akbar's ascension to the throne in 1556. The new year subsequently became known
as BANGABDA or Bengali year.

Celebrations of Pahela Baishakh started from Akbar's reign. It was customary to clear up
all dues on the last day of Chaitra. On the next day, or the first day of the new year,

32
landlords would entertain their tenants with sweets. On this occasion there used to be
fairs and other festivities. In due course the occasion became part of domestic and social
life, and turned into a day of merriment.

The main event of the day was to open a halkhata or new book of accounts. This was
wholly a financial affair. In villages, towns and cities, traders and businessmen closed
their old account books and opened new ones. They used to invite their customers to
share sweets and renew their business relationship with them. This tradition is still
practised, especially by jewellers.

New year's festivities are

closely linked with rural life
in Bengal. Usually on the
day everything is scrubbed
and cleaned. People bathe
early in the morning and
dress in fine clothes and
then go to visit relatives,
friends and neighbours. Baisakhi mela

Special foods are prepared to entertain guests. Baishakhi fairs are arranged in many parts
of the country. Various agricultural products, traditional handicrafts, toys, cosmetics as
well as various kinds of food and sweets. are sold at these fairs. The fairs also provide
entertainment, with singers and dancers staging JATRA, PALA GAN, KAVIGAN, JARIGAN,
GAMBHIRA GAN, GAZIR GAN and ALKAP GAN. They present folk songs as well as BAUL,
marfati, MURSHIDI and BHATIALI songs. Narrative plays like LAILY-MAJNU, YUSUF-
ZULEKHA and Radha-Krishna are staged. Among other attractions of these fairs are
puppet shows and merry-go-rounds.

Many old festivals connected with new year's day have disappeared, while new festivals
have been added. With the abolition of the zamindari system, the PUNYA connected with
the closing of land revenue accounts has disappeared. Kite flying in DHAKA and bull
racing in MUNSHIGANJ used to be very colourful events. Other popular village games and
sports were horse races, bullfights, cockfights, flying pigeons, boat racing. Some
festivals, however, continue to be observed, for example, bali or wrestling in Chittagong
and gambhira in Rajshahi.

33
Observance of Pahela Baishakh has become popular in the cities. Early in the morning
people gather under a big tree or on the bank of a lake to witness the sunrise. Artistes
present songs to welcome the new year. People from all walks of life wear traditional
Bengali dresses:

young women wear white

sarees with red borders and
adorn themselves with
bangles, flowers, and tips.
Men wear white pyjamas or
dhoti and kurta. Many
townspeople, start the day
with the traditional breakfast
of panta bhat (cooked rice
soaked with water), green
chillies, onion, and fried Pahela Baisakh cultural function at Ramna Prak
HILSA fish.

The most colourful new year's day festival takes place in Dhaka. Large numbers of
people gather early in the morning under the BANYAN TREE at Ramna Park where
CHHAYANAT artistes open the day with Tagore's famous song, Eso he Baishakh eso eso
(Come O Baishakh, come), welcoming Baishakh. A similar ceremony welcoming the
new year is also held at the Institute of Fine Arts, UNIVERSITY OF DHAKA.

Students and teachers of the

institute take out a colourful
procession and parade round the
campus. Social and cultural
organisations celebrate the day
with cultural programmes.
Newspapers bring out special
supplements. There are also
special programmes on radio and
Baisakhi festivity, Dhaka
television.

34
The historical importance of Pahela Baishakh in the Bangladesh context may be dated
from the observance of the day by Chhayanat in 1965. In an attempt to suppress Bengali
culture, the Pakistan Government had banned TAGORE SONGS. Protesting this move,
Chhayanat opened their Pahela Baishakh celebrations at Ramna Park with Tagore's song
welcoming the month. The day continued to be celebrated in East Pakistan as a symbol of
Bengali culture. After 1972 it became a national festival, a symbol of the Bangladesh
nationalist movement and an integral part of the people's cultural heritage.

(Sambaru Chandra Mohanta)

4. Navanna

Navanna literally, new food] a harvest festival celebrating the harvesting of aman paddy.
All agricultural societies celebrate the harvesting of the main crop. At Wazirabad in
North-West India a harvest festival is observed in the month of Baishakh to welcome the
new wheat crop. Such festivals are also held in South India. The object is to pray for
more crops, timely rain, children and cattle.

Tribal communities in Bangladesh also celebrate the harvest. The SANTALS observe the
soharay festival in the months of Paus-Magh after the winter crop is harvested. The
celebration lasts for 7 days and 7 nights and includes drinking, singing and dancing. The
Usui tribes observe the mailukma festival to welcome Laksmi, the goddess of crops. The
MRU tribes observe the chamoinat festival during which they sacrifice hens and entertain
guests with new rice. The GARO tribes observe the wangalla festival during which they
feast, drink, sing and dance.

In Bangladesh navanna was mainly observed by Hindus after the new aman crop had
been harvested in autumn. An important part of this festival was to propitiate the
forefathers with new rice. Offerings were then made to the deities, fire, crows,
BRAHMANs and relatives. The host and his family members were the last to eat. On this
occasion the courtyard of the house used to be painted with rice paste. Every family of
the village used to observe this happy occasion by offering rice cakes to guests and
visiting the houses of relatives. The whole village used to come alive with the sound of
the pounding of rice and the blowing of conch shells. Everywhere there were groups
singing KIRTAN, PALA GAN or JARIGAN. In the month of Agrahayan masked groups of
people used to go round the houses all night singing and dancing. Farmers used to buy

35
new clothes after selling the new crop. Today navanna is celebrated by all communities.
Pitha festivals are held on the occasion, during which varieties of rice cakes are prepared
from freshly harvested rice.

(Mahmood Nasir Jahangiri)

5. Durga Puja

The most important religious festival of Bengali Hindus, celebrates the return of the
goddess to her natal home. In other parts of India as well, Durga is worshipped, but under
different names. For example, in Kashmir she is worshipped as Amva, in the Deccan as
Amvika, as Hingula and Rudrani in Gujrat, as Uma in Bihar and as Kanyakumari in
Tamil Nadu. Celebrations outside Bengal are, however, on a minor note.

Durga does not belong to the Vedic pantheon, but is a later goddess. She is also known as
Adyashakti, Mahamaya, Shivani, Bhavani, Dashabhuja, Singhavahana etc. The goddess
came to be known as Durga after killing a demon named Durgo or Durgam. She is also
called Durga because she brings an end to all forms of misery.

The best known story of Durga is that of her defeating the demon Mahisasur, who could
not be killed by any male because of a blessing he had received from BRAHMA. Knowing
that the gods could not renege on the boon they had granted, Mahisasur fought the gods
and threw them out of their abode. The gods and goddesses appealed to VISHNU for help.
On Vishnu's advice, each god gave up one of his qualities and weapons to Durga. Armed
with their weapons and imbued with their qualities, Durga fought and killed Mahisasur.
Consequently she is also known as Mahisamardini. There are detailed discussions about
Durga in Kalivilasatantra, Kalikapurana, Devibhagavata, Mahabhagavata,
Vrhannandikeshvarapurana, Durgabhaktitarangini, Durgotsavaviveka,
Durgotsavatattva.

There are two pujas associated with Durga: Basanti Puja in spring (basanta), and
Sharadiya Puja in autumn (sharat). Basanti Puja is performed in the first fortnight of
Chaitra (March-April) and Saradiya Puja in the first fortnight of Aswin or Kartik
(October-November). The origins of Basanti Puja date back to the time of King Surath,
who had lost his kingdom. Advised by a wise man to worship Durga, he did so and had
his kingdom restored. Saradiya Puja derives from a worship of the goddess arranged by
RAMACHANDRA in autumn.

36
Invoking the goddess'
blessings in his fight against
Ravana, Ramachandra
arranged a worship of the
goddess in autumn. Since then
this puja has been known as
akalvodhan (untimely
invocation) or Saradiya Durga
Puja. Nowadays Basanti Puja
is rarely performed, and Durga Devi Durga
Photo Ramakrishna Mission, Dhaka
Puja has become synonymous
with Saradiya Puja.

On the occasion of Durga Puja, the goddess is invoked on the sasthi, sixth day, of Aswin
or Kartik. Puja is offered on the shaptami, astami, navami or mahanavami, the seventh,
eighth and ninth days. The image of the goddess is immersed in water on the dashami,
tenth day. Preparation for the immersion of the Durga images start on the morning of
dashami, but the immersions actually take place in the evening. Long processions of
devotees carry the images of the goddess from various puja pandals to nearby ponds,
canals, rivers etc, where they are immersed. The dashohara mela is held on this day.
Wearing new dresses, members of the Hindu community congregate at the fair. Everyone
exchanges greetings, and the young visit their elders to seek their blessings. Boat races
are a special attraction of the fair.

There are three kinds of Durga Puja: a) Sattvik (esoteric), which includes meditation,
yanja (elaborate rites during which mantras are chanted) and offerings of vegetarian
dishes; b) Tamasik (unenlightened), which is meant for people of lower castes, during
which there is no meditation, but which includes the recital of mantras and during which
wine and meat are served; c) Rajasik (imperial), during which an animal is sacrificed and
offerings made of non-vegetarian dishes. The recommended sacrificial animals are goat,
lamb, buffalo, deer, pig, rhinoceros, tiger, iguana, tortoise, fowl. Some scriptures even
recommend human sacrifice.

The goddess Durga is usually depicted with ten hands, though she may also be
represented with four, eight, sixteen, eighteen or twenty hands. On the occasion of Durga
Puja, images of the goddess are made of straw and clay. The images are then painted,
either light golden, bright gold or red. In the past a few families, including the Tagore

37
family of Jorasanko, used to attire the icon in costly saris and adorn it with gold
ornaments before immersing it with all its finery. Puja is at times performed without an
image of the goddess but with a darpan (a shiny, reflective metal piece, usually of brass)
or with a book, a picture, a trishul (trident), arrow, kharga (falchion).

Durga Puja celebrations are believed

by some to have been introduced
into Bengal by Kangsanarayan, Raja
of Tahirpur in RAJSHAHI district
during the reign of Emperor AKBAR
(1556-1605). Others believe that
KRISHNACHANDRA ROY (1710-
1783), Raja of NADIA, popularised
these celebrations. Devotees taking the durga for immersion

However, the detailed descriptions of Durga Puja celebrations in Durgotsavanirnaya by

JIMUTAVAHANA (c 1050-1150), Durgabhaktitarangini by VIDYAPATI (1374-1460),
Durgotsavaviveka by SHULAPANI (1375-1460), Ramayana by KRITTIVAS OJHA (c 1381-
1461), Kriyachintamani by Vachaspati Mishra (1425-1428), Tithitattva by
RAGHUNANDAN BHATTACHARYA (15-16 century) suggest that this festival was celebrated
in Bengal as early as the 10th century. However, elaborate Durga Puja celebrations are of
a later date and may well be the contribution of Kangsanarayan or Krishnachandra. By
the end of the 18th century, Europeans used to participate in the puja festivities. Baijees
(accomplished singer-dancers) used to perform at the residences of the rich. JATRA,
PANCHALI, and KAVIGAN were arranged in some places.

Durga Puja is celebrated all over Bangladesh. Some perform it individually, some
collectively. Collective puja is called baroyari or sarvajanin (open to all). People of all
castes can participate in Durga Puja. A sarvajanin Durga Puja is celebrated at
DHAKESWARI TEMPLE in DHAKA. It is also celebrated in more than a hundred temples in
the city. The puja celebrations at the RAMAKRISHNA MISSION, Dhaka, and Jagannath Hall
of the UNIVERSITY OF DHAKA are also famous. In Dhaka the Durga images are carried to
the BURIGANGA to be immersed. On the occasion, food and clothes are distributed among
the poor.

KUMARI (virgin) puja forms part of the Durga Puja celebrations and is observed on the
astami, or eighth day. On this occasion, a young girl of eight or nine years is dressed like

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Durga and worshipped as a living replica of the goddess. Dasami, the tenth and final day,
is a public holiday. Newspapers bring out special supplements and the radio and
television channels arrange special programmes on the occasion.

(Dulal Bhowmik)

6. Janmastami

Hindu religious festival held in observance of the birthday of KRISHNA, who is

traditionally believed to have been born on astami tithi (eighth day) of the moonless
fortnight of Bhadra. Thus the day is known as Janmastami. Numerous festivals are held
in Bangladesh and India on the day.

Processions have long been

brought out on the occasion of
Janmastami in Dhaka city.
These processions were once
so famous that people from
home and abroad used to
come to watch them. It is
believed that Janmastami
processions were begun by a
sadhu (holy man) of Bangshal Procession of Janmastami, Dhaka
in 1555.

It was then called 'Shri Shri Radhastami'. Later on he received permission from the local
administration to bring out a more gorgeous and festive procession on the occasion of
Krishna's birthday.

The first gorgeous Janmastami procession was brought out in 1565. Responsibility for the
procession was given to the family of an affluent businessman, Krishnadas Basak. In
1725, two businessmen, Gadadhar and Balai Chand Basak of Islampur, organised another
procession. To avoid any conflict between the two groups, the British government of the
time issued instructions that the two processions should be brought out on two separate
days.

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During the colonial period, both Hindus and Muslims used to participate in the
Janmastami processions, which would present the life-story of Krishna through songs and
dances. Different ancient stories were also depicted through paintings or acted by clowns.
After the partition of India in 1947, many Hindus, including patrons of the procession,
migrated to India. There were also a number of attacks on Janmastami processions. As a
result, these processions were no longer brought out.

Janmastami processions were revived after the independence of Bangladesh in 1971. At

present, Janmastami processions are brought out from Dhakeswari Temple every year.
After going round different areas of the city, the procession culminates at the temple. The
day is a public holiday. Different organisations and institutes hold religious discussions
and cultural shows on the occasion. Articles highlighting the ideals of Krishna are
published in the newspapers. Radio and television also put up special programmes on the
occasion.

The devotees of Krishna believe that if they observe Janmastami vrata, they are absolved
of their sins and that those who perform this vrata regularly are blessed with children,
fortune, good health, and ultimate salvation in the after-world. In some areas, Janmastami
is known as 'Gokulastami'.

(Dulal Bhowmik)

[Sirajul Islam (Ed.) Banglapedia, Vol. 3: PP. 410 - 412, 460 - 462; Vol. 7: PP. 275 &
396 - 397; Vol. 5: PP. 379 – 380]

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