Risers Introduction

Charles A. Miller
Stress Engineering Services, Inc., Houston, TX, USA

Riser systems have been used since first days of the

1 General Overview 1 offshore industry. Early riser systems were used from fixed
2 Riser Functions 1 platforms and mobile offshore drilling units (MODUs) or
3 Riser Configurations 2 jackups in shallow water. When the offshore industry moved
into deeper water, the use of riser systems connected to
4 Common Riser Types 4
floating platforms developed. Riser systems are currently
5 Design Issues 7 being designed for use in water depths beyond 10,000 ft.
6 Codes and Standards, Regulatory
Considerations 8
7 Key Challenges 9 2 RISER FUNCTIONS
8 Conclusion 10
The primary function of offshore riser systems is to facilitate
Glossary 10 the safe transportation of material, fluids, and gases between
Related Articles 10 the seafloor and the host platform. This function is needed
Further Reading 11 for a variety of offshore activities. The following is a list of
some of the offshore operations that riser systems are used to
facilitate:

1 GENERAL OVERVIEW • Drilling operations from fixed platforms, jackups,

floating drilling platforms, and floating production
There are many types of riser systems used in various indus- facilities
tries and locations. This article covers the riser systems used • Well-completion operations (subsea and dry-tree wells)
by the oil and gas industry for the exploration, development, • Well production from fixed platforms and floating
and production of hydrocarbons located below the earth’s production facilities
oceans and seas. • Well intervention/workover from fixed platforms,
These offshore riser systems are conduits (or collection jackups, MODUs, and floating production facilities
of conduits) used for the safe transportation of material • Export of production from fixed platforms and floating
(primarily fluids and gases) between the seafloor and the production facilities
host platform. These fluids may travel from the seabed to the • Injection of water or gas into the hydrocarbon reservoir
platform or from the platform to the seabed. Therefore, the to enhance recovery
fundamental function of a riser system is the safe contain-
ment of the fluids and gases being transported through them. Depending on their purpose, the riser systems may be
required to accommodate one or more of the following
Encyclopedia of Maritime and Offshore Engineering, online © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. activities:
This article is © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
DOI: 10.1002/9781118476406.emoe485
Also published in the Encyclopedia of Maritime and Offshore Engineering (print edition)
• Running, retrieval, and operation of the drill pipe
ISBN: 978-1-118-47635-2 • Running of casing and tubing
2 Offshore

• Running of the well-completion string prevent buckling collapse of the riser. Since no external
• Running of downhole equipment tension is applied to the riser, the conductor pipe carries
• Well-control operations compressive loads over its entire length.
• Pigging operations
• Well workover operations
3.2 Top-tensioned risers
This is just a short list of typical activities that a riser
TTRs are vertical riser systems that require externally
system may be required to accommodate. Additional
applied tension to maintain their structural stability. The
functional requirements for different types of risers (e.g.,
top tension is also the primary method used to control the
drilling, production, and export) are discussed in Section 4.
response of the riser. These riser systems are in tension over
Note that specific functional requirements are defined on a
a part or all of their length. The required tension is provided
case-by-case basis and are specific to the project and field
by tensioner systems, buoyancy modules, or a combination
being developed.
of both. As implied by the name, the external tension is
applied near the top sections of these riser systems.
These risers are composed of several tubulars that are
3 RISER CONFIGURATIONS the extension of the well’s casing and tubing strings. Some
of the TTRs are used with fixed platforms or jackups
Riser configurations are generally divided into four broad and may look like free-standing risers in that no subsea
categories: (i) free-standing risers, (ii) top-tensioned risers wellheads are used. The top tension for these risers is
(TTRs), (iii) catenary risers, and (iv) hybrid risers. The divi- required to provide additional stability to the riser system.
sion of these configurations is largely based on the method The external tension for these risers is generally provided
in which the riser gains its structural stability. by nonmotion-compensating mechanical and/or hydraulic
tensioners.
3.1 Free-standing risers Subsea or marine wellheads are used with riser systems
deployed from floating platforms. The subsea wellhead is
Free-standing risers are vertical risers that have the ability normally considered to be the top of the well’s high-pressure
to support themselves as a column without the need of housing, and is generally located about 3–5 m (10–15 ft)
externally applied tension. Therefore, these risers are in above the seafloor. The subsea wellheads are required to
compression over their entire length. Their stability, ability allow for the disconnection of the riser from the well. This
to withstand column-buckling collapse (i.e., Euler buckling), disconnection capability is needed for emergency considera-
is gained from the outer pipe’s bending stiffness and in tions and operational flexibility.
most cases the lateral supports provided by the platform it
is servicing. 3.2.1 Riser tensioner systems
These risers are composed of several tubulars that are an
extension of the well’s casing and tubing strings. The riser Maintaining proper riser tension is essential to guarantee the
portion of the well extends from the seafloor to the platform proper behavior and response of a TTR system. Therefore,
decks above the water’s surface. Therefore, the wellhead for riser tensioner systems are designed to keep riser tension
the well is located at the top of the riser. No subsea wellhead variations within acceptable limits. This can be difficult on
is used or required. floating platforms or vessels where there is relative vertical
All of the riser tubulars are designed for pressure contain- motion between the vessel and the riser.
ment. The design pressures used for each are dependent on TTR tensioner systems may or may not be motion compen-
the drilling, completion, workover, and production opera- sating. Nonmotion-compensating systems are used for fixed
tions planned for the well. The top of the riser corresponds to platforms where motion of the platform is not a concern.
the top of the well, and the internal tubulars are hung-off from They may also be used on floating platforms in situa-
the casing and tubing hangers located inside the wellhead at tions where the riser stretch can accommodate the platform
the top of the riser. motions. However, motion-compensating tensioner systems
The outer riser pipe is called the conductor pipe or casing are generally used on floating platforms.
as it is an extension of the well’s conductor casing. This riser Motion-compensating tensioner systems apply tension to
conductor casing is the riser’s primary structural member the riser through a tensioner ring attached to the riser’s
providing the bending stiffness necessary to resist the envi- outer casing, or at the top of the riser through the derrick’s
ronmental and external loads applied to the riser and to draw-works, or a combination of both. The amount of motion

Encyclopedia of Maritime and Offshore Engineering, online © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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Also published in the Encyclopedia of Maritime and Offshore Engineering (print edition) ISBN: 978-1-118-47635-2
 Risers Introduction 3

that a tensioner may accommodate is defined by the amount

of stroke the tensioner is capable of providing. The stroke
is related to the amount of riser-to-vessel relative vertical
motion the tensioner can accommodate.

3.2.2 Buoyancy modules

The most common type of buoyancy used along the length
of the riser is syntactic foam buoyancy. These buoyancy
modules are attached to riser joints to reduce the in-water
weight of the joint and, therefore, the riser string in the
water. The reduction of the riser string weight reduces the (a)
required top tension. The syntactic foam modules are typi-
cally strapped onto the riser joints and provide a fixed amount
of buoyancy.
Air can buoyancy has also been used with riser systems.
Air can systems have been used with spar TTRs in place of
the conventional tensioner systems as the primary tensioning
device for the riser. The air cans are deployed along the riser
above the spar keel. The air cans typically provide variable Buoyancy modules
buoyancy, which can be controlled by the amount of air
pumped into or taken out of the air cans.

3.3 Catenary risers (b)

Catenary risers are riser systems that take on a near catenary

shape or shapes when they are deployed. The family of
catenary risers includes simple catenary risers, lazy-wave
risers, and steep-wave risers (Figure 1). Catenary risers can
be made from rigid steel pipe or flexible pipe. The risers
made from the rigid steel pipe are called steel catenary risers
or SCRs. The risers made from flexible pipe are generally Buoyancy modules
called flexible risers or catenary risers.

Riser base
3.3.1 Simple catenary risers
The simple catenary risers are composed of one catenary (c)
shape (Figure 1a). The tension at the top of the riser is a
function of the length of riser suspended above the seafloor Figure 1. Catenary riser configurations. (a) Simple catenary
(suspended length) and the total in-water weight of the riser. riser. (b) Lazy-wave catenary riser. (c) Steep-wave catenary
The riser’s suspended length is equal to the length of riser riser.
between the point at which the riser is hung from the platform
(hang-off point) and the point at which the riser touches the
seafloor (touch-down point or TDP). The suspended length stress-joint/basket, or pull-tube arrangement. As a result, the
of the riser is a direct function of the riser’s top angle, so wind–wave–current-generated motions of the floating plat-
the riser configuration is typically defined by the riser’s top form will cause the riser’s top angle (and thus suspended
angle. length) to fluctuate. This produces tension and bending
A catenary riser is typically hung from the platform without moment variations in the riser, particularly in the hang-off
the use of a motion-compensating tensioning system. Typical and TDP regions of the riser. These load variations generate
hang-off scenarios include the use of a flex-joint/basket, strength and fatigue design issues that must be addressed

Encyclopedia of Maritime and Offshore Engineering, online © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
This article is © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
DOI: 10.1002/9781118476406.emoe485
Also published in the Encyclopedia of Maritime and Offshore Engineering (print edition) ISBN: 978-1-118-47635-2
4 Offshore

by the riser designer. High-tension variations can also lead

to compressive loads in the TDP region of the riser. If not Jumper
properly accounted for in the design, these compressive Buoyancy/air can
loads could lead to buckling/overstress problems for SCRs
or cross-section failure for flexible risers.

3.3.2 Lazy-wave risers

Lazy-wave risers are similar to simple catenary risers with
the addition of an arch located in the riser’s suspended length Riser base
(Figure 1b). The purpose of the arch is to isolate the riser’s
TDP region from the motions of the vessel. The arch is
created using distributed buoyancy placed along the length
Figure 2. Hybrid riser configuration.
of the riser to produce a positively buoyant section of riser.
Lazy-wave risers can be made using rigid steel pipe or
flexible pipe. The hang-off scenarios used for these risers are
The buoy is generally composed of one or more buoyancy
the same as that used for simple catenary risers. The lower
tanks attached to the top riser assembly through a tethering
portion of the riser, below the buoyant section, also forms a
mechanism.
catenary shape.

3.3.3 Steep-wave risers 4 COMMON RISER TYPES

Steep-wave risers are similar to lazy-wave risers in shape
and function (Figure 1c). As with the lazy-wave risers, the Riser systems are generally categorized according to the
purpose of the mid-span arch is to isolate the riser’s TDP function and configuration. The riser functional types are
region from the motions of the floating platform. However, generally divided into the following major categories:
the lower portion (portion below the buoyant region) of the
steep-wave riser extends vertically down to the mudline and • Drilling risers
terminates into some structure or foundation on the seafloor. • Completion/workover/intervention risers
• Production/flowline risers
• Export risers
3.4 Hybrid risers • Injection risers

Hybrid riser systems are composed of a vertical (or rigid) Riser systems are also used for other functions (e.g.,
section, a jumper (or catenary) section, and a near-surface seafloor mining and cold water pumping), but the informa-
submerged buoy (Figure 2). These riser systems are designed tion provided in this article only covers the functional types
to allow riser installation to occur before or after the installa- listed above.
tion of the host platform, to reduce the riser weight that must
be supported by the host platform, and to help isolate the riser
from the host platform’s motions. 4.1 Drilling risers
The vertical portion of the riser extends from the riser base
located on the seafloor up to the top riser assembly typically Drilling risers are designed to support offshore drilling
located below the submerged buoy. The vertical riser is operations. Their basic functional requirements include the
composed of one or more rigid steel pipes. The vertical riser following:
is supported by the tension provided by the submerged buoy.
The jumper portion of the riser extends from the top riser • Safe containment of well fluids
assembly to the host platform and is typically composed of • Running, retrieval, and operation of the drill pipe
one or more flexible pipes. The shape of the jumper is that of • Conduit for the drilling mud and mud returns
a simple catenary with its weight shared by the host platform • Support of well-control operations
and the submerged buoy. • Running of casing and tubing
The submerged buoy provides the necessary tension to the • Running of the well-completion string
vertical riser and carries part of the weight of the jumper. • Running and retrieval of downhole equipment

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DOI: 10.1002/9781118476406.emoe485
Also published in the Encyclopedia of Maritime and Offshore Engineering (print edition) ISBN: 978-1-118-47635-2
 Risers Introduction 5

Drilling risers are vertical risers and act as an extension 4.1.2 Floating production platform drilling risers
of the well. A free-standing riser can be used as a drilling
riser in shallow-water applications. In this case, the riser’s Certain floating production platforms are designed to support
conductor casing is an extension of the well’s conductor, and drilling operations. Drilling risers deployed from these facil-
the wellhead is located at the top of the riser. The BOP sits ities are often “high-pressure” risers with the BOP located
on the wellhead at the top of the riser. Therefore, the riser at the top of the riser and connected to the surface wellhead.
conductor and casing strings must be designed to handle These risers are considered to be “high pressure” because the
the same pressures and fluids as submudline casing strings. riser is designed to withstand the full well-formation pres-
These free-standing drilling risers are usually deployed from sure. In this case, the riser is not protected from the well
fixed platforms and jack-up drilling rigs. pressure by the BOP since the BOP is located at the top of
Deepwater drilling risers are vertical TTRs and are the riser.
deployed from floating platforms. The floating platform may These risers are usually designed to remain connected to
be a floating MODU such as a drill ship or semisubmersible, the seafloor during the same extreme environmental condi-
or a floating production platform such as a Tension Leg tions that the floating production platform is designed to
Platform (TLP), spar, or semisubmersible. withstand.

4.1.3 Floating MODU “high-pressure” drilling

4.1.1 Floating MODU “low-pressure” drilling risers risers
The drilling risers used with floating MODUs are typically “High-Pressure” drilling risers are sometimes deployed
“low-pressure” risers with the BOP located at the seafloor from floating MODU platforms. These “surface stack”
connected to the subsea wellhead. These risers are consid- riser configurations are similar to the high-pressure risers
ered to be “low pressure,” simply because the main riser tube deployed from floating production platforms with the BOP
is not designed to withstand the full well-formation pres- located at the top of the riser. However, these riser systems
sure. The riser is protected from the well pressure by the will typically have a disconnect device at the seafloor to
BOP. However, the main tube must be designed to handle the allow the riser to disconnect from the subsea wellhead in the
differential hydrostatic pressures developed by the drilling case of an emergency. This disconnect device includes ram
mud inside the riser and the seawater outside of the riser. BOPs that are designed to shear the drill pipe and seal the
These risers are composed of multiple tubes including the well when the disconnection occurs.
main riser pipe and several auxiliary lines. The auxiliary
lines are usually composed of two choke and kill lines, one
or more hydraulic line, and, in most cases, a mud boost 4.2 Completion/workover risers
line. The BOP package includes a BOP stack section and
a Lower Marine Riser Package (LMRP). The BOP stack Completion/workover risers (CWOR) and intervention risers
contains a combination of ram style and annular BOPs that are designed to support offshore well completion, workover,
are used to seal the well in case of an emergency disconnect and intervention operations. Their basic functional require-
or well-control event. ments include the following:
The LMRP sits on top of the BOP and is designed to
disconnect the riser from the BOP stack in an emergency situ- • Safe containment of well fluids
ation. The emergency may be due to the onset of an extreme • Facilitate well-completion operations
environmental event, a vessel drive-off or drift-off event, • Facilitate subsea tree installation
or a significant well-control event. The LMRP is usually • Facilitate initial well flow-back operations
composed of a quick release hydraulic connector, an annular • Facilitate well workover and well-intervention opera-
BOP, a flex joint, and a lower riser adapter. The LMRP’s tions
flex joint provides rotational flexibility between the riser and
BOP. This flexibility helps to minimize the bending loads CWORs are vertical riser systems and provide direct access
transferred between the riser and the BOP/LMRP equipment. to the well. The CWOR operations are often carried out
Buoyancy modules may be used along the length of the through the production risers on fixed and floating produc-
riser to reduce the in-water weight of the riser, thereby tion platforms. Special purpose CWOR systems are used
reducing the top tension requirements. Devices such as fair- for subsea completions that utilize subsea trees. The CWOR
ings designed to suppress the influence of vortex-induced systems are generally used in conjunction with floating
vibrations (VIV) may also be attached to portions of the riser. MODUs.

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6 Offshore

4.2.1 CWOR systems with floating MODUs • Safe containment of well fluids
• Facilitate the safe and efficient production of the well
CWOR systems deployed from floating MODUs are fluids for the life of the well
vertical TTR systems. These risers may be deployed • Prevent the development of hydrate or wax plugs that
through the MODU drilling riser and act as a landing prevent or restrict the produced flow
string for the well-completion package and tubing hanger • Facilitate pigging operations for risers connected to
during well-completion operations. These systems are also subsea (wet-tree) wells
designed to be used in open water for the deployment and • Facilitate completion/workover operations for wells
installation of the subsea tree. A part of the tree-installation utilizing vertical top-tensioned production risers
process generally includes flow-back operations to test the
installed completion system and tree. Production riser systems can be free-standing, top-
The CWOR systems are generally composed of two tubes. tensioned, catenary, or hybrid riser systems.
These tubes may be concentric or nonconcentric. One of the
tubes contains the production bore, which is an extension
of the submudline production tubing. This tube must be 4.3.1 Free-standing production risers
designed to carry full well pressure. The second tube is The free-standing systems are connected directly to the well
used to create access to the annulus between the production and provide DVA to the well. These risers have a surface
tubing and the casing string containing the production tubing. production tree attached to the top of the riser that is acces-
During open water operations, the CWOR system may also sible to personnel working on the platform. Since this surface
be run with a control umbilical strapped to it. tree is located at the top of riser above the production deck,
The equipment packages connected to the top of the it is often called a dry-tree.
CWOR system are selected based on the operation(s) to be
performed. A flowhead (or flow tree) may be used at the top
of the riser for flow-back test operations. During workover 4.3.2 Top-tensioned production risers
and intervention operations, a coiled tubing unit (CTU) may Most top-tensioned production risers are deployed from
be attached to the top of the CWOR. Other equipment pack- floating production systems (FPS) and are connected
ages may be used for other operations. directly to the well, thereby providing DVA to the well.
When run in the open water from a floating MODU, the These systems also have surface production trees (or dry
CWOR system contains a Lower Riser Package (LRP) and trees) connected to the top of the riser that are accessible
Emergency Disconnect Package (EDP) at the bottom of to personnel working on the platform. Because of the
the riser. The EDP sits on top of the LRP, which sits on direct well access these risers provide, the completion and
top of the subsea tree. In the event of an emergency, the workover operations are also performed through them.
LRP components close off the well to secure it, and the These riser systems are generally composed of multiple
EDP connector releases allowing the riser (and MODU) to concentric tubulars with the innermost tubular being the
disconnect from the well. production string. Many of the top-tensioned production
riser systems are dual-casing systems. Dual-casing systems
4.2.2 CWOR systems with floating production are composed of a production string and two concentric
facilities casing strings. In a dual-casing production riser, the inner
Some floating production facilities include direct vertical casing (high-pressure casing) is designed to carry the full
access (DVA) wells (also called dry-tree wells). The shut-in tubing pressure (SITP), creating a barrier against the
top-tensioned production risers used for these wells are well pressure in the event of a tubing leak. The dual-casing
an extension of the well and remain attached to the well production riser’s outer casing (structural or riser casing) is
during the life of the well. Completion/workover activities designed to carry the majority of the applied structural loads
performed for these wells are performed through this riser. and an internal pressure significantly lower than SITP.
The equipment packages used at the top of the riser are Some top-tensioned production riser systems are
selected based on the operation(s) to be performed. single-casing systems. These systems have a production
string and only one concentric casing string. In this configu-
4.3 Production/flowline risers ration, the casing string must be designed to carry full SITP
and the majority of the applied structural loads.
Production and flowline risers are conduits for the unpro- Top-tensioned production riser systems have also been
cessed gas/oil being produced by the well. Their functional used to transport hydrocarbons produced from wells that
requirements include the following: cannot be accessed directly from the FPS. These riser

Encyclopedia of Maritime and Offshore Engineering, online © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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 Risers Introduction 7

systems are connected to a riser base located below the FPS. Export riser systems can be free-standing, top-tensioned,
The riser base is also connected to the subsea flowlines that or catenary riser systems. Free-standing riser systems are
are connected to the remote subsea wells. only used from shallow-water fixed platforms. Top-tensioned
and catenary export riser systems are used with floating
4.3.3 Catenary production risers production platforms. The top-tensioned export risers are
connected to a riser base at the seafloor. The riser base
Catenary production risers are used to transport hydrocar- is connected to the export pipeline designed to carry the
bons produced from wells that cannot be accessed directly produced oil and gas from the platform. Catenary export
from the FPS. These riser systems are generally connected risers are connected directly to the export pipelines.
directly to subsea flowlines and are considered to be an An export riser system is generally composed of a single
extension of these flowlines. Since these risers are connected tube (pipe) sized to handle the expected volume of produc-
directly to the flowlines, they are generally called flowline tion. Practical design and installation considerations may
risers. These risers may be steel or flexible risers and are limit the size of these risers, thus requiring the use of multiple
generally composed of a single tubular having the same bore risers to handle the production output.
as the flowline.
Flow assurance can be a problem for flowline risers. Insu-
lation is often applied to the outside of a SCR to help keep 5 DESIGN ISSUES
the hydrocarbons warm enough to prevent the hydrate forma-
tion. In some cases a concentric “pipe-in-pipe” configuration The design of a riser system is an iterative process requiring
may be used to insulate the pipe. In all the cases, the catenary contributions from multiple engineering disciplines. An
flowline risers should be designed to facilitate the necessary offshore riser system is a component of a much larger
flowline pigging operations. system and must maintain its functionality while exposed
to a variety of chemicals, fluids, pressures (internal and
4.3.4 Hybrid production risers external), loads, vessel motions, and environmental condi-
tions during its life. All of these issues must be addressed in
Hybrid production risers are also used to transport hydrocar- the design of the riser system.
bons produced from wells that cannot be accessed directly The design issues can be grouped into broad categories.
from the FPS. The riser bases located at the base of these The following is a list of general design considerations that
riser systems are connected to subsea flowlines carrying riser designers must incorporate into the riser design:
produced hydrocarbons from the remote subsea wells. Since
the risers carry unprocessed hydrocarbons, they must be • Safety—Personnel and Environmental. Safety of
designed using the same flow assurance considerations used personnel and of the environment should be the first
for the flowlines. and most important consideration for the riser designers.
This consideration applies to all of the riser-related
4.4 Export risers onshore and offshore activities including fabrication,
transportation, construction, installation, operations,
Export risers are conduits for the processed gas/oil that is maintenance, inspection, and decommissioning. Effec-
being exported from the platform to a subsea pipeline. Their tive communication, use of properly trained personnel,
functional requirements include the following: keeping procedures as simple as possible, building in
redundancy, quality assurance, and validation of mate-
• Safe containment of the processed hydrocarbons rials and equipment are just a few of the issues the riser
• Facilitate the safe and efficient transportation of the designers should address during the development of the
processed hydrocarbons for the life of the facility riser system. No activity or component is too small to be
• Facilitate pigging operations planned and carefully designed.
• Risk and Reliability. Risk and reliability are tied in with
The hydrocarbons that export risers transport generally the safety considerations as well as the economic consid-
have been separated into their gas and oil components and erations. Early identification of potential failure modes is
processed sufficiently to mitigate flow assurance issues. critical to the design process. FMECAs (failure modes,
Therefore, export risers are generally either gas export or oil effects, and criticality assessments) are used to help
export risers and do not require insulation. Depending on the identify the probability of failure modes in relation to
level of output, a production facility may have one or more the severity of their consequences. This allows the miti-
gas export risers and one or more oil export risers. gation efforts to be properly directed. Hazard-operability

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8 Offshore

studies (HAZOP) and hazard-identification studies system and other parts of the larger system (e.g.,
(HAZID) are also used in the risk management process. riser–topsides interface, riser–subsea wellhead interface,
The use of risk-ranking processes is very helpful in the and riser–subsea pipeline/flowline interface) must not be
identification of key risks and the ranking of importance overlooked or minimized. Proper handling of these inter-
for design considerations. However, some risks are so faces requires clear communication between the riser
severe that they must be mitigated regardless of their designers, the project managers/leads, and the engineers
probability of occurrence. responsible for the “other side” of the interfaces.
• Functional Requirements. The riser systems must • Operational Considerations. The riser designers must
be designed to effectively satisfy the functional consider all realistic operating conditions. The operating
requirements defined for them. This includes the conditions to be considered are dependent on the
riser system as a whole as well as the individual riser functional requirements of the riser and the operating
components. These functional requirements are defined philosophy developed for the system. The operating
by the end user of the equipment and must be clearly conditions should be defined early in the design process.
communicated to the riser designers and equipment As the design process proceeds, the information used to
providers. define the operating conditions may change, and/or new
• Economic Considerations. The riser designers must also information may become available. Therefore, the oper-
consider economic drivers such as local content and ating conditions should be modified and, if necessary,
availability related to the riser fabrication and opera- reevaluated as the design process proceeds.
tions. Economic drivers include short-term issues (e.g., • Fabrication and Installation Considerations. In order for
fabrication costs and material availability), long-term the riser system to successfully operate as designed, it
issues (e.g., reliability and associated care and mainte- must be fabricated, assembled, and installed according
nance, and damage resistance), and operational issues to the specifications and requirements defined during
(e.g., running time and operating limits). the engineering design effort. Therefore, it is important
• Structural Considerations—Strength and Fatigue. The to define specifications that can be successfully satis-
risers must be designed for strength and fatigue. The fied. While developing the riser specifications, the riser
strength considerations are related to the assurance that designers must understand the capabilities of the equip-
the riser will not fail due to overload. The design criteria ment fabricator and the installer. Defining a specification
used to evaluate the strength of the riser system may that cannot be achieved will result in a riser system that
include a number of criteria including burst, stress, functions improperly.
deflection, buckling/collapse, and so on. • Maintenance and Inspection. Properly designed mainte-
The fatigue considerations are related to the assurance nance and inspection processes can help prevent failures,
that the riser will not fail due to fatigue loading anytime identify potential problems, minimize downtime and
during the required service life of the system. Fatigue repairs, and ensure safe and profitable operation of the
loading is any loading that generates repeated load cycles riser system. The maintenance and inspection require-
(stress cycles) on the riser system. Sources of fatigue ments should be defined by the riser designers and
loading include wave loads, VIV, vessel motions, thermal designed with personnel and environmental safety as
cycles, and pressure cycles. the top priority. The maintenance and inspection plans
Failure generally means that the riser can no longer should cover storage routine maintenance/inspection
successfully satisfy one or more of its functional require- activities as well as the activities required after a major
ments. design event (e.g., hurricane and severe loop current)
• Material Considerations. Selected riser materials has occurred.
must satisfy the fabrication, installation, and opera-
tional requirements of the system. Some of the issues
that need to be considered include strength (yield
and ultimate), ductility, toughness, fatigue behavior, 6 CODES AND STANDARDS,
weldability, hardness, H2 S/CO2 resistance (National REGULATORY CONSIDERATIONS
Association of Corrosion Engineers, NACE), corro-
sion resistance, temperature, damage tolerance, and Countries worldwide are working to exploit their offshore
machining/fabrication issues. resources in safe and ecologically responsible ways for the
• Riser Interface Considerations. It is important to welfare of their citizens and industry. At the same time the
remember that the riser system is a component of offshore oil and gas reservoirs are getting harder to find,
a larger system. The interfaces between the riser and those that are found are becoming more difficult to

Encyclopedia of Maritime and Offshore Engineering, online © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
This article is © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
DOI: 10.1002/9781118476406.emoe485
Also published in the Encyclopedia of Maritime and Offshore Engineering (print edition) ISBN: 978-1-118-47635-2
 Risers Introduction 9

successfully produce. As a result, the regulatory landscape These codes and standards are developed considering the
for offshore oil and gas developments is constantly changing. entire system and design process. For example, the design
Regulations related to riser systems have evolved signifi- criteria defined in API Std. RP 2RD has been developed on
cantly over the past two decades. Early requirements were the basis that the selected riser material satisfies the mate-
fairly general in nature requiring the system designer and rial requirements defined in the standard. Use of the 2RD
operator to ensure that the systems designed were suitable design criteria with a riser composed of a noncompliant
and safe. Strict adherence by the pioneer designers and oper- material does not satisfy the standard. This is true for all of
ators to design processes such as those outlined in API the codes and standards. Selective use and combination of
Spec Q1 (American Petroleum Institute) ensured that the parts of different codes/standards is not an acceptable design
riser systems developed were fit for their intended purpose practice.
and were suitable and safe to operate. These early offshore
pioneers were generally limited to large oil companies that
had sufficient resources to dedicate to the personnel and
R&D required for the development of suitable and safe 7 KEY CHALLENGES
systems. Because of the diligence and creativity of these
early pioneers, suitable and safe systems were successfully The history of offshore oil and gas development is replete
developed creating opportunity for many other operators with stories of the industry overcoming one challenge after
following their footsteps. another. Today, new offshore hydrocarbon reservoirs to
As the offshore oil and gas industry matured, the number replace depleting reservoirs are increasingly more difficult
of operators involved in projects along with the number to find. Once found, these new reservoirs are also providing
of projects being executed has significantly increased. This new challenges to develop and produce. A few of the key
activity has gained the attention of regulators throughout the challenges that the industry is currently facing include the
world, resulting in an increase of regulatory requirements following:
for offshore systems including the riser systems. The intent
of these requirements is to maintain a level of design and • High-Pressure–High-Temperature (HPHT) Wells.
workmanship that will produce suitable and safe systems Improvements in reservoir identification techniques
across the industry. have led to the discovery of hydrocarbons buried deeper
The regulatory requirements for riser systems vary from below offshore waters. The hydrocarbons in many of
country to country. Many of the regulators use industry stan- these deeper reservoirs have higher pressures and/or
dards and guidelines developed by organizations such as temperatures than encountered in reservoirs previously
the API and the International Organization for Standardiza- developed. These higher pressures and temperatures
tion (ISO). In some cases, regulators have taken documents exceed the capacity ratings of currently qualified
that outlined industry recommended practices and guidelines equipment, thus requiring the need to develop and
and incorporated them into law. This has had the effect of qualify new equipment to handle these new condi-
changing practices that were, in general, appropriate for most tions. Currently, the common definition of HPHT
cases into regulations that must be followed for all cases. conditions is an environment that requires the use of
Therefore, the designer must be familiar with the regulations equipment with a pressure rating higher than 15,000 psi
and laws governing the offshore field being developed. (103 MPa) or temperature rating higher than 350∘ F
Standards and guidelines developed by other organizations (177∘ C). Some of the development challenges for HPHT
such as the American Bureau of Shipping (ABS), Det Norske equipment include:
Veritas (DnV), and Bureau Veritas (BV) may also be refer- – Qualification of materials to be used for HPHT Equip-
enced by regulatory organizations. ABS, DnV, and BV often ment
act as certification bodies. Satisfaction of their guidelines and – Development and qualification of Seals and Fasteners
standards may be required to gain their approval and certifi- – Design validation testing to demonstrate the suit-
cation of the riser system in question. It should be noted that ability and reliability of the equipment
gaining certification from these bodies does not guarantee • Developments in Arctic Waters. Discoveries of large
that the riser system is in compliance with the presiding regu- hydrocarbon reservoirs in arctic waters have led to the
latory authority. Controlling regulations vary by country, so need to develop riser systems that can handle these envi-
it is important to know the requirements for the regulatory ronments. A few of the major challenges for developing
body that has jurisdiction over the project. offshore fields in the arctic include:
It is also important to note that the design codes and stan- – Safely performing all of the required drilling and
dards used on a project should be satisfied in their entirety. production operations in the harsh arctic environment

Encyclopedia of Maritime and Offshore Engineering, online © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
This article is © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
DOI: 10.1002/9781118476406.emoe485
Also published in the Encyclopedia of Maritime and Offshore Engineering (print edition) ISBN: 978-1-118-47635-2
10 Offshore

– Limited drilling seasons when the water is sufficiently The functional requirements and configurations used for
clear of ice to allow drilling operations riser systems are defined by the operation(s) they are to
– Ability to manage the ice (icebergs, pack ice, etc.) that support as well as the environment and location they are
invades the open water during the drilling season to operate in. Design loads include internal/external pres-
– Development of production technologies that can sure, tension, and bending loads. The dynamic nature of
maintain reliable and safe year-round production these systems also requires them to be designed for the
Because of the limited drilling seasons and harsh fatigue loading they experience. Subsequent sections will
working conditions, meticulous planning of operations provide further information related to the design of these
and logistics is essential. The costs of mistakes are systems.
amplified and hard to overcome in this environment.
• Well Containment Challenges. The ability to contain
hydrocarbons in the event of a failure of drilling riser and
GLOSSARY
BOP systems is a major regulatory and design concern.
These concerns have resulted in a number of actions
Catenary riser Riser system that take on a near catenary
including
shape or shapes when they are
– Increased regulations worldwide that require opera-
deployed.
tors to demonstrate that they have the ability to quickly
Completion/ Riser design to support offshore well
mitigate this problem for the well being developed,
workover riser completion, workover, and
should a containment situation occur.
intervention operations.
– The use of larger BOP systems and the develop-
Drilling riser Riser designed to support offshore
ment of well containment or “capping” stacks. Use of
drilling operations.
these systems has resulted in higher wellhead loads
Export/pipeline Riser system used to convey the
and fatigue issues, causing operators and equipment
riser processed gas/oil exported from
manufacturers to design new systems to address these
the host facility to a subsea
concerns.
pipeline.
– The evaluation and design of foundation casing to
Free-standing Vertical riser that has the ability to
make sure that, should the riser fail to disconnect from
riser support themselves as a column
the wellhead during an emergency event, the structural
without the need of externally applied
weak point in the riser/well system is located above
tension.
the BOP/LMRP.
Hybrid riser Riser system composed of a vertical
section, a jumper section, and a
These are just a few of the riser design challenges the
near-surface submerged buoy.
industry is currently facing. While not expanded upon here,
Production/ Riser system used to convey the
the list should also include the development of riser systems
flowline riser unprocessed gas/oil produced by the
designed to accommodate the need to explore for resources
well.
in waters beyond 10,000 ft and the development and
Riser Conduit (or collection of conduits) used
implementation of new materials (including high strength
to facilitate the safe transfer of
materials that meet NACE sour service criteria) needed
material, fluids, and gasses
for the reduction of payloads or resistance to corrosive
between the seafloor and the host
fluids/gases.
platform.
Top-tensioned Vertical riser that requires externally
riser applied tension to maintain their
8 CONCLUSION
structural stability.
Riser systems are integral components of the offshore devel-
opments used to recover hydrocarbons stored in the reser-
voirs below the earth’s oceans and seas. These systems are RELATED ARTICLES
used in all facets of the development process including explo-
ration, well completion/intervention, and production of the Historical Development of the Marine Industry
hydrocarbons. Their primary function is to facilitate the safe Historical Development of the Offshore Industry
transportation of material, fluids, and gases between the Wind, Wave and Current Modeling and Prediction
seafloor and the platform. Common Marine Alloys

Encyclopedia of Maritime and Offshore Engineering, online © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
This article is © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
DOI: 10.1002/9781118476406.emoe485
Also published in the Encyclopedia of Maritime and Offshore Engineering (print edition) ISBN: 978-1-118-47635-2
 Risers Introduction 11

Fabrication Welding Processes FURTHER READING

Modes of Fracture
Safety of Risers, Pipelines, and Subsea Facilities API Standard 2RD, Dynamic Risers for Floating Production Systems.
Deepwater Floating Production Systems—An Overview

Encyclopedia of Maritime and Offshore Engineering, online © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
This article is © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
DOI: 10.1002/9781118476406.emoe485
Also published in the Encyclopedia of Maritime and Offshore Engineering (print edition) ISBN: 978-1-118-47635-2