Technical Communication: What Is The Communication?

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What is the Communication?

Communication can be defined as the exchange of information, ideas, and knowledge between the
sender and the receiver through an accepted code of symbols.
• The communication in which participants not only exchange information, news, ideas and
feelings but also create and share their views about any general topic they are communicating.
• It basically involves any interaction between arbitrary people discussing routine topic, regardless
of the mode of communication.

Technical communication
• Technical communication is a means to convey scientific, engineering, or other
technical information.
• Technical Communication defines the field as any form of communication that
focuses on technical or specialized topics, communicates specifically by using
technology or provides instructions on how to do something.
• Its goal is to create easily accessible information for a specific audience.

The objective of technical communication is to exchange technical information clearly,


accurately and concisely. Since English is the de facto standard as the universal language
of STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, Mathematics), English is definitely presumed
in technical communication.

Technical information must be objective and exclude any source of subjectiveness as


much as possible. It is quite different from ordinary communication in daily life that
often intends to deliver subjective and/or emotional expressions.

A communication theorist Albert Mehrabian revealed that the impact of a message is


conveyed by

• 55% body language,


• 38% tone of voice, and
• 7% text.

This fact implies a challenge in technical communication, since the primary channel of
technical communication is text (irrespective of whether written or verbal) which plays a
little role (only 7%) in daily communication. Thus, technical communication requires us
to develop special skills for expressing facts and ideas clearly, accurately and concisely.
Thus, the quality of technical communication is evaluated with the following criteria.

• Clarity
• Conciseness
• Accuracy
• Simplicity
• Objectivity
• Organization/Format
• Ethics
• Jargon

A vocabulary used in technical communication is also quite different from the vocabulary
used by communication in a daily life. In addition, it varies depending on a field and is
extended with an additional vocabulary specific to a topic (called jargon).

A vocabulary of a field or a topic is called terminology. Each word in such a vocabulary is


called a technical term.

Technical Terms in Computer Science

• Hard Disk Drive


• CD (Compact Disc)

What Is the Job of a Technical Writer?


The job of a technical writer will differ depending on the industry and company that they are employed
with.

They often work on multidisciplinary teams functioning as the mediator between the more technical
staff and less technical reader. They will work closely with these teams to develop a communications
strategy.

Their responsibilities often extend beyond just writing. They must understand the entire project from high-
level goals to the intricacies of implementation.

ABC ANALYSIS OF TECHNICAL WRITING

Accuracy

Accuracy is an important characteristic of any technical document. A slight mistake can have grave
consequences. For instance, if you forget to mention some important features of a new mobile phone, the
customers may think that there is nothing special in that phone and will not prefer to buy it. Effective
communication requires quality content and language that is accurate and readable. Technical writing does
not mean that you translate information unquestioningly. In this profession, one must know for whom the
document is being written and whether it is accurate.

Brevity
Tech writing must be as brief as possible. If the writer can express something in 2 words, she should not use 3
words instead. This is not creative writing. All kinds of bombastic and poetic words or similes and metaphors
should be avoided.

Clarity

It is essential that the technical writer understands the reader's background and needs. Making the
documentation too technical can confuse the reader. The document is meaningless if the intended audience
does not understand what the writer wants to communicate. Writers who are well aware of their audiences
are in a position to give a solution to their problems. The profession of technical writing demands simplicity
of language and clarity of expression. One must avoid unnecessary words that may put the readers in a
quandary. The written document must be clear and concise so that the text becomes easier to grasp and
understand.

Descriptiveness

Electronic products such as digital cameras or VCRs often come with manuals that tell how to operate it. As
the customers may come from a non-technical background, care must be taken that the manual is not
difficult to understand. Certain key concepts to operate the product must be explained as easily as possible
for the targeted readers. If you use pure jargon, the customer will possibly never know what you want to say.
Explaining the product in layman's terms is absolutely necessary. Good technical writing conveys ideas in the
most effective manner. A well-written technical document always contains answers to anticipated problems
in the product or application. This aspect of technical writing is commonly seen in articles that are related to
troubleshooting a particular software or product.

Correctness

The grammatical structure of your technical document should be correct and free from any kind of
ambiguities. The intended meaning will not be communicated to the reader if the document has ambiguous
sentences. The reader is sure to get annoyed, if your document is replete with misspellings and incorrect
construction of sentences. Hence, apart from providing correct technical information, ensure that the data is
grammatically correct.

Format

The way you present your technical data is also very important from the user's point of view. For instance,
suppose you have explained complex technical data in the simplest manner, yet it won't hold the attention of
the user if it is presented as one big paragraph. The point is, you go to be creative when it comes to
formatting your technical data. Your technical data must be divided into sub heads. If it is an instruction
manual, then instead of sub heading go for bulleted format. However, if the sequence of instructions holds
priority, one should go for numbered list. Key points pertaining to precautions or warnings may be
emphasized using bullets. A document presented in a well-organized manner is very easy to read and the
important data that the user is looking for is available at a glance. To make data easily accessible, one can
give technical specification of any product in a tabular form. You also need to complement your descriptive
technical data with a graphic image of the product in focus. This is visually appealing and will definitely arrest
the attention of the most casual viewer.

Jargon
A vocabulary used in technical communication is also quite different from the vocabulary used by
communication in a daily life. In addition, it varies depending on a field and is extended with an additional
vocabulary specific to a topic (called jargon).

A vocabulary of a field or a topic is called terminology. Each word in such a vocabulary is called a technical
term.

Technical Terms in Computer Science

• Hard Disk Drive


• CD (Compact Disc)

THE IMPORTANCE OF TECHNICAL COMMUNICATION

The National Commission on Writing concluded that “in today’s workplace writing is a ‘threshold skill’ for
hiring and promotion among salaried . . . employees. Survey results indicate that writing is a ticket to
professional opportunity, while poorly written job applications are a figurative kiss of death”). Technical
communication is a significant factor in your work experience for several reasons. Business Technical
communication is not a frill or an occasional endeavor. It is a major component of the work environment.
Through technical correspondence, employees

• Maintain good customer–client relations (follow-up letters).


• Ensure that work is accomplished on time (directive memos or e-mail).
• Provide documentation that work has been completed (progress reports).
• Generate income (sales letters, brochures, and fliers).
• Keep machinery working (user manuals).
• Ensure that correct equipment is purchased (technical descriptions).
• Participate in teleconferences or videoconferences (oral communication).
• Get a job (resumes).
• Define terminology (online help screens).
• Inform the world about a company’s products and services (Internet Web sites and blogs).

Technical communication conducts business

It is evident that technical writing is a major component of the work environment. Through technical
correspondence instructions are maintained, technical description and specifications are prepared, summaries
and resumes are prepared and sites on World Wide Web are prepared which inform the world about one’s
company product.

Time
In addition to serving valuable purposes in the workplace, technical communication is important because it
requires your time. Across all professions, workers spend nearly one third of their time on writing (31
percent). The supervisors not only spend their time in writing but they also spend additional time in
reviewing and revising the writing composed by their subordinates.

Generating income—Your communication skills do more than just cost the company money; these talents can
earn money for both you and the company. A well-written sales letter, flier, brochure, proposal, or Web site
can generate corporate income. Effectively written newsletters to clients and stakeholders can keep customers
happy and bring in new clients. Good written communication is not just part of your salary—it helps pay your
wages.

TECHNICAL COMMUNICATION AND ITS IMPORTANCE FOR ENGINEERS


4. Technical writing as an extension of one’s interpersonal skills.
Technical communication is also a type of communication that has a specific purpose with
a well-defined audience. Technical communication has to be correct, accurate, clear,
appropriate, and to the point. The language should be clear and easily understandable.
One of the chief objectives of Technical Communication is to provide organized
information that aids in quick decision-making. Engineering work is highly dependent upon
communication skills. Engineers must be able to report their ideas and designs clearly and
succinctly to their subordinates, coworkers, supervisors, and clients. The format of
engineering communications can vary widely, from order placement letters to letters of
enquiry, from technical proposals to summaries of calculations, from official technical
memos to analytical reports, from product instructions (manuals) to power-point
presentations. By sound technical communication skills, a person utilizes various visual
aids like tables, graphs, charts, drawings, diagrams, photographs and maps in their reports
and presentations. And a well designed professionally generated presentation has the
capability of increasing audience interest and also to increase the impact of message. It
also helps the listeners to retain information and the speakers to present ideas without
depending on any paper notes. In the present era the field of technologists needs skilled
communicators. They need to have the ability to listen, understand. distill, and further
communicate information. Effective communication skill is an important life skill required
not only in one’s academic and professional career but also in one’s personal career. And
in this process along with linguistic features paralinguistic features also play a key role.
THE ROLE OF ENGLISH IN TECHNICAL COMMUNICATION
In the age of globalization, engineering students and practitioners need to enhance their
English communication skills and other soft skills in order to cope with increasingly tough
competition in the job market. Mere subject knowledge in the chosen field of engineering
is not going to be a guarantee for an engineering graduate to get a good job or excel at the
workplace. Multinational corporations (MNCs) and major information technology (IT)
companies in India recruit engineering candidates who have good English communication
skills. In this highly competitive society, proficiency in English is considered one of the
employability skills. Engineering students need to be able to think critically, solve
problems, communicate clearly, be creative and work in a team in order to get placed in a
reputed company. In many institutes of technology, English language teachers are
involved in placement training. As there is an increasing focus on and demand for soft
skills, the English for Science and Technology (EST) practitioners in engineering colleges
are expected to play the role of communication skills consultants and soft skills trainers.
There is a shift from imparting mere linguistic skills to multi-skills in an integrated manner.
Uses of Technical Writing
With understanding the characteristics of technical writing, you can better comprehend how this type of
writing is used. Technical writing is found everywhere. There are a variety of different types of writing
which use a technical style.
For example, instructions of all sorts are a perfect example of technical writing.
• When you open up an instruction manual, as the reader, the goal is to be informed about the product
so that you can use it as efficiently as possible.
• Lab reports are another example of technical writing. The main purpose of a lab report is to explain
the occurrences in a lab so that others will be able to gain information.
• Driving directions can be considered a type of technical writing as the goal is to clearly and
efficiently provide instructions on how to go from point A to point B.
Overall, technical writing is a very useful form of writing that is encountered by everyone almost every
day.

Types of document
Technical Descriptions and Specifications
Description is creating a picture with words and images.
Technical descriptions convey information about a product or mechanism to some one who will use it,
operate it, assemble it, or manufacture it, or to someone who has to know more about it.
How you describe depends on your purpose and your audience's needs.
Memo Reports and Electronic Correspondence
Memo reports and electronic correspondence are indispensable day-to-day tools for communication.
Short reports require no extended planning, are quickly prepared, contain little or no background
information and have not front or end matter, but they do provide the information and analysis that readers
need.
Short reports must often take the form of a memorandum.
Purpose of Memo Reports
The major forms of communication in most organizations, are directives, inquiries, instructions, requests,
recommendations, and daily reports for future references.

Documents Written by a Technical Writer


Your job and industry will dictate exactly what type of materials you will write.

Here is a list of the documents you could be expected to write in a technical manner:

• Technical Reports
• Emails conveying technical information
• Memos
• User Interface Text
• Guides and User Manuals
• Press Releases
• White Papers & Case Studies
• Executive Summaries
• Balanced Scorecards
• Product Descriptions
• Proposals
• Reports
• Websites

What are the four main purposes of technical writing?


1. To Inform 2 To Instruct 3. To counsel 4. To Persuade
What is the goal of informative writing?
Informative writing is there to tell the facts. The author is trying to tell the reader something that they
may or may not know. The goal of the written material is to transfer some of the knowledge that they
author is presenting, to the reader.
What is the aim of instructional writing?
Instructional writing is just as sounds. It is done to teach something. It shows the facts, usually in
descending order from most important to least important. The goal is to teach or equip the reader to do
something.
What is the purpose of reference writing?
Reference writing is done to explain something. It is a guide that is structured and easy to follow to
allow the reader to find whatever it is they are looking for. An example of this is the index or glossary.
These items are written to assist the reader in finding items throughout the work or to

To persuade: Persuasion is defined as trying to influence someone's actions, opinions, or


decisions. It is really hard to change someone's mind and sometimes is even impossible.
Your success will depend on who you are trying to persuade, what you are requesting, and ho
entrenched they are in their own views. Persuasion is used when tackling an issue about which
people disagree. Identify your claim, for example you might present facts that your audience
does not know. Claim is a statement of the point you are trying to prove. Then, it is important for
you to influence their interpretation of the facts you are presenting because people tend to
disagree about what these facts mean and what should be done about them.

Dimensions of technical communication


When we learn a language, there are four skills that we need for complete communication. When we
learn our native language, we usually learn to listen first, then to speak , then to read , and finally to
write . These are called the four "language skills":
• Skill 1: Listening
• Skill 2: Speaking
• Skill 3: Reading
• Skill 4: Writing

Languages are generally taught and assessed in terms of the ‘four skills’: listening, speaking,
reading, and writing. Listening and reading are known as ‘receptive’ skills while speaking and
writing are known as ‘productive’ skills. Listening to and reading content in the language you are
learning is a great way to develop your vocabulary and comprehension.
Listening Skills:
Listening has been defined as a "thoughtful attention one pays to what is heard". It explains
much of what Listening should be. We hear sounds and make out a meaning out of them
and create a response, quick or delayed, but for sure we respond. If the sounds don't mean
anything or we don't see them as part of the 'interaction' we ignore them, refuse to react,
even though we hear the sounds. Listening is the Primary Skill that makes us sensible
human. It is not wrong to say that We have turned civilised because we could give
'thoughtful attention' to what was said by the thinkers and changemakers.
Speaking Skills:
We utter something and it gets a response. If so, it is speaking. We make sounds, in a
defined or accepted language and the receiver/listener is able to pay "thoughtful attention",
the activity of speaking gets done. Oral Communication is the other name of Speaking Skills
or Spoken Communication. This skill makes us look smart amid a pool of people who have
been listening things but do not express by their vocal chords. Oral
Communication/Speaking Skills are crucial in the professional world now. The
Paralanguage features of Pitch, Tone, Intonation, Accent etc play a big role in taking us to a
good place in Speaking.
Reading Skills:
Our Reading has to fluent and we must be able to GET THE MEANING of WHAT WE
READ! This is possible with practice and practice can happen only when we do it. Reading
is a Literacy Skills and it is indeed a wonderful possession for those who can decode a
script.
Writing Skills:
Sir Francis Bacon said: "Reading makes a full man; Conference a ready man; and Writing
an exact man."
Reading gives you an immense amount of Knowledge.
Conference/Speaking/Discussion/Interaction enable readiness in you to express your
views.
Writing: When you put your thoughts, knowledge in Written Words, it makes you an 'exact'
man/Communicator. The world knows what is documented or recorded. In this case, even
the voice recording can be considered as 'written'. We post things on Social Media or we
write them with a pen or pencil, all these are our WRITINGS. It is not just about handwriting
which needs to be neat, it is more about the words we select in usage and the positioning of
words, per se, sentence structure. Grammar plays a very important role here. Accuracy,
Brevity and Clarity (of thought and expression) is vital for Impressive Writing Skills.

Language as a tool of communication:


In order to express his ideas emphatically, man needs some common medium of
expression.
Physical gestures or certain noises like crying in anger, weeping or laughing may help a person to
communicate some of his feelings, just as a little baby weeps when he is hungry. In both the above
examples communication takes place without words. But man needs some means of linguistic
communication in order to express his fine ideas and emotions.
Man invented language which helps him to communicate and converse with different sorts
of people. Today it has become an important tool of socialization as well as of trade and commerce.
Globalization is the staple (essence) of the modern civilization. Hence in order to progress in
various fields of life on the international scene, people have to be proficient in linguistic
communication.

Characteristics of Language:
Communication is the soul of our life. We need it to survive and effective communication is made
possible with the help of language. Language employs a combination of words to communicate
ideas in a meaningful way. By changing the word order in a sentence, you can change its meaning,
and even make it meaningless. Language is created by people. It doesn’t exist in isolation or
outside the minds of people. It is created by people as they need it. Humans attach meaning to
words as they need and modify these meanings according to changing needs.
Language is one of the most powerful tools in human communication. Words are meant to establish
and maintain friendly contact. Through words, people shape their identities. People can express
their feelings, attitudes, and experiences to each other through words. By speaking, you can give
others information about yourself and the world around you. Language is used as a tool for
communication because of certain characteristics which it posses.

Language is Arbitrary (Illogical or random):


Language is arbitrary (illogical) in the sense that there is no inherent relation between the words
of a language and their meanings or the ideas conveyed by them. There is no reason why a female
adult human being be called a woman in English, aurat in Urdu, Zen in Persian and Femine in
French. The choice of a word selected to mean a particular thing or idea is purely arbitrary but
once a word is selected for a particular reference, it comes to stay as such. It may be noted that had
language not been arbitrary, there would have been only one language in the world.

Language is Artificial (Manmade):


Language is created by people. It did not exist in isolation or outside the minds of people. It is
created by humans based on their needs. Created by people according to their need. *Every symbol
is attached to a particular thought /thing called referent *Ex – words like aids, nice, idiot
*Language is open to modification. Changes are incorporated with changing needs

Language is Restricted (limitations):


When we think and translate our thoughts into language, some meaning is lost in the process. No
symbol or word can transmit our exact perception. Language has its limitations. While encoding
the ideas into a language, some meaning is lost. *No symbol or word can transmit the exact reality.
*It is a sketch of the apparent and obvious. *Ex: a beautiful place

Language is Abstract (conceptual):


Language is abstract because it represents generalized ideas of things or thoughts. A word could
represent different ideas at different times. A ‘table’ can be of different shapes and sizes, and still
be a table. Even if you have never seen a table with three legs, you can still identify it as a table.
This happens because the meaning gets associated with symbols and users keep expanding the
range of meaning.
MEANING OF NICE

*1. pleasant, enjoyable, attractive *2.kind, friendly, *3. (ironic) bad or unpleasant *4. (formal)
involving a very small detail or difference
Language is Recursive:
Recursion is the characteristics of language which enables one to generate any number of sentences using the
same grammatical pattern. It also allows one to express any idea, thought or feeling using the same finite
vocabulary.

Language is CREATIVE:
As the need arises, a word is created to explain that particular thought or process. *A lot of new words generated
every day. Ex: emoticons, mallidays, etc. *Or a noun is reduced to a word of another type usually a verb. Ex: opt
from option, emote for emotion, etc.

Language is REPETITIVE:
Language has the capacity for redundancy or repetition. Repetition may improve or impede effective communication. Ex: A
couple of girls are riding their bicycles. So many signals to indicate the presence of more than one person- girls, bicycles
(plural nouns), are riding (agreement of the verbs), couple, their. Dispense with the words that are unnecessary

Language is RECUSRIVE:
Recursiveness is to generate any number of sentences using the same grammatical templates. *It allows to express any
idea, thought or feeling using the same vocabulary. *Ex: this man who is wearing a crumpled coat, which he borrowed
from me to wear to his interview, which was on Wednesday, which was the day it was raining……………

Difference between Technical and General writing:


Sl.
No. Technical writing General writing
1. Definition: Technical writing consists of Literary and other type of writings such as
reports, letters, papers, proposals, articles, essays, poems, novels, stories etc. are
thesis and some other writings which are known as general writings.
popular among the professionals such as
doctors, engineers, scientists and the
researchers.
2. Reply: In technical writing a reply is In general writing reader does not send a
expected from the reader. reply to the writer.
3. Purpose: Technical writing aims at General writing aims at amusing,
imparting information, instructions and entertaining and inspiring the readers.
explanations.
4. Style: Style of technical writing is Style of general writing is personal and
impersonal and objective. subjective.
5. Style: Style of technical writing is accurate Style of general writing is poetic, decorative
and precise. and bombastic (language that sounds
impressive but has little meaning).
6. Nature: Technical writing is based on facts. General writing is highly imaginative.
7. Language: Language of technical writing Language of general writing may be
should be simple but effective. extravagant (exceeding the reasonable limit)
and pompous (high opinion of own views).
8. Use: Technical writing is used in business General writing is related to life in general
so it is related to some specific profession. or life as a whole.
9. Vocabulary: In technical writing technical In general writing general vocabulary is used
vocabulary is used.

Paragraph Development
• Unity
• Coherence
• Adequate Development
• Topic Sentences

A paragraph is a collection of sentences which all relate to one main idea or topic. Effective paragraphs
have four main characteristics: a topic sentence, unity, coherence, and adequate development. Each of
these characteristics is discussed below.

Unity
Unity refers to the extent to which all of the ideas contained within a given paragraph "hang together" in a
way that is easy for the reader to understand. When the writer changes to a new idea -- one which is not
consistent with the topic sentence of the paragraph -- the writer should begin a new paragraph. Unity is
important because it aids the reader in following along with the writer's ideas. The reader can expect that a
given paragraph will deal only with one main topic; when a new paragraph begins, this signals that the
writer is moving on to a new topic.

Coherence
used.
Coherence refers to the extent to which the
flow of ideas in a paragraph is easily understood by the reader. For this reason, coherence is closely
related to unity. When a writer changes main ideas or topics within a paragraph, confusion often results.
To achieve coherence, then, a writer should show how all of the ideas contained in a paragraph are
relevant to the main topic.

Coherence and unity can be maintained by using pronouns, repetition of some keywords, using
connectives and logical development of the idea.

• Pronouns: A pronoun is used as a substitute for a noun, and this always serves as a reminder of
the noun in earlier sentence
• Repetition: The repetition of some key words or phrases in the paragraph serves not only to make
the paragraph coherent but also to emphasize the author’s point of view. But repetition should be
used with care, as too much of it can make the paragraph monotonous.
• Connectives: These words or phrases which usually occur at the beginning of a sentence to
show the relationship between the new sentence and the preceding sentence. Some of these
connective are and, but, or, therefore, next, further, besides, similarly, on the other hand,
secondly etc.
• Transition

Transition words and phrases connect ideas and guide your readers from one thought to another in a
text. Words and phrases like for example, also, but, first and then all help to show the logical
connection between one idea and the next.

When choosing a transition word or phrase, you must know what the relationship is between your
ideas. If you are adding a similar idea, you might use also. If you are trying to show how two ideas
are different, you might use but or however. If you are giving an example, you might use for
example or for instance.

Let’s look at some other common transition words and phrases to see what they do:

• as a result: shows the consequence of what was said before


• because: introduces the reason for something
• finally: introduces a conclusion or the last step in a list
• in addition: shows the addition of one point to another
• in fact: emphasizes the point you are making
• on the other hand: shows a complete change in point of view
• next: introduces another step in a list
• so that: shows the result of what was said before

Transition words and phrases are used to connect both sentences and paragraphs. To make smooth
transitions between sentences, place transition words or phrases at the beginning or in the middle of
your sentences. For this same effect with paragraphs, place transition words and phrases at the
beginning or end of your paragraphs.

• Emphasis

Emphasis is the principle of the paragraph composition in which the important ideas are made to
stand. In here it is very important that the main points of the writer should be evident inside the
paragraph.

The following devices are used to give proper emphasis to significant ideas in the paragraph.

1. Emphasis on position: In this emphasis is given either in the first few or the last sentence of
the paragraph; the rest of the matter written in between is only a discussion on the topic.
2. Emphasis on space: This type of emphasis depends on the number of lines devoted to the
particular topic. If the paragraph is small (3-4 lines), I is topic with less emphasis. If the is
having more than (5-6 lines), it is considered to be a discussion on an important topic.
3. Emphasis on sentence structure: Shorter sentences are forceful and simple, and hence, they
carry more emphasis. Bigger sentences are comparatively vague and descriptive in nature.
4. Mechanical means of emphasis: Mechanical devices such as special type of font or designing,
and organizing of text either by numbering or bullet also add emphasis. Other means of
mechanical devices are underscore, quotation marks, italics, boldface type, and use of capitals
(though their frequent usage is nowadays discouraged.
Topic Sentences
Beginning a paragraph with a topic sentence is one of the best ways to achieve clarity and unity in one's
writing. The function of a topic sentence is to describe what the paragraph will be about, such that the
reader has clear expectations about what will follow. An effective topic sentence typically contains only
one main idea. The remainder of the paragraph then develops that idea more fully, offering supporting
points and examples. After reading a topic sentence, one should be able to anticipate the type of
information contained in the rest of the paragraph. If the remainder of the paragraph does not fulfill the
"promise" of the topic sentence, the paragraph will lack unity, coherence and adequate development.

METHODS OF PARAGRAPH DEVELOPMENT

In order to obtain unity in technical writing the entire paragraph may be developed in certain
ways these are as following:

Inductive Order
Deductive Order
Chronological Method or Time Order Linear
Method
Spatial Method or Space Order

[2] Inductive Order:


In inductive order an author moves from particular statement to the general
statement. The author gives details, arguments or illustrations, which finally
lead to the conclusion. A paragraph, that begins with certain information,
concludes with a topic sentence is known to be developed using inductive
method.

For example: 1- Ram dies, Mohan dies, and they are human beings. Hence, we can say
that man is mortal.

2. When Rajesh fell sick just before his examination, Ram helped and supported him in
preparing for his examination and Rajesh passed his examination successfully. Hence we
can say that a friend in need is a friend indeed.

2. Deductive Order:
The most popular method used by the writers is the Deductive method. It is the reversal
of the logical arrangement of the Inductive method.

In deductive method, we have a conclusion reached by reasoning from


general laws to a particular case. The topic sentence is the first sentence
in the paragraph stating some general statement. The author finally tries to
deduce his conclusion logically by particular or specific subordinate
statements.

For example: 1. Man is mortal. Since Ram and Mohan are men, they are mortal.

2. A friend in need is a friend indeed. When Rajesh fell sick just before his examination,
Ram helped and supported him in preparing for his examination and Rajesh passed his
examination successfully. Hence we can say that a friend in need is a friend indeed.

3. Chronological Method or Time Order:

This is the natural order of narration in which one event leads to another.

This method is used to document time of an action, event or the steps of an instruction.
For example, the documentation of emergency medical services provided by an emergency
medical technician chronologically (in order of time)-

At 01:15 pm, we arrived at the site and assessed the patient’s condition, taking pulse,
respiration etc..

At 01:17 pm after stabilizing the patient, we contacted the hospital and relayed the vitals.

By 01:20 pm the patient was given artificial respiration enroute to hospital.

At 01:35 pm ambulance arrived at the hospital and hospital staff took over the patient’s
care.

Chronological order is also used to document (write) steps in an instruction.

4.Linear Method:

Linear means consisting of lines or one dimensional. Each sentence leads to the next one
in a paragraph, with the purpose of maintaining a forward movement. A logical sequence is
thus followed by the sentences of a paragraph. This arrangement can also consist of a system
of outlines or enumeration (listing or numbering) of points. For example-

[4] The first step to curb power theft can be to evolve an effective body of
enforcement.
[5] The second, to make engineers accountable for the unpaid units.
[6] The third, to check the distribution points periodically and unexpectedly
etc.
The linear order often splits matter into separate units. Each unit makes its
contribution to the general idea. Numerals can be used to enumerate these units.
4. Spatial Method or Space Order:

If a technocrat is writing to describe the parts of a machine or a plot of ground, he


would like to organize his text spatially i.e. in order of space or place.
The writer will describe what he sees as it appears in space – left to right, top to
bottom, inside to outside or clockwise.

This method helps the reader, to visualize what the writer sees and therefore, it is
better to understand the physical qualities of the subject matter.

The method further helps the reader, to envision the layout of the land, the writer
describes or the placement of each component within the machine.

So spatial order is the logical division of a subject, on the basis of how they are
arranged in order of space or place.

READING AND COMPREHENSION


Intro It means to comprehend and understand the contents of writing.
Short Explanation: A comprehension exercise consists of a passage, upon which questions
are set to test the student's ability to understand the content of the given text and to infer information
and meanings from it.
Here are a few hints:
1. Read the passage fairly quickly to get the general idea. 2. Read again, a little slowly, so as to know
the details. 3. Study the questions thoroughly. Turn to the relevant portions of the passage, read
them again, and then rewrite them in your own words, neatly and precisely 4. Use complete
sentences. 5. If you are asked to give the meaning of any words or phrases, you should express the
Idea as clearly as possible in your own words. Certain words require the kind of definition that is
given in a dictionary. Take care to frame the definition in conformity with the part of speech.

Techniques to read comprehension: Following are the techniques to read the comprehension 1. Skimming
2. Scanning

1. Skimming It means to read to get overall idea of the passage. The central idea is get through it.

How to skim: 1) Read the title 2) Read introduction of the first paragraph 3) Read the first sentence of every
paragraph 4) Read any headings and sub-headings 5) Notice any picture, charts, graphs 6) Notice italicized and bold
words 7) Read the summary of the last paragraph

1. Scanning It means to get the exact details, facts and figures of the passage. To find specific
information, this technique is used. While scanning you have question in your mind and you read
the passage only to find out the answer. You ignore irrelevant information. How to scan: 1. Find the
specific information you are looking for 2. Try to locate the answer through clues 3. Use headings to
identify the sections you are looking for.

2. Extensive reading can essentially also be referred to as reading for joy. This approach advocates
reading as much material in your target language as humanly possible. This way, its advocates claim, you
will be exposed to the widest range of vocabulary and grammatical structures. All of this is supposed to
make you a better language learner and help you on the way to fluency.

3. Intensive reading, on the other hand, focuses on closely following a shorter text, doing exercises
with it, and learning it in detail. According to this approach, this helps language learners really understand
the language’s grammar and syntax. The proponents of this method use a range of exercises to complement
the reading itself. Foreign language students can, for example, read a short paragraph and then answer
questions about the text, order sentences, or find specific words.

Clause
A clause is a group of words in a sentence which contains a subject and a verb.
Example: The boy is playing.
In the above simple sentence, boy is the subject and playing is the verb so the part boy is playing is
a clause because it has both subject and verb.
Phrase
A phrase is a group of words in a sentence that does NOT contain a subject and a verb. In other words, in
a sentence, one part with subject and verb is a clause while the rest of it without those
two parts of speeches is a phrase.
Example: on the wall, in the water, over the horizon.
TYPES OF SENTENCES
Simple Sentences

A simple sentence has only the most elemental building blocks of a sentence: a subject and a verb used in a
complete thought, also called an independent clause.

Here are some examples of simple sentences:


• Kristina drank her morning coffee. (Kristina = subject, drank = verb)
• Kristina showered and dressed. (Kristina = subject, showered and dressed = compound verbs)
Compound Sentences

Compound sentences marry two independent clauses together with a conjunction.

• Kristina drank her morning coffee, and then she showered and dressed.

Complex Sentences

A complex sentence uses an independent clause combined with one or more dependent clauses. A dependent
clause is similar to an independent clause, but it can’t stand on its own as a complete sentence. Complex sentences
use conjunctions to tie them together, too.

Examples:
• Because she woke up late when her alarm malfunctioned, Kristina missed her morning train.
• As Kristina watched the train pull out of the station, she realized she would be late for work yet again.

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