Simulation Compresseur PDF

Dynamic Simulation of Compressor
Control Systems
Final Thesis for the degree of
M.Sc. in Oil & Gas Technology
Submitted by
Claus Hansen
Aalborg University Esbjerg

Aalborg University Esbjerg
Title: Final Thesis: Niels Bohrs vej 8
6700 Esbjerg
Dynamic Simulation of Compressor Control Systems Tlf.: +45 79 12 76 66
Fax: +45 79 12 76 76
www.aaue.dk
Education: Master of Science in Oil and Gas Technology
Project period: February 1 – June 13, 2008
Circulation: 3
Pages: 77
Appendices: 3
Enclosed: CD-ROM
Student: Claus Hansen
Supervisor: Prof., Dr. Ing. Bjørn H. Hjertager
Front page: Excerpts from HYSYS DynamicsTM model
I
Abstract
Centrifugal compressors used for gas compression are complex fluid-flow machines with a limited operational
range and control of the compressors is crucial for safe and efficient operation. A model has been created for
simulation of a separation and gas compression system by using HYSYS DynamicsTM. Based on the theory for
centrifugal compressors and control theory a control strategy has been applied to the model based on the
available equipment. The model has been used to investigate how the gas compression system responds to
changes in the compressor inlet flows and conditions. The simulations performed have resulted in suggestions
to modifications to the system.
Resumé
Centrifugal kompressorer er komplekse maskiner, der ofte benyttes til naturgas kompression. På grund af et
begrænset operationsinterval er det essentielt at regulere kompressorerne for at sikre en pålidelig og effektiv
drift. En model for et separations- og gaskompressionssystem er opbygget i proces simulations-programmet
HYSYS DynamicsTM. Et kompressor reguleringssystem baseret på teorien for centrifugal kompressorer og
generel reguleringsteori er implementeret i modellen. Ved brug af modellen er det undersøgt hvorledes
kompressionssystemet reagerer på ændringer i flow og sammensætning af gassen. På baggrund af
simuleringerne er der givet forslag til modifikationer af systemet.
II
Preface
This project is the Final Thesis to become Master of Science in Oil and Gas Technology.
The project has been carried out in co-operation with the Process & Loss Prevention Department of Rambøll
Oil & Gas in Esbjerg. The basis of the project is a detailed engineering project of an oil and gas production unit.
A model has been developed using the simulation tool HYSYS DynamicsTM by AspenTech. During the project
period a license for the AspenTech’s University Package for Process Modeling has been purchased which
contains a comprehensive amount of programs for process simulation and among these HYSYS DynamicsTM.
The first year license has been paid by Rambøll Oil and Gas, for the purpose of evaluating it as a replacement to
other programs currently used at Aalborg University Esbjerg.
I express my gratitude to the people at Rambøll for support and interest in my project. Especially, I would like
to thank Carsten Stegelmann for guidance and constructive criticism and Asmus D. Nielsen for support,
especially in matters where experience is the key.
I direct my graditude to my fellow student Martin Olldag Bay for help and support throughout the project
period.
For referencing and citing the American Chemical Society (ACS) style along with the Name and Year System
[Name, Year] has been used as described in The ACS Style Guide. [Dodd, 1997]
__________________________
Claus Hansen
III
Nomenclature
A Area [m2]
c Absolute gas velocity [m/s]
Cd Discharge coefficient [-]
Cg Gas flow sizing coefficient [USPGM]
Cv Fluid flow sizing coefficient [USPGM]
cp Heat capacity at constant pressure [J/(mol·K)
d Diameter [m]
e (t ) Error at sampling time t [-]
Ft LMTD correction factor [-]
g Gravitational acceleration [m/s2]
h Enthalpy [m2/ss]
k Constant for frictional pressure loss [-]
Kc Controller gain [-]
Km Pressure recovery coefficient [-]
m& Mass flow-rate [kg/s]
M Total moments of momentum [Nm]
MW Moleweight [kg/kmol]
N Rotational Speed [rpm]
nT Polytropic temperature exponent [-]
nν Polytropic volume exponent [-]
p Absolute pressure [bar]
q Heat flow [m2/s2]
R Radius [m]
Rg Universal gas constant [J/(mol·K)]
Re Reynolds’ number [-]
T Absolute temperature [K]
Td Differential time [s]
Ti Integral time [s]
T2s Isentropic discharge temperature [K]
ΔT LM Log-mean temperature difference (LMTD) [K]
u Absolute blade speed [m/s]
U Overall heat transfer coefficient [kJ/(K·s)]
ν Molar volume [m3/mole]
V& Volume flow [m3/s]
Vu Peripheral component of the absolute gas velocity [m/s]
Vn Normal component of the absolute gas velocity [m/s]
IV
V rel Gas velocity relative to the impeller blade [m/s]
W Actual work [m2/ss]
yp Polytropic head [m] or [m2/ss]
ys Isentropic head [m2/ss]
yT Isothermal head [m2/ss]
z Elevation [m]
Z Compressibility [-]
β Ratio of orifice diameter and pipe diameter [-]
ε Expansibility factor of gases [-]
κ Specific heat ratio ( C p / C v ) [-]
κT Isentropic temperature exponent [-]
ηp Polytropic efficiency [-]
ηs Isentropic efficiency [-]
ηT Isothermal efficiency [-]
ηF Friction efficiency [-]
ηL Leakage effictioency [-]
ω Angular velocity [rad/s]
φ Flow coefficient, dimensionless [-]
ρ Density [kg/m3]
τ Fluid torque [Nm]
Subscripts
1 Inner or inlet
2 Outer or outlet
d Discharge
s Suction
V
Table of Contents
1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................1
1.1 OBJECTIVE .................................................................................................................................................. 1
1.2 THESIS OVERVIEW...................................................................................................................................... 1
2 CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR THEORY ........................................................................3

2.1 DESIGN OF CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSORS .................................................................................................... 3
2.2 COMPRESSION PROCESS .............................................................................................................................. 6
2.3 IMPELLER CONFIGURATION ...................................................................................................................... 10
2.4 PERFORMANCE CALCULATION .................................................................................................................. 13
2.5 PERFORMANCE PHENOMENA .................................................................................................................... 19
2.6 COUPLING OF COMPRESSORS .................................................................................................................... 22
3 COMPRESSOR CONTROL ...............................................................................................24

3.1 CONTROL METHODS ................................................................................................................................. 24
3.2 GENERAL APPROACH TO COMPRESSOR CONTROL ...................................................................................... 27
3.3 ANTI-SURGE CONTROL.............................................................................................................................. 29
3.4 DISTRIBUTION OF LOADS – LOAD-SHARING .............................................................................................. 31
3.5 DYNAMIC DE-COUPLING ........................................................................................................................... 31
4 MODELING OF THE OGPU.............................................................................................32

4.1 DESIGN OF THE OGPU ............................................................................................................................. 32
4.2 HYSYS DYNAMICSTM MODEL ................................................................................................................... 34
5 SIMULATION SCENARIOS..............................................................................................46
5.1 SCENARIO A ............................................................................................................................................. 46
5.2 SCENARIO B.............................................................................................................................................. 49
5.3 SCENARIO C.............................................................................................................................................. 57
6 DISCUSSION......................................................................................................................61
6.1 MODIFICATIONS TO PRESENT SYSTEM ....................................................................................................... 61
6.2 FUTURE WORK .......................................................................................................................................... 62
7 CONCLUSION ...................................................................................................................63
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................64
APPENDIX
A SIMULATION IN HYSYS
B HYSYS DYNAMICSTM PFD FOR THE OGPU
C ANTI-SURGE CONTROLLER TUNING
VI
Introduction
1 Introduction
Centrifugal compressors in the Oil and Gas Industry constitute a vital part of process machinery at the topside
of oil and gas exploitation sites. Centrifugal compressors are expensive equipment and a major energy consumer
of the processing equipment. Thus, potential for both capital and operational savings exist, if design and
operation is dealt with in a competent way. In addition, centrifugal compressors are very sensitive to changes in
operating conditions and have a limited operational range, and if exceeded the compressor can be damaged
beyond further use. For those reasons, it is crucial that the compressors are controlled properly.
The detailed design of the compressor internals is usually taken care of by experienced vendors based on the
design basis, but the operation of them and interaction between serial and/or parallel coupled compressors and
the equipment, to which they are connected, are not. Therefore, operability studies of the system as a whole
give valuable insight into how it should be operated and controlled prior to taking it into service. In addition,
alternatives to the design can be tested.
Advanced compressor control include a number of possible control methods such as variable speed, suction and
discharge throttling, and by-pass. The ultimate goal for compressor control is to ensure safe and economical
operation while maintaining a high degree of flexibility in the system. Reliable and energy efficient anti-surge
control, load-sharing strategies, and dynamic decoupling of interacting control strategies are common features
of compressor control systems.
1.1 Objective
This project is a study of a natural gas compression system on a designed but not yet completely built Oil and
Gas Production Unit (OGPU). The design basis for the OGPU is a wellhead composition representative of the
North Sea region. It is designed for a production of up to 80 000 bbl/d of liquid (maximum 60 000 bbl/d of oil or
maximum 60 000 bbl/d of water) and 53 MMSCFD of gas. It is meant to be generic which means, that it must be
able – perhaps with slight modifications to the design – to produce from a variety of oil and gas fields at rates at
or below the above specified.
A model of the OGPU processing equipment is developed using HYSYS DynamicsTM, which is a general purpose
process simulation tool. The model includes main process equipment such as separators, pumps, and
compressors as well as piping and valves. Details such as nozzle and vessel elevations, compressor performance
curves and all vendor information readily available is applied to the model. PID controllers are added as
intended in the design and it is shown how they can be tuned using generally acknowledged methods and rules
of thumb and the compressor control strategy is integrated. Even though, the gas compression system is only a
part of the total processing system, focus is given to this part because of its sensitivity to changes in the process
conditions.
The primary objective is to make the model as realistic as possible especially in regards to the control of the
compressors. The model is then used to test the system under various process conditions. Based on these tests
potential problems with the design are identified and modifications that can improve operability are suggested.
A secondary objective is to give an example of the extensiveness in the use of HYSYS DynamicsTM as a process
simulation tool. Aalborg University Esbjerg is currently evaluating whether the AspenTech University Package
for Process Modeling should replace the currently used programs on the master level educations. Hence, this
project can be used as part of the evaluation.
1.2 Thesis Overview

The general approach in the project is process oriented using the thermodynamics to describe the compression
process. However, to adequately understand the system both thermodynamics and aerodynamics are consulted
1
Introduction
and the link between them established. Beside the process oriented analysis of the compression process,
strategies for advanced compressor control are described in order to set up an appropriate compressor control
strategy.
The present report contains a section on the theory behind centrifugal compressors. This is important in order
to understand the behavior and performance of the machines. Subsequently, the theory of compressor control is
described to make it possible to create a proper control system for the compressors. Hereafter the model created
in HYSYS DynamicsTM is described with focus on the specific choices made for the general setup of the model.
Finally, results of the various scenarios are presented and suggestions to modifications to the present design are
given.
2
Centrifugal Compressor Theory
2 Centrifugal Compressor Theory

Compressors are generally divided into two categories:
• Positive Displacement Compressors

• Dynamic Compressors
Positive displacement compressors in essence work by entrapping a volume of gas and subsequently reducing
this volume which in turn increases the pressure. Positive displacement compressors will not be covered
further in this report.
Dynamic compressors generally work by imparting movement to the gas; i.e. kinetic energy is transferred from
the machines internals to the gas. By subsequent reduction of this velocity the kinetic energy is converted into
potential energy – pressure.
The two main types of dynamic compressors are:
• Axial Compressors
• Centrifugal Compressors
As the name implies axial compressors impart movement to the gas in the axial direction. This is done by a
series of rotors similar to those seen at the air intake in the front of jet-engines. Each rotor is followed by a
stator where the kinetic energy, imparted to the gas by the rotor, is converted into pressure. Axial compressors
will not be covered further in this report.
Centrifugal compressors, on the other hand, work by imparting movement to the gas in radial direction by an
impeller. This outward velocity is then converted into pressure in a diffuser. The main components of the
compressor will be described in more detail later in this section.
In this section the following subjects will be covered:
• Design of centrifugal compressors

• Compressor performance
• Performance phenomena
• Coupling of compressors
2.1 Design of Centrifugal Compressors

As mentioned above, centrifugal compressors are dynamic fluid-flow machines that can convert mechanical
energy into gas energy. The increase in gas energy is expressed in an increase in pressure and temperature from
inlet to outlet of the compressor.
A cross-sectional view of a five-stage centrifugal compressor is shown in figure 2.1.
3
Inlet nozzle Outlet nozzle

Return bend
Diffuser channel
Casing
Plenum inlet
Balance Piston
Impeller
Shaft
Collector volute
Labyrinth Seals
Return inlet
Figure 2.1. Centrifugal Compressor with five stages.
The compressor in figure 2.1 has five stages. Each compression stage consists of an impeller, a diffuser channel,
a return bend, and a return inlet (or collector volute, for the last stage). Following the gas through the
compressor it enters through the inlet nozzle and is distributed around the shaft in the plenum inlet. The gas is
then led into the impellers where it is accelerated up to high velocities (often up to 2-300 m/s). In the diffuser
channel the gas is decelerated whereby the kinetic energy is converted into potential energy – i.e. pressure. The
return bend and the return inlet lead the gas on to the next stage in the compressor. After the last impeller stage
the gas is collected in the collecter volute and via the outlet nozzle it is sent for further processing.
Often compressors are connected in series and each compressor denoted as a stage. However, to differentiate
between the internal and external number of compression steps, the internals will be referred to as stages and
the entire compressor (as in figure 2.1) will be referred to as a section.
2.1.1 Main Components

In figure 2.1 the main components are named. These can be divided into stationary and dynamic components.
The stationary components are those that do not move during the compression process. Stationary components
include inlet and outlet nozzles, plenum inlet, diffuser channel, return bend, return inlet, collector volute, and
casing. Dynamic components are those that move during the compression process. These include shaft, balance
piston, and impellers. Both the stationary and the dynamic components have great effect on the efficiency of
the compressor.
In the following some main components that have large effects on the efficiency and performance
characteristics are described.
Impellers
The impellers are as mentioned before the component in which the rotational energy of the compressor is
transferred to the gas. The impeller consists of a disk with blades mounted to it and usually a cover disk is
4
welded or brazed onto the impellers. In the compressor the disk is mounted onto the shaft and the gas is fed
through an opening near the shaft.
The factor determining the appropriate design of the impellers are the dimensionless flow coefficient defined as
V&s
ϕ= (2.1)
4 d 2 ⋅u 2
π 2
Where ϕ: Dimensionless flow coefficient

V&s : Impeller actual suction volume flow
d2 : Impeller outer diameter
u2 : Absolute blade tip-speed
Several impeller types exist but the most widely adapted is the shrouded 2D-impeller, which has back-ward
curved blades. It has an equal curvature across the blades which are commonly referred to as 2D-blades. The
shrouded 2D-impeller can handle flow coefficients in the range of 0.01 to 0.06 with reasonably high
efficiencies. Beyond those limits the efficiencies are considerably reduced.
For higher flow coefficients a shrouded 3D-impeller is often utilized. It has blades curved both in the radial and
the axial direction leading to considerably longer blade lengths for the same diameter of the impellers. This
type of impellers can handle flow coefficients up to 0.15 with reasonably high efficiencies.
The shrouded 2D- and 3D-impellers can be seen in figure 2.2.
Figure 2.2. Shrouded 2D impeller to the left and shrouded 3D-impeller to

the right. [Lüdtke, 2004]
The blade curvature and the influence on the overall performance will be covered further in section 2.3.1.
Labyrinth seals
For each succeeding stage the pressure increases and therefore it is necessary to seal the interface between the
dynamic and the stationary components. The simplest of these inter-stage seals is the labyrinth seal that work
by creating turbulence in the cavities and thereby restricting flow from the high pressure side to the low
pressure side. Seals of this type are favorable because there is no contact between the stationary and the moving
parts; hence there is no mechanical friction or wear. The principle is shown in figure 2.3.
5
Labyrinth seal
Low pressure side High pressure side
Shaft
Leakage Gas Flow
Figure 2.3. Principle of a labyrinth seal at the shaft.
The seal in figure 2.3 is a knife-edge seal. The number of sealing tips in the seal depends on the application.
More sealing tips gives lower leakage flow and typically interstage seals have 5-7 sealing tips, whereas the
balance piston seal have 20-30 sealing tips. [Lüdtke, 2004]
Balance Piston
Throughout the compressor section the pressure increases for each stage. Hence a net thrust along the shaft of
the compressor exists in the direction of the compressor inlet. To outbalance the majority of this thrust a
balance piston is placed after the last stage. The area behind the balance piston is connected to the inlet of the
compressor with a line creating a pressure difference over the balance piston in the opposite direction. The
thrust not balanced out by the balance piston is absorbed by thrust bearings.
2.2 Compression Process

The compression process can be described by use of either thermodynamics or aerodynamics. The former is a
macroscopic description of the compression process and can be used to describe the overall performance. The
latter is a microscopic description that can be used to explain performance phenomena such as surge and
stonewall and to explain overall performance characteristics.
In the following, both the thermodynamic and the aerodynamic explanation will be given and the link between
them established.
2.2.1 Thermodynamics
The general energy balance for compressors may be written in differential form as
c2
dy + dq = dh + d + g ⋅ dz (2.2)
2
Where y : Specific mass referenced compressor work input
q: Heat flow into the compressor through walls
h: Enthalpy of gas
c: Absolute gas velocity
g: Gravitational acceleration
z: Elevation
6
Thus, the sum of the specific mass referenced work input and the heat flow to the compressor is equal to the
sum of the enthalpy change, the kinetic energy change, and the static head difference.
Usually the velocity term and the static head contributions are regarded negligible and the compressor is
considered adiabatically isolated from the environment. Hence equation 2.2 reduces to
dy = dh (2.3)
The change in enthalpy of the gas is
dp
dh = (2.4)
ρ
Where ρ : Density of the gas
p: Pressure of the gas
The specific compressor mass referenced work input is then
p2
dp
y = ∫
p ρ
(2.5)
1
The actual work is found by dividing the mass referenced work input by an efficiency
y
W = (2.6)
η
Where W: Actual work applied to the compressor
The integral in 2.5 can be solved in different ways equivalent to different compression paths. Usually, one of
three different reference processes for compression is used to solve compressor performance. These are
• Isentropic compression (reversible and adiabatic) – entropy is constant

• Isothermal compression (reversible and diathermic) – temperature is constant
• Polytropic compression (irreversible and adiabatic) – efficiency is constant
Reference process – Isentropic compression

If there is no heat transfer to or from the gas being compressed the process is adiabatic and isentropic. For such
a process the compression path is dependent on
1
κ
κ p ⎛ p ⎞
p ⋅ν = const . ⇒ κ = const . ⇒ ρ = ρ1 ⋅ ⎜ ⎟ (2.7)
ρ ⎝ p1 ⎠
Where ν : Molar volume
κ: Specific heat ratio ( C p / C v )
Inserting the above expression for the density in equation 2.5 and integrating gives
κ −1
1 ⎡ ⎤
κ ⎢⎛ p 2 ⎞
p2
p κ dp p κ
ys = 1 ⋅ ∫ 1 = 1 ⋅ ⋅ ⎜ ⎟ − 1⎥ (2.8)
ρ1 p p κ ρ1 κ − 1 ⎢⎝ p1 ⎠ ⎥
1
⎢ ⎣ ⎥⎦
Where y s : Isentropic head

Insering p / ρ = ZR gT / MW into equation 2.8 gives
7
κ −1
Z 1 ⋅ R g ⋅T1 ⎡ ⎤
κ ⎛ p2 ⎞ κ
ys = ⋅ ⋅ ⎜ ⎟ − 1⎥
⎢ (2.9)
MW κ − 1 ⎢⎝ p1 ⎠ ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎦⎥
Where Z : Compressibility
Rg : Gas constant
T : Absolute temperature
MW : Moleweight of the gas
Reference process – Isothermal compression

If heat is removed continuously during the compression process the isothermal compression process may be
approached. In this case
p ⎛ p ⎞
p ⋅ν = const . ⇒ = const . ⇒ ρ = ρ1 ⋅ ⎜ ⎟ (2.10)
ρ ⎝ p1 ⎠
This simple relation gives a much simpler integration and the isothermal head is
R ⋅T1 ⋅ Z 1 ⎛p ⎞
yT = ⋅ ln ⎜ 2 ⎟ (2.11)
MW ⎝ p1 ⎠
Where y T : Isothermal head
Reference process – Polytropic compression

Usually compressors are neither isentropic nor isothermal, but instead they are best described by a polytropic
compression path given by
1
p ⎛ p ⎞ nν
p ⋅ν nν
= const . ⇒ nν = const . ⇒ ρ = ρ1 ⋅ ⎜ ⎟ (2.12)
ρ ⎝ p1 ⎠
Where nν : Polytropic volume exponent
Inserting this in equation 2.5 and integrating gives
nν −1
⎡ ⎤
Z ⋅ R ⋅T1 nν ⎢⎛ P2 ⎞
− 1⎥
nν
yp = 1 ⋅ ⎜ ⎟ (2.13)
MW nν − 1 ⎢⎝ P1 ⎠ ⎥
⎣⎢ ⎥⎦
Where y p : Polytropic head
Actual compression process

The choice of reference compression process depends on the actual compression process to be described. Thus,
for compression processes that are close to isentropic, which is the case with many intercooled compression
processes where the gas behaves almost ideally, the isentropic reference process should be selected. In cases
where the intercooling is so significant that the process can be considered isothermal the performance is best
described by the use of this reference process. However, for most applications – in particular as the compressors
grow larger – the compression process is neither isentropic nor diathermic, and in such situations the
compression process is most accurately described by application of the polytropic compression path. Note that
in the polytropic compression path the efficiency is assumed equal for all internal stages of the compressor. This
8
is the truth for most compressors within a margin of 1 % of and is as such a reasonable approximation. [Lüdtke,
2004]
It should be noted that eventhough the polytropic reference process is adiabatic it is not reversible. This is due
to a friction caused entropy increase in the process which is irreversible.
The reference processes are all related to the actual work applied to the compressor by
yp y s yT
W = = = (2.14)
ηp ηs ηT
Where η p : Polytropic efficiency

ηs : Isentropic efficiency
ηp : Isothermal efficiency
In these efficiencies lie losses caused by friction and leakage and they should always be supplied together with
the head curves.
2.2.2 Aerodynamics
The aerodynamic explanation to the enthalpy change experienced by the fluid in the impeller section is best
described by derivation of the Euler Turbomachinery Equation; hence this is done in the following. The
derivation is based on the assumption that the single compressor stage can be regarded as adiabatically isolated
from the environment.
Figure 2.4 is a cross section of the flow path from the return inlet through the impeller and into the diffuser.
Vn
Diffuser
2 R2
Impeller
Return inlet Vn
R1 1
Shaft
w
Figure 2.4. Flow of gas through the impeller.

Vn: normal gas velocity, R: radius, ω: angular velocity.
Setting up a control volume over the impeller from inlet (1) to outlet (2), the total moments of momentum
entering and leaving the control volume is given by
9
M 1 = ∫ ρ1 ⋅V n ⋅Vu ⋅ R1 ⋅ dA1
1 1
(2.15)
M 2 = − ∫ ρ 2 ⋅V n ⋅Vu ⋅ R2 ⋅ dA2
2 2
Where M : Total moments of momentum

Vn : Normal component of the absolute gas velocity
Vu : Peripheral component of the absolute gas velocity
R: Radius from centre of rotation
dA : Elemental area of flow
The fluid torque is the net effect of the moments of momentum equal to
τ = ∫ ρ1 ⋅V n ⋅Vu ⋅ R1 ⋅ dA1 − ∫ ρ2 ⋅V n ⋅Vu ⋅ R2 ⋅ dA2

1 1 2 2
(2.16)
Where τ : Fluid torque
The mass flow rate at steady state is given by
m& = ∫ ρ1 ⋅V n ⋅ dA1 = ∫ ρ2 ⋅V n ⋅ dA2

1 2
(2.17)
Where m& : Mass flow rate
If it is assumed that Vu ⋅ R is constant then equation 2.16 and 2.17 can be combined to give
τ = m& (Vu ⋅ R1 −Vu ⋅ R2 )

1 2
(2.18)
By multiplying equation 2.18 by the angular velocity and rearranging one form of the Euler turbomachinery
equation specific for compressors emerges [Turton, 1995]
τ ⋅ω
= Vu ⋅ R1 ⋅ ω −Vu ⋅ R2 ⋅ ω
m& 1 2
(2.19)
− y = Vu ⋅ u1 −Vu ⋅ u 2
1 2
Where ω : Angular velocity

u: Absolute peripheral velocity of the rotor
The minus sign in front of the mass referenced work input is there because for compressors the work done by
the gas is negative. Changing the sign gives the specific mass referenced work for compressors [Lüdtke, 2004]
y = Vu ⋅ u 2 −Vu ⋅ u1
2 1 (2.20)
Thus, it has been shown how the aerodynamics is linked to the thermodynamics. In section 2.4 it will be shown
how the performance can be calculated from polytropic head and efficiency.
2.3 Impeller configuration

As it is evident from the previous section it is in the impellers that the energy is converted from mechanical
energy to gas energy. Hence, the impeller configuration has a great effect on the overall performance of the
compressor. In the following some general strategies for arranging the internals of the impellers and arranging
the impellers on the compressor shaft will be described and the effect on the compressor performance is given.
2.3.1 Impeller types

In general impellers have three different configurations:
10
• Forward leaning
• Radial
• Backward leaning
The performance of these three types of impellers can best be understood by looking at the aerodynamics at the
impeller tips in terms of velocity vectors. In figure 2.5 the three situations are depicted schematically with the
resulting velocity vectors.
c2 Vrel c2 Vrel=Vn2
Vn2 c2 Vn 2 Vrel
u2 R2 u2
Vu2 u2 =Vu2
Vu2
Rotation
R1
Figure 2.5. Forward leaning, radial, and backward leaning impellers.
The velocity vectors in figure 2.5 are depicted at radius R2 (i.e. the outlet of the impeller). Similar vectors could
be depicted at radius R1 (i.e. the inlet of the impeller) only these would be different in magnitude. The normal
velocity,V n2 , the peripheral velocity, Vu2 , and the absolute blade tip speed, u 2 , were all introduced in section
2.2.2. The absolute gas velocity can be defined by
c 2 = Vu +V n = u 2 +V rel
2 2 (2.21)
Where c 2 : The absolute gas velocity
V rel : The gas velocity relative to the impeller blade
Now consider a situation where the peripheral component of the inlet velocity, Vu1 , is zero, called zero the
inlet whirl. Then the aerodynamic expression for the mass referenced specific head in equation 2.20 reduces to
y ideal = Vu ⋅ u 2
2 (2.22)
The situation is of course not possible as it would require that the gas was fed at the centerpoint of the impeller
which is impossible. However, the ideal head serve to explain the basic shape of the head curves for
compressors with the three different impeller configurations listed previously.
Since the velocity relative to the impeller blades, V rel , is proportional to flow it can be stated that for radial
bladed impellers u 2 is equal to Vu2 no matter the flow and therefore the ideal theoretical head curve is flat. For
forward leaning impeller blades Vu2 increases as the flow and thereby V rel increases. Hence the ideal
theoretical compressor curve for compressors with forward leaning impeller blades is one with a positive slope.
For compressors with backward leaning impellers Vu2 decreases with flow and therefore the ideal theoretical
compressor curve has a negative slope.
The ideal and typical performance characteristics for the three impeller types are shown in figure 2.5.
11
Head Head Head
Actual Volume Flow Actual Volume Flow Actual Volume Flow
Figure 2.6. Typical head curves (solid line) for the compressors with forward leaning, radial, and
backward leaning impellers. The dashed lines are the ideal theoretical head curves for the zero inlet
whirl situation.
The vertical distance between the ideal theoretical head curves and the actual performance curves describe the
losses due to friction, leakage, and incidence.
Usually backward leaning impellers are used because they generally give the best efficiency in the largest flow
interval; i.e. the actual head curve is closest to the ideal head curve in this type of impeller compared to radial
and forward leaning impellers. Forward leaning impellers are often used when the requirement of head is
dominant because this impeller type can deliver a given minimum head in a larger flow interval than the other
two impeller types.
2.3.2 Impeller arrangement – in-line and back-to-back

The traditionally used impeller arrangement is in-line – also called straight through arrangement – where one
stage after the other is placed on the shaft. This configuration can be seen on figure 2.1. As described previously
the balance piston acts by balancing thrust by use of a connecting line from inlet to the area behind the balance
piston. Since the seals at the balance piston are not completely tight a leakage flow will pass through all the
stages of the compressor. Thereby extra gas power is consumed. The size of the power loss is relatively high for
straight through compressors – roughly between 1 and 3.5 %, depending on pressure ratio of the compressor.
[Lüdtke, 2004]
The straight through compressor arrangement with the path of the recirculating flow is shown in figure 2.7.
Gas inlet Gas outlet
Line connecting
Recirculating area behind
Flow balance piston
to gas inlet
Figure 2.7. Straight through compressor arrangement
12
As an alternative to the in-line impeller arrangement a back-to-back impeller arrangement can be utilized. The
idea is to place two sections in the same casing with the outlets adjacent to each other and with an intercooler
between the sections. This arrangement is depicted schematically in figure 2.8.
Intercooler
Gas inlet Gas outlet
Recirculating flow
Section 1 Section 2
Figure 2.8. Back-to-back compressor arrangement.
The advantage of back-to-back configuration to in-line impeller configuration is that the balance piston is
replaced by a rudimentary labyrinth seal between the outlet stages of each section. Thus, the leakage flow is
only re-circulated through the latter section of the back-to-back compressor. In result the compressor power
loss due to leakage is reduced to approximately one third of the power loss in the in-line impeller configuration.
Another advantage is that the greatest part of the impeller thrust is out-balanced by the impellers themselves.
[Lüdtke, 2004]
2.4 Performance calculation

The calculation of compressor performance has its starting point in head and efficiency curves based on testing
of the compressor. For most purposes polytropic head and efficiency is used because the polytropic compressor
head is equal to the sum of polytropic heads for each stage (which is not the case when using the
isentropic/adiabatic head). Furthermore, the polytropic efficiency is thermodynamically independent from the
pressure ratio in the case where the compressibility of the gas remains constant (ideal gas behaviour).
In order to have one common performance map it is common practice to utilize polytropic head vs. actual
volume flow. This type of performance curves are unique for the inlet conditions under which they are
generated. The compressor curve for the first section compressor in the OGPU compression train is shown in
figure 2.9.
13
20000 78
19000 Polytropic 77
18000 Efficiency 76
17000 75
Efficiency [%]
Head [m]
16000 74
Polytropic Head
15000 73
14000 72
13000 71
12000 70
11000 69
10000 68
2400 2600 2800 3000 3200 3400 3600 3800 4000 4200
Actual Volume Flow [m³/h]
Figure 2.9. Polytropic Head/Efficiency vs. Actual volume flow.
Similar curves for the second and third stage compressors can be found in the Excel worksheet “Compressor.xls”
on the CD-ROM.
Head vs. actual volume flow curves are used because it is believed that the compressor always deliver the same
head at the same actual inlet volume flow. This is also what the Euler equation states. However, when there are
significant compressibility changes in the flow which is generally the case when the tip-speed Mach numbers
are above 0.4 and there are more than two compressor stages, the head can vary. The factors that cause the
polytropic head to vary are parameters that affect the Mach number, i.e. compressor rotational speed, suction
temperature, and gas composition. These effects are called aerodynamic stage mismatching and will be further
discussed in section 2.5.3. [Lüdtke, 2004]
2.4.1 Polytropic change of state

In the following it is shown how polytropic head/efficiency curves can be used to calculate discharge conditions
based on the inlet conditions. The formulas presented are for real gases but strictly speaking only valid for the
exact conditions under which the polytropic head/efficiency curves have been found. However, for slight
changes in the inlet conditions reasonably accurate results can be obtained, and certainly the general effect of
changing the inlet conditions can be deduced.
The starting point for polytropic processes is the relation the equation for polytropic head deduced in section
2.2.1. In the following it is shown how outlet temperature, pressure, and volume flow for real gases can be
calculated based on the polytropic head and efficiency curves. The prerequisite for the calculations are that it is
possible to calculate all thermodynamic properties from an equation of state (e.g. Peng-Robinson).
Pressure
The polytropic head for compression of real gases expressed in the unit of length is given by equation 2.23.
nν −1
⎡ ⎤
Z ⋅ R ⋅T1 nν ⎢⎛ P2 ⎞
− 1⎥
nν
yp = 1 ⋅ ⎜ ⎟ (2.23)
MW ⋅ g nν − 1 ⎢⎝ P1 ⎠ ⎥
⎣⎢ ⎥⎦
14
Isolating the discharge pressure p 2 gives equation 2.24.
⎛ n ⎞
⎜ ν ⎟
⎡ y p ⋅ MW ⋅ g nν − 1 ⎤ ⎜⎝ nν −1 ⎟⎠ (2.24)
p 2 = p1 ⋅ ⎢1 + ⋅ ⎥
⎣ Z 1 ⋅ R ⋅T1 nν ⎦
Thus the discharge pressure is a function of suction pressure, compressor head, and the composition.
Temperature
Recalling that the definition of a polytropic process is
p ⋅ν nν = const . (2.25)
Rearranging equation 2.25 by using ν = ZRT / P gives the expression in equation 2.26 [Lüdtke, 2004].
nT −1
T nT p nT −1 p nT Pm n −1 (2.26)
p nT = const → nT = = = const , where m = T
P T T T nT
nT is the polytropic temperature exponent and is different from the polytropic volume exponent. In equation
2.26 the compressibility is assumed constant.
Using the relation in 2.26 allow for calculation of the discharge temperature as shown in 2.27.
m
p1m p 2m ⎛p ⎞
= ⇔ T 2 = T1 ⋅ ⎜ 2 ⎟ (2.27)
T1 T2 ⎝ p1 ⎠
m – and thereby the polytropic temperature exponent, nT – is calculated by equation 2.28 [Lüdtke, 2004].
Z1 ⋅ R ⎛ 1 ⎞ κ −1
m= ⋅ ⎜ − 1⎟ + T (2.28)
⎜
c p ⎝ ηp ⎟ κT
⎠
Where κT : Isentropic temperature exponent defined at constant entropy ( η p = 1 )
cp : Heat capacity at constant pressure
The isentropic discharge temperature, T 2 s , is given – similarly to 2.27 – by equation 2.29.
κT −1
⎛p ⎞ κT
T 2s = T1 ⋅ ⎜ 2 ⎟ (2.29)
⎝ p1 ⎠
Rearranging equation 2.29 gives
⎛T ⎞
log ⎜ 2s ⎟
κT − 1 ⎝ T1 ⎠
= (2.30)
κT ⎛p ⎞
log ⎜ 2 ⎟
⎝ p1 ⎠
Combining equations 2.27, 2.28 and 2.30 gives
⎛T ⎞
log ⎜ 2 s ⎟
Z ⋅R ⎛ 1 ⎞
m
⎛p ⎞ ⎝ T1 ⎠
T 2 = T1 ⋅ ⎜ 2 ⎟ , where m = ⋅ ⎜ − 1⎟ − (2.31)
⎜
c p ⎝ ηp ⎟
⎝ p1 ⎠ ⎠ log ⎛ p 2 ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎝ p1 ⎠
15
The isentropic discharge temperature is found by the equation of state.
Volume
The actual volume flow of the discharge stream is calculated by
ρ1
V&2 = V&1 ⋅ (2.32)
ρ2
Where ρ : Density at suction (1) and discharge (2)

V& : Actual volume flow at suction (1) and discharge (2)
Here the density is found from the equation of state.
2.4.2 Calculation scheme

For calculation of the performance – i.e. discharge pressure and temperature – under different operating
conditions have been computed accordingly to the calculation scheme given in figure 2.10.
16
&
Set: p1 , T1 , Composition, and m
Calculate: MW and Z1 , ρ1 , V1 by EOS
Set Polytropic Head and

Polytropic efficiency by V1
Guess: nν and nT
Calculate P2
Calculate T2s by EOS
Calculate m
Adjust nν by secant-method Calculate ρ 2 by EOS
Calculate V&2
Calculate D = p1 ⋅ V&1nν − p2 ⋅ V&2 nv
No Yes
Is D < 10−12 ? STOP!
Figure 2.10. Calculation scheme.
A program has been written in the Visual Basic application for Excel using the calculation scheme in figure 2.10
to calculate compressor performance with starting point in compressor curves similar to that of figure 2.9 (cf.
“Compressor.xls” on CD-ROM).
2.4.3 Operating characteristics

Using the calculation scheme shown in figure 2.10 it is possible to predict the operation characteristics under
different operating conditions. In figure 2.11, 2.12, and 2.13 the Influence of the performance at different
moleweights, suction temperatures, and suction pressures are shown using the performance curves of the first
section compressors seen in figure 2.9. In all cases the equation of state used is Peng-Robinson.
17
M W = 22.5 M W = 23 M W = 23.5 M W = 24 M W = 24.5 M W = 22.5 M W = 23 M W = 23.5 M W = 24 M W = 24.5
50 170
Discharge Temperature [°C]

Discharge Pressure [bara]
165
45
160
155
40
150
145
35
140
30 135
130
25 125
24000 29000 34000 39000 24000 29000 34000 39000
Mass Flow [kg/hr] Mass Flow [kg/hr]
Figure 2.11. Discharge pressure and discharge temperature as a function of mass flow at different
moleweights (P1=10.3 bara, T1 = 40 °C)
T1 = 30 T1 = 35 T1 = 40 T1 = 45 T1 = 50 T1 = 30 T1 = 35 T1 = 40 T1 = 45 T1 = 50
50
169.5
45 164.5
159.5
40
154.5
149.5
35
144.5
139.5
30
134.5
25 129.5
24000 29000 34000 39000 24000 29000 34000 39000
suction temperatures (MW=23.5 g/mole, P1=10.3 bara)
P1 = 9.3 P1 = 9.8 P1 = 10.3 P1 = 10.8 P1 = 11.3 P1 = 9.3 P1 = 9.8 P1 = 10.3 P1 = 10.8 P1 = 11.3
50
45 162.2
40
152.2
35
142.2
30
132.2
25
122.2
20
15 112.2
24000 29000 34000 39000 24000 29000 34000 39000
suction pressures (MW=23.5 g/mole, T1=40 °C)
As seen on the graphs in figure 2.11 through 2.13 relatively small deviations in the inlet conditions have great
impact on the discharge pressures as well as temperatures.
18
2.5 Performance phenomena

Generally there are two phenomena that limit the performance of the compressor. These are,
• Surge
• Stonewall
Surge is the lower boundary of a stable flow and stonewall is the upper limit of the compressor flow. In addition
to this the effect of stage mismatching should be considered when altering the inlet conditions.
In the following these three phenomena will be explained.
2.5.1 Surge
Surge can happen on two different levels. Stage surge is surge in a single stage of the compressor whereas
system surge is when the entire system goes into surge. Although the phenomena are similar with regard to
causes the implications are somewhat different.
Stage surge
In figure 2.14 the flow through the impeller is depicted under normal operation and at stage surge.
Vgas Vrel
Vgas Vrel
a
U2 Propagation
U2 of Stage Surge
Impeller blade
Flow separation
Rotation
(a) Normal Operation (b) Stage surge
Figure 2.14. Flow patterns in an impeller at normal operation and at stage surge.
a: flow angle, i: incidence angle, Vrel: gas velocity relative to impeller blade, u2: impeller blade tip
speed, Vgas: velocity of gas.
As depicted in figure 2.14(a) the gas flows through the ducts between the impeller blades under normal
operation. However, when flow is reduced – or rotating velocity is increased at constant flow – the flow angle
is decreased. This means that each gas molecule must travel a longer distance and more of the flow momentum
is dissipated by friction at the impeller blades. At the same time the incidence angle at the impeller inlet is
increased which causes flow separation at the low pressure side of the impellers as depicted in figure 2.14(b).
The flow separation tends to continuously shift round the diffuser from one impeller blade to the next in the
opposite direction of the rotation. [Gresh, 2001]
19
The flow separation due to poor incidence angle leads to flow reversal and the stage will exhibit flow and
pressure fluctuations around a mean value. These pressure and flow fluctuations are known as stage surge. The
stage surge condition can be present both at the impellers and in the stationary flow channels, but the effect is
similar.
Stage surge occurs at low flow just before system surge occurs, but if operating conditions remain constant it is a
stable compressor operating condition with a net forward flow. However, for the component experiencing this
flow condition it is a dynamic instability, which can cause damage to the components under influence. [Lüdtke,
2004]
System Surge
As mentioned above system surge is a condition that occurs if flow is lowered even more in a condition of stage
surge. However, system surge can also occur without a preliminary stage surge.
The aerodynamic explanation to the condition is similar to that explained for stage surge, but the implications
of a system surge are much more severe as all components in the compressor can be damaged beyond the point
where operation of the compressor is possible. In system surge it is not a local flow reversal at an impeller or in
the flow channels, but flow reversal through the entire compressor.
System surge is best described by extending the operating curve into the second quadrant as depicted
schematically in figure 2.15.
P
D' D
B' B
A' A
C' C
F E
E'
Quadrant II Quadrant I
Volume Flow
Quadrant III Quadrant IV V&
Figure 2.15. Performance curve extended into the second quadrant. [Lüdtke, 2004]
Imagining a system with a pressurized gas reservoir at the outlet of the compressor the following reasoning for
operating points A, B, and C can be made with reference to the curve in figure 2.15:
1. If the operation point shifts from A to B the reservoir momentarily deliver the difference V& −V& A B
which lower the pressure of the reservoir and thereby restores the former operating point, A.
2. If the operation point shifts from A to C the reservoir momentarily stores the difference V& −V&
C A
which increase the pressure of the reservoir and thereby restores the former operating point, A.
Thus, condition A is a stable operating point and in this part of the performance curve the system is to a large
extent self-controlled. Similar reasoning for A’, B’, and C’ give different results:
20
3. If the operation point shifts from A’ to B’ the reservoir momentarily stores the difference V&B ' −V&A '
which increases the pressure of the reservoir and thereby moves the operating point further away from
A’. On the path from A’ to D the compressor continuously pumps more flow into the reservoir, but as
D is reached and the pressure still increases due to the increase in flow, the only possible way is for the
compressor instantaneously to shift to operating point D’. This reverses the flow and the reservoir
begins to unload and the operating point moves towards E’. Further pressure reduction is only possible
if the operating point shifts to E, and from here the reservoir begins to fill increasing the pressure, and
thus moving the operating point towards D. From here the cycle DD’EE’D begins once again.
4. Similar reasoning can be made if the operating point shifts from A’ to C’. The result is a flow cycle
E’EDD’E’.
Therefore, condition A’ is an unstable operating point. [Lüdtke, 2004]
The consequence of this is that stable operation can only be achieved of the flow is greater than that of point D.
2.5.2 Stonewall
The other limit to normal operation of a compressor is called stonewall. The phenomenon is characterized by
the sonic gas velocity at the impeller blade inlet. It occurs when the system resistance decreases and flow
thereby increases.
For a single stage compressor stonewall occurs when the head becomes zero, but for multistage compressors the
situation is different. As the inlet flow to the compressor increases each subsequent stage sees a disproportional
flow increase. That is, the relative flow increase becomes larger for each subsequent stage. Therefore, as flow
increases, the first stage in which zero head occur, is the last stage of the compressor. Thus, the compressor flow
limit – i.e. stonewall – is determined by the last compression stage. In figure 2.16, the situation is depicted
schematically for a five stage compressor.
Total compressor head curve

Head
Normal operating point
Stonewall
Stage curves 1
2
3
4
5
Volume Flow
Figure 2.16. Individual stage head curves and total compressor curve for a five
stage compressor. The total head curve is the sum of heads of the individual stages.
A multi-stage compressor subjected to an ever decreasing system resistance can in certain cases operate stably
beyond stonewall. In this case the initial stages produce head and the later stages consume the head. However,
especially thrust bearings in the compressor must be sized accordingly, because thrust variations throughout the
21
stages of the compressor will be inevitable. Although, stable operation can be achieved it should be avoided
because it is a situation where much of the enthalpy created in the first stages are transferred to unavailable
energy – heat – in the later stages. [Lüdtke, 2004]
2.5.3 Aerodynamic stage mismatching

The effect of aerodynamic mismatching stem from the fact, that there is a non-linear progressive shift in the
actual volume flow for each subsequent stage in a compressor section. If for instance the volume flow at the
first stage is reduced by 5 % then the volume flow will be reduced by more than 5 % in the subsequent stage
and even more for each stage hereafter. Similarly if flow is increased at the first stage then each stage hereafter
sees an even higher percentage-wise increase in the flow.
When operating the compressor under the conditions specified for the performance map delivered by the
compressor manufacturer the stage mismatching effects are included implicitly in the efficiency data. However,
when deviating from design conditions the mismatching effects are among others responsible for efficiency
degradation, deviations from fan laws, and distortion of the surge limit.
The aerodynamic stage mismatching or compressibility change between stages is basically brought about by any
change in the stage inlet conditions. Thus, variation in compressor speed and composition, flow, and
temperature of the inlet stream lead to stage mismatching.
The effects of stage mismatching are present whenever there is an appreciable compressibility in the flow
which is generally the case for impeller tip-speed Mach numbers above 0.4. Below this threshold the stage
mismatching effects can be considered to be negligible. [Lüdtke, 1998]
2.6 Coupling of Compressors

Coupling of compressors can be either serial of parallel. The implications of these couplings will be described in
the following.
2.6.1 Serial
In essence serial coupling of compressors are similar to the division of stages. However, one major difference
between the internal stages of a compressor and serial coupling of two or more compressors is that the gas is
usually not cooled between stages, whereas cooling is usually done between sections.
Curves for the three serial connected compressors at the OGPU and the resulting total head curve are shown in
figure 2.17.
22
45000
40000
Total Head
35000
30000
Head [m]
25000
20000
15000
1
10000
2
3 Sections
5000
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
Actual Volume Flow [m³/s]
Figure 2.17. Polytropic head curves for the three serial connected compressors on the OGPU and the
resulting total polytropic head curve.
As explained in section 2.5.2 each succeeding stage sees a disproportional change in flow as the inlet flow is
increased or decreased. Similar reasoning can be made for compressors connected in series, and hence surge or
stonewall is most liable to occur at later sections as the flow is changed at the inlet of the first section. Hence,
surge can be expected to occur first in the last section and last in the first section.
2.6.2 Parallel
Compressors are often coupled in parallel in order to have a large turn-down ratio. Parallel connection of
compressors mainly affects the ability of the system to adapt to different flows. However, one major implication
to the control of the compression system is that inlets and outlets are in open connection to each other and
therefore pressures are balanced. Since it is impossible to construct compressors exactly similar and because it is
inevitable that piping etc. around the compressors are different, the parallel connections calls for a system to
balance the load on the compressors. This is called load-sharing and will be treated further in section 3.4.
23
Compressor Control
3 Compressor Control
Compressors are to some extent self-controlled when operating in the stable area of the performance curve as
described in section 2.5. However, to avoid operating in unstable areas of the performance curve, and to enable
off-design operation, compressor control must be integrated into the system.
In this section the following subjects are covered
• Control methods
• General approach to compressor control
Subsequently, methods to enable essential capabilities of the overall control system will be described. These are
• Anti-surge control
• Distribution of loads – i.e. load-sharing
• Dynamic de-coupling
The reason to employ anti-surge control and load-sharing capability are evident from the descriptions in
section 2.5 and 2.6. Dynamic de-coupling must be employed to eliminate regions of instability where control
strategies that are interactive can create unstable process oscillations.
3.1 Control methods

Four widely used control methods for controlling the performance of compressors are
• Variable speed control

• Suction throttling
• Adjustable Inlet Guide Vanes (IGV)
• By-pass – Discharge throttling
The function of these control methods is to extend the operating range of the compressor beyond the single
performance curve (as depicted in figure 2.9) and to a so-called performance map. As seen from the following
this extension can be made with variable success in regards to maintain a high efficiency on the compressor.
3.1.1 Variable speed control

Variable speed control of compressors rely on the aerodynamic relationships called fan laws stating that
⎛p ⎞
V& ∝ N , y p ∝ N 2, ln ⎜ 2 ⎟∝N ,
2
(T 2 −T1 ) ∝ N 2 (3.33)
⎝ p1 ⎠
Where N : Rotational speed
These relationships can be deduced from aerodynamics by assuming an ideal gas and a single stage compressor.
Thus, for actual systems with real gases and multiple compressor stages, the accuracy of the relationships are
somewhat reduced. However, they serve as a mean to show what can be expected when reducing or increasing
speed of the compressor. A graphical representation of the fan laws are shown in figure 3.18. [Gresh, 2001]
24
Compressor Control
25000
20000
Polytropic Head [m]
110%
15000
100%
90%
10000
80%
5000
0
1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000
Actual Volume Flow [m³/hr]
Figure 3.18. Application of fan laws on the first section compressor curves of the OGPU at speeds of
80-110 % of design speed.
As stated above the fan laws are applicable to ideal gases and single stage compressors, only. The implications of
real gases and multiple stage compressors are the effect of aerodynamic stage mismatching as explained in
section 2.5.3.
The effect of stage mismatching on the head curves as shown in figure 3.18 is that the 80 and 90 % curves in
reality lie lower and farther to the left, and the 110 % line lie farther up and to the right.
Advantages to using variable speed to control compressor performance are:
• High part-load efficiencies (>95 % of design efficiency) as compressor only produce the head necessary
in part-load situations
• Possible to overload the system (by volume flow) because of over-speed
• Suitable for all compressor types
The main disadvantage is that a driver with variable speed is required. However, for most applications variable
speed control is the first choice. [Lüdtke, 2004]
3.1.2 Suction Throttling

A throttling valve installed at the suction side can be regarded as an integral part of the compressor. When
doing so the performance map for the compressor is similar to the one shown in figure 2.13, – i.e. the outlet
pressure is proportional to the inlet pressure. However, the compressor head curve seen from downstream the
throttling valve discharge is the unaltered performance curve.
Advantages to suction throttling are
• Suitable to all compressor types

• Relatively low investment costs as compared to e.g. variable speed control
Main disadvantages are
25
Compressor Control
• Low efficiency at part-load due to energy loss in throttling valve

• Overload not possible
However, the low efficiency at part-load, suction throttling is widely used especially due to its simplicity and
low investment costs. [Lüdtke, 2004]
3.1.3 Adjustable Inlet Guide Vanes (IGV)

Adjustment of IGV’s is a real compressor head variation as opposed to suction throttling. According to the Euler
turbomachinery equation (see equation 2.20) the polytropic head is a function of the peripheral gas velocity at
the impeller inlet (Vu1 ). By adjusting the inlet guide vanes the incidence angle at the impeller inlet can be
altered and thus the peripheral velocity changed. An important property of IGV’s is that only the pertaining
impeller performance is influenced.
In principle guide vanes can be inserted at the inlet of each stage, but due to lack of space, multistage
compressors are normally only equipped with one set of IGV’s. If the compressor is integrally geared more
space is often available and hence more IGV’s can be installed in those situations. The effect of adjustable inlet
guide vanes is strongest for backward leaning impeller blades, because here the peripheral speed at the impeller
outlet (Vu2 ) is lowest (cf. equation 2.20 and figure 2.5).
Advantages to the adjustable IGV’s are
• Medium part-load efficiencies (lower than variable speed, higher than suction throttling)
• With negative prerotation of the IGV’s it is possible to overload
Main disadvantages are
• Higher investment costs than e.g. suction throttling
The use of adjustable IGV’s is mainly in situations where it is possible to fit IGV’s at more than one stage (i.e. in
integrally geared compressors).
3.1.4 By-pass – Discharge Throttling

By-pass control is also referred to as discharge throttling. Flow is by-passed from the compressor discharge to
the compressor inlet through a valve. If the recycle is regarded as an integral part of the compressor, then the
performance map expands all the way to zero flow (i.e. full recycle). However, as the compressor in reality only
have one performance curve the energy input remains constant.
Advantages to by-pass control are
• Suitable for all compressor and impeller types

• Simple control with low investment cost
• Possible to extend the performance map to zero flow – i.e. full recycle
The main disadvantage is of course
• High energy cost at part-load

• Impossible to overload
Because by-pass is the only control method that expands the performance map to zero flow it is always an
integral part of the compressor control system.
26
Compressor Control
3.2 General approach to compressor control

The polytropic head/efficiency vs. actual volume flow curves are, as described in section 2.4, constant for a
given set of inlet conditions. In practice, however, inlet conditions will vary but for the purpose of control it is
evident to use coordinates that are invariant – or nearly invariant – to the inlet conditions.
The compressor control system must be based on the information available for measurement. I.e. it is not
suitable to base compressor control on e.g. the moleweight of the gas because this property is difficult to
measure continuously. Typical measurements readily available are flow, temperature, and pressure. Thus, a
control system should be based on a set of measurements of these types. In addition it is an advantage to use a
control system where the controlled variable give straight lines for the operating window.
3.2.1 Coordinate system for compressor control

A commonly applied coordinate system for control is pressure ratio versus reduced flow-rate in suction squared.
The reduced flow rate is defined as
V&12 ⋅ MW Δp Δpo ,s
q12 ≡ ∝ o ,s ⇒ q 12 = C 1 ⋅ (3.34)
Z 1 ⋅ R g ⋅T1 p1 p1
Where q1 : Reduced flow rate

Δpo ,s : Pressure drop across an orifice on the suction side
C1 : Arbitrary constant
As seen from equation 3.34 the reduced flow rate squared is proportional to a pressure difference across an
orifice placed at the suction side divided by the suction pressure. Flow measurement is commonly done by
measuring the pressure difference across and orifice plate and therefore the reduced flow rate is readily
calculated solely from measurements of pressure.
The second coordinate is simply the pressure ratio found from pressure measurements before and after the
compressor.
The advantage of using this coordinate system is that it gives nearly straight lines in a coordinate system and it
is nearly invariant to moderate changes in the suction side conditions. In addition, only three measurements are
needed – the pressure drop across an orifice at the compressor inlet and the pressure at the inlet and outlet of
the compressor. [Bloch, 2006]
3.2.2 Gas flow measurement by an orifice flow meter

An orifice flow meter works by measuring the pressure drop across an orifice. Several correlations of this
pressure drop to flow have been suggested in literature. The one shown here is the one acknowledged by ISO
standard 5167-1.
The flow through an orifice is given by
2 ⋅ Δpo C d ⋅ ε ⋅ Ao
V& = ⋅ (3.35)
ρ 1− β 4
Where Δpo : Pressure drop across the orifice

Cd : Discharge coefficient
β: Orifice diameter divided by pipe diameter
ε: Expansibility factor of gases
27
Compressor Control
Ao : Cross-sectional area of orifice

The discharge coefficient is to take account for frictional losses, viscosity and turbulence effects. Thus, it is a
function of Reynolds number, and it can be calculated from the empirical relation
0.75
C d = 0.5959 + 0.0312 ⋅ β 2.1 -0.184 ⋅ β 8 + 0.0029 ⋅ β 2.5 ⋅ ⎛⎜

1000000 ⎞
⎟
⎝ Re ⎠
(3.36)
β4
+0.090 ⋅ L1 ⋅ − 0.0337 ⋅ L '2 ⋅ β 3
1− β 4
Where Re : Reynolds number in pipe

L1 : Quotient of the distance, l 1 , of the upstream tapping from the upstream face of the orifice
plate, and the pipediameter, D ( L1 = l 1 / D ).
L '2 : Quotient of the distance, l '2 , of the downstream tapping from the downstream face of the
orifice plate, and the pipe diameter, D ( L '2 = l '2 / D )
At Reynolds numbers in the order of 105-107 the discharge coefficient is close to 0.6 for β values of 0.5-0.75 as
seen on the graph in figure 3.19. Reynolds numbers of that order are typical for gas pipe flows.
0.9
0.85
Discharge Coefficient (C d)
0.8
β = 0.50
0.75 β = 0.55
β = 0.60
β = 0.65
0.7 β = 0.70
β = 0.75
0.65
0.6
0.55
1000 10000 100000 1000000 10000000
Reynolds Number
Figure 3.19. Discharge coefficient as function of the Reynolds number. L1=L’2= 0.2
Thus, in most applications relating to gas flow measurements in connection with compressors it is sufficient to
assume a discharge coefficient of 0.6.
The expansibility factor accounts for the compressibility of the gas and can be calculated using the empirical
relation
ε = 1−
( 0.41 + 0.35 ⋅ β ) ⋅ Δpo
4
(3.37)
κ ⋅ p1
Where κ : Specific heat ratio ( C p / C v )
p1 : Pressure upstream orifice
28
Compressor Control
For most gas flow measurement applications the pressure drop across the orifice is low compared to the pressure
upstream the orifice that the expansibility factor is close to unity (i.e. the second term in equation 3.37
approaches zero).
3.3 Anti-surge control

Anti-surge control (i.e. surge prevention) is under-taken by recirculation of gas through a by-pass valve often
referred to as an anti-surge valve. As noted in section 3.1.4 by-pass control can extend the performance map to
zero flow and therefore this is always used for anti-surge protection.
Figure 3.20. Schematics of the anti-surge control system. ASC: Anti-

Surge Controller, PIT: Pressure Transmitter.
Anti-surge control is only a protective system and should as such mainly be activated when all other means
extending the performance map has been utilized.
Using the reduced flow vs. pressure ratio coordinate system for anti-surge control a common control system
takes starting point in assuming that
Δpc = C 2 ⋅ Δpo ,s (3.38)

Where Δpc : Pressure difference over the compressor ( p 2 − p1 )
Δpo ,s : Pressure difference across an orifice at the suction side of the compressor
C2 : Constant for the particular compressor system
Equation 3.38 can by division with p1 be rewritten to
p2 Δp
= C 2 ⋅ o ,s + 1 (3.39)
p1 p1
Thus, it is assumed that the anti-surge control line satisfy equation 3.39.
Typical compressor performance curves and the surge control lines obeying equation 3.39 can be seen
schematically in figure 3.21.
29
Compressor Control
p2
p1
Surge Control Lines Decreasing T1 , Z 1, p1

Increasing MW
Compressor Performance
q 12
Figure 3.21. Typical compressor performance curves in the pressure

ratio vs. reduced flow squared coordinate system.
3.3.1 Set-point for anti-surge control

The set point of the surge control system is defined by the value C 2 C2 in equation 3.39. This value should be
selected such that surge control is enabled before the compressor goes into surge. Typically, surge control
should be activated at a volume flow which is 10 % of the actual surge point. However, poor fit of performance
curves to the actual surge points can in initial phases necessitate the use of a wider margin – i.e. 15-20 %.
Hereby the operating window is significantly reduced. [Rammler, 1994]
3.3.2 Hot gas by-pass

Gas from the compressor outlet is cooled before recirculation. Further cooling occurs in the by-pass valve due
to the Joule-Thompson effect. If this recirculation is continued for a prolonged time the effect can be that the
gas is continuously leaned in the suction scrubber due to the decreased temperature. The leaning of the gas
decreases the pressure ratio across the compressor. Ultimately, these effects can make it impossible to get a
pressure ratio over the compressor large enough to be able to get the compressor online with the remaining
system.
To avoid this situation a hot gas by-pass can be installed where part of the gas is by-passed the after-cooler to
the by-pass valve, thus keeping the temperature up in the suction scrubber and thereby avoiding leaning of the
gas. A schematic of the hot gas by-pass can be seen in figure 3.22.
30
Compressor Control
Figure 3.22. Hot gas by-pass. Opening of the valve is controlled by

measurement of the temperature downstream the anti-surge valve.
3.4 Distribution of loads – Load-sharing

Parallel operation of compressors gives rise to control systems making it possible to balance the load.
Eventhough, compressors in parallel are often supposed to be identical it is inevitable that small dissimilarities
exist in piping, construction, etc. that effect the operating map.
The main purpose for the load-sharing control system is to keep parallel compressors at equivalent distances
from the surge control line. This reduces the need for recycle to when it is strictly necessary.
Load-sharing strategies may be accomplished by manipulation of suction valves, by speed changes, or by
manipulation of IGV’s.
For compressors in parallel, almost similar to each other, and with inlet throttling valves as the final control
elements it is recommended that they are allowed to operate unrestricted until a load-sharing enable line is
reached. This is to avoid the energy loss in the throttling valve until it is necessary. Typically, the load-share
enable line is set 10 % from the surge-control line. [Rammler, 1994]
By enabling load-sharing just before the compressors reach the anti-surge control line it is ensured that the
anti-surge control line is reached simultaneously for both compressors in parallel. This can in many cases
extend the overall operability interval without by-pass.
3.5 Dynamic de-coupling

A compression system consist of multiple control loops that all have the purpose of keeping certain operating
parameters such as pressure and temperatures at or close to a pre-defined set point. In some situations these
control loops can interact to give unwanted process oscillations or even situations where the system is pushed
to the extremes or outside of its design boundaries. In those cases the interacting control loops need to be de-
coupled.
It is difficult to predict which control loops are dynamically coupled. However, systems with low capacitance
and with fast responding control loops are more prone to be dynamically coupled.
De-coupling of interacting control loops can be done by application of quite loose controller tuning. However,
this is usually not desired because it leads to a decrease in efficiency. Thus, decoupling action normally consist
of having the controllers that are interacting monitor and compensate for each other’s output. Thereby the loop
interactions will be dynamically de-coupled. [Rammler, 1994; Bloch, 2006]
31
Modeling of the OGPU
4 Modeling of the OGPU

The Oil and Gas Production Unit (OGPU) is designed as a generic vessel, which means that it has not been
designed with any particular production site in mind. In this section the overall design of the oil and gas
processing system on the OGPU is described. Subsequently it is described how the model has been set up with
focus on the compressor control systems.
4.1 Design of the OGPU

A complete description of the oil, gas, and water processing systems on board the OGPU is beyond the scope of
this project. The design of two main systems – the separation system and the gas compression system – is
described in the following. A process flow diagram of the part of OGPU modeled in HYSYS DynamicsTM can be
seen in figure 4.23 on the next page.
4.1.1 Separation
The processing equipment for separating the oil, gas, and water consists of a separation system including two
separators in series followed by an electrostatic coalescer.
The first stage separator is a three phase separator designed for a flow of 68000 bbl/d of oil, 60000 bbl/d of water
and 56.5 MMSCFD of gas. This design oil and gas flow is greater than the 60000 bbl/d and 53 MMSCFD which
is the overall design flow because of recycle from compressor suction scrubbers. The operating pressure and
temperature of the 1st stage separator is 10 barg and 50-90 °C depending on the inlet composition and
conditions. An inlet heater allow for heating of the incoming wellhead fluid.
Oil from the 1st stage separator is passed on to the 2nd stage separator which is a two phase separator designed
for a gas flow of 6.3 MMSCFD and a liquid flow of 67000 bbl/d. The operating pressure and temperature is 1
barg and 75-90 °C.
Liquid from the second stage is separated into oil and water in the electrostatic coalescer designed for a liquid
capacity of 60000 bbl/d. The purpose here is to remove the remaining water before the stabilized oil is cooled
and pumped to the storage tanks. The crude oil must be stabilized to a Reid Vapor Pressure (RVP) less than 5
psia (@100 °F).
4.1.2 Gas compression

Gas compression is done in three sections – 1st, 2nd, and 3rd section – each with two parallel coupled
compressors. Differentiation between the parallel coupled compressors is done by the A and B suffix and in the
following they will be referred to as A-train compressor and B-train compressor. The six compressors run at
fixed speed of 16860 rpm and the 2nd and 3rd compressors are in a back-to-back configuration. The compressors
are driven by an electric motor.
In addition to this a screw compressor re-compresses gas from the 2nd stage separator and feeds it to the 1st
section compressors.
Before the gas is fed to the compressors it is scrubbed and the liquid from these scrubbers are recycled back to
the separators. The inlet temperature of all compressors is 40 °C which is maintained by suction coolers.
Between the 1st and 2nd section compressors a glycol contactor dries the gas before further compression. Just
after the glycol contactor part of the gas is sent to the fuel gas system. At normal operation the fuel gas
consumption is 7624 kg/hr, but can be up to 16450 kg/hr, depending the generator load and need for heating.
Performance curves for the 1st, 2nd, and 3rd section compressors can be found in the Excel sheet “Compressor.xls”
on the CD-ROM enclosed.
32
Figure 4.23. Process Flow Diagram of separation and gas processing equipment at the OGPU.
33
4.2 HYSYS DynamicsTM model

A model for the oil and gas processing system on-board the vessel has been developed using HYSYS
DynamicsTM. The HYSYS model is based on all available information such as compressor curves, vessel sizes,
piping, valves, nozzle elevations, etc. In some cases, however, it has not been possible to get the data as
designed and in these situations values deemed reasonable has been applied to the model. In spite of these
deficiencies in the model it is considered to give a reliable picture of the overall performance of the OGPU.
A Process Flow Diagram (PFD) which is the user interface in HYSYS DynamicsTM can be seen in appendix B. In
the following, the setup of the HYSYS model will be described with focus on specific choices made when
setting up the model. The model can be found on the CD-ROM enclosed. The fundamtals of how the model is
created is not covered here but a detailed introduction to HYSYS is given in appendix A.
4.2.1 Fluid package

The selected fluid package is Peng-Robinson using COSTALD for calculation of liquid density. The pseudo
components for the simulations have been generated for this fluid package and therefore this should be used
only.
4.2.2 Wellhead fluid

The OGPU has been designed for a wellhead composition representative of a field in the North Sea. Four
different cases have been defined and from steady state HYSYS models over these cases equipment has been
dimensioned. The differences in the cases run are inlet temperature of the wellhead fluid and the ratio of water
to oil. In table 4.1 the cases are given. The flows are defined at the upstream choke valve pressure of 15 bara.
Table 4.1. Design cases utilized in HYSYS steady state model. Flows defined at upstream choke
valve pressure of 15 bara.
Temperature Gas at 1st section

Oil Water
Case Upstream Choke Compressor
[bbl/d] [bbl/d]
[°C] [MMSCFD]
Max Oil – High Temp. 90 60000 20000 53
Max Oil – Low Temp. 30 60000 20000 53
Max Water – High Temp. 90 20000 60000 53
Max Water – Low Temp. 30 20000 60000 53
The feedstream composition of oil and gas at standard conditions are equal regardless of the oil/water ratio.
However, the temperature and the oil/water ratio give some differences in the gas composition at the
compressors. The differences can best be seen by looking at the molewights of the gas at the compressors.
Results from the steady state model are given in table 4.2.
Table 4.2. Moleweight of the gas at the compressors from HYSYS steady
state models.
Moleweight at compressor
Case
1st section 2nd section 3rd section
Max Oil – High Temp. 23.64 22.83 22.83
Max Oil – Low Temp. 23.33 22.68 22.68
Max Water – High Temp. 23.38 22.61 22.61
Max Water – Low Temp. 22.07 21.71 21.71
34
The HYSYS DynamicsTM model is based on the “Max Oil – High Temperature” case. This has been selected
because the compressor performance curves delivered by the vendor are based on a 1st section moleweight of
23.8 and 2nd/3rd section moleweight of 23.0. Thus, the “Max Oil – High Temperature” case comes closest to the
conditions under which the performance curves have been generated.
The wellhead fluid composition utilized for the HYSYS DynamicsTM model is given in table 4.3.
Table 4.3. Wellhead fluid composition.

*Composition of different phases at upstream choke pressure of 15 bara.
Total Gas Liquid Water

Component Compostion Compostion* Compostion* Compostion*
[mole%] [mole%] [mole%] [mole%]
H2S 0.00006% 0.00022% 0.00005% 0.00000%
N2 0.265% 1.137% 0.019% 0.000%
CO2 0.502% 2.054% 0.189% 0.005%
Methane 16.161% 68.506% 2.802% 0.000%
Ethane 2.940% 11.762% 1.722% 0.000%
Propane 1.858% 6.633% 2.474% 0.000%
i-Butane 0.179% 0.548% 0.399% 0.000%
n-Butane 0.527% 1.477% 1.404% 0.000%
i-Pentane 0.134% 0.281% 0.524% 0.000%
n-Pentane 0.162% 0.302% 0.691% 0.000%
n-Hexane 0.837% 0.890% 4.748% 0.000%
APL C7* 1.336% 0.809% 8.638% 0.000%
APL C8* 1.474% 0.445% 10.310% 0.000%
APL C9* 1.423% 0.227% 10.302% 0.000%
APL C12* 1.460% 0.033% 10.918% 0.000%
APL C17* 1.766% 0.001% 13.275% 0.000%
APL C23* 1.127% 0.000% 8.468% 0.000%
APL C31* 2.308% 0.000% 17.344% 0.000%
APL C47* 0.698% 0.000% 5.244% 0.000%
H2O 64.843% 4.895% 0.528% 99.994%
The pseudo components are characterized by the parameters given in table 4.4.
Table 4.4. Pseudo Component characterization.
Std. Liq. Acentric

NBP MW Tc Pc Vc
density Factor
Component ⎡ m3 ⎤
⎡ g ⎤ ⎡ kg ⎤
[°C] ⎢⎣ mole ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ m 3 ⎥⎦ [°C] [bara] ⎢ kmole ⎥ [-]
⎣ ⎦
APL C7* 91.95 92.10 773.91 255.28 32.31 0.3301 0.4565
APL C8* 116.75 106.20 754.00 279.80 28.21 0.3888 0.4975
APL C9* 142.25 119.20 772.00 300.25 25.53 0.4386 0.5347
APL C12* 206.93 158.90 807.71 353.76 20.22 0.5785 0.6506
APL C17* 302.70 238.73 855.92 435.02 15.85 0.7757 0.8524
APL C23* 378.26 321.31 894.07 504.21 14.27 0.8942 1.0316
APL C31* 453.79 426.76 930.28 582.85 13.48 0.9900 1.2120
APL C47* 572.62 650.86 985.43 737.99 13.23 1.1618 1.3043
35
4.2.3 Boundary Conditions

Boundary conditions must be given for all streams in and out of the process flow diagram. Either pressure or
flow must be specified and for each incoming stream the composition and temperature must also be given. The
specifications of boundary conditions are discussed in more detail in appendix A, section A.3.2.
In table 4.5 the boundary conditions for the OGPU model are given.
Table 4.5. Boundary conditions applied to the HYSYS DynamicsTM model for
the OGPU.
Stream Specification Value

Flow 1327.4 kmole/h
Wellfluid - Gas Temperature 90 °C
Composition Comp. in table 4.3
Flow 1532.6 kmole/h
Wellfluid - Oil Temperature 90 °C
In
Flow 7331.6 kmole/h
Wellfluid - Water Temperature 90 °C
Pressure 10-20 bara
Heat exchanger inlets Temperature 10-150 °C
Composition Pure water
Export Gas Pressure 230 bara
Lift Gas Pressure 230 bara
Fuel Gas Pressure 30 bara
Oil to Storage Pressure 0 barg
Out Water, 1st stage separator Pressure 0 barg
Water, Coalescer Pressure 0 barg
HP-flare gas Pressure 0 barg
LP-flare gas Pressure 0 barg
Heat exchanger outlets Pressure 0 barg
As seen in table 4.5 the boundary condition of the well fluid is defined by flow, instead of pressure, which is
generally recommended in HYSYS manuals. This is done because it resembles the actual system better than
using pressure as the stream specification. In addition, it is possible to put in algorithms to vary the inlet flow
for simulation of e.g. slugs. The use of pressure or flow specifications is discussed further in appendix A section
A.3.2.
4.2.4 Integrator settings

The calculation method applied in HYSYS is lumped, i.e. all physical properties are considered equal in space as
opposed to distributed systems where physical properties vary in space. The lumped system gives the possibility
to solve it by a set of Ordinary Differential Equations (ODEs), whereas distributed systems require a set of
Partial Differential Equations (PDEs). The main differences are significantly reduced calculation time for
lumped systems at the expense of the accuracy the distributed systems provide. However, the lumped method
in most cases gives a reasonable approximation to the distributed method, especially if overall efficiencies of e.g.
separations are included in the lumped model.
The execution rate in HYSYS DynamicsTM has a default time step of 0.50 seconds. Reducing the value increases
accuracy at the expense of computation time, and increasing the time step has the opposite effect.
The integrator in HYSYS DynamicsTM basically solves material, energy, and composition balances. In addition
when in the dynamics mode controllers are solved. The method of solving the ODEs is implicit Euler. Default
rates of solving the ODEs are given in table 4.6.
36
Table 4.6. Execution rates for HYSYS DynamicsTM solver.
Equations Execution rate (timesteps pr execution)

Material (Pressure-Flow) 1
Energy 2
Composition 10
Logical Operations 2
Tests have been performed to select appropriate time step and execution rates for the HYSYS DynamicsTM
model of the OGPU. These tests are based on the conditions at the 3rd section compressor (26-KA-003A)
because here inaccuracies are assumed to be most significant. Results of suction and discharge pressure, suction
temperature and moleweight for simulation setups using time steps 0.10, 0.25, and 0.50 seconds are shown in
figure 4.24. In addition it has been attempted to reduce the composition execution rate to 2 and 5 for setups
using 0.50 second time step. The starting points of all five simulations are equal and the simulations have been
run for 10 minutes (simulation time).
105.5 252.4
0.50 sec
0.50 sec
105.0 0.25 sec 252.2 0.25 sec
Discharge Pressure (bara)
0.10 sec 0.10 sec

Suction Pressure (bara)
0.50 s / Comp. 2 252.0 0.50 s / Comp. 2

104.5 0.50 s / Comp. 5
0.50 s / Comp. 5
251.8
104.0
251.6
103.5
251.4
103.0
251.2
102.5 251.0
102.0 250.8
1044200 1044400 1044600 1044800 1045000 1045200 1044200 1044400 1044600 1044800 1045000 1045200
Simulation time (s) Simulation time (s)
40.4 22.84
0.50 sec
0.25 sec
22.82
40.2 0.10 sec
Suction Temperature (°C)
0.50 s / Comp. 2
0.50 s / Comp. 5
22.80
40.0
MW (g/mol)
22.78
39.8
22.76
39.6 0.50 sec
22.74 0.25 sec
0.10 sec
39.4 22.72 0.50 s / Comp. 2
0.50 s / Comp. 5
39.2 22.70
1044200 1044400 1044600 1044800 1045000 1045200 1044200 1044400 1044600 1044800 1045000 1045200
Simulation time (s) Simulation time (s)
Figure 4.24. Integrator step size and execution rate tests. The absolute values of the simulation time
is merely a measure of how long the integrator has been running without reset.
As seen on the graphs in figure 4.24 the simulations using a timestep of 0.10 s and 0.25 s give results similar to
each other. Using a timestep of 0.50 seconds, however, seem to introduce errors in the calculation on especially
suction temperature and moleweight. The increase of the composition execution rate seems to reduce the error
giving results closer to the ones obtained using the 0.10 and 0.25 second timesteps.
37
The results in figure 4.24 should be compared with the Real Time Factor (RTF) which is a direct measure of the
calculation speed. The RTF is defined as
Simulation Time
RTF= (4.40)
Computation Time
Thus, the higher the RTF values the less computation time is need for a given simulation time. Hence it is
advantageous to have an RTF value as high as possible, without compromising with accuracy.
Approximate RTF’s found for the five simulations are given in table 4.7.
Table 4.7. Approximate Real Time Factors found for the five simulation setups.
Integrator setting
Step size 0.10 s 0.25 s 0.50 s 0.50 s 0.50 s
Composition execution rate 10 10 10 5 2
Real Time Factor 2 5 10 7 3.5
An integrator step size of 0.25 seconds has been selected because it from the tests performed here give results
consistent with using a lower timestep and still has an acceptable RTF value.
4.2.5 PID Controller tuning

The controllers in the dynamic model fall into four categories: Flow, Level, Pressure, and Temperature. They
have been tuned after rules of thumb as given in table 4.8.
Table 4.8. Rules of thumb for PID controller tuning. Selected values in parentheses.
*There are no liquid pressure controllers present in the model.
Control Type Gain Integral Time [min] Derivate Time [min]

Flow 0.4-0.65 (0.5) 0.05-0.25 (0.15) -
Level 2-20 (10) 1-5 (3) -
Pressure, vapor 2-10 (5) 2-10 (5) -
Pressure, liquid* 0.5-2.0 0.1-0.25 -
Temperature 2-10 (5) 2-10 (5) 0-5 (0)
The values given in table 4.8 are applied to the model for most of the controllers and it has proven to be
sufficient. However, to optimize the compressor control extra effort has been put into tuning the pressure and
flow controllers in connection with the compressors. An approach to fine tune controllers is to increase the
proportional action with integral and derivative action at a minimum. Subsequently, integral and derivate
action can be used to trim the proportional response. The optimal response can be defined as the Quarter Decay
Ratio as described in the following.
Optimization by the Quarter Decay Ratio (QDR)

The decay ratio is defined as the ratio between the amplitude of an oscillation and the proceeding oscillation.
Thus, quarter decay ratio is when the amplitude of the first oscillation resulting from a disturbance is four times
greater than the second oscillation. The typical response to a set point change where the QDR method has been
employed is shown in figure 4.25.
38
PV
A
B
SP
Time
Figure 4.25. Typical response with quarter decay ratio (B/A=0.25).

[Svrcek, 2006]
4.2.6 Compressor Control System

The starting point of setting up the compressor control system in the HYSYS DynamicsTM model is the elements
available in the original of the OGPU. These are given in table 4.9.
Table 4.9. Elements in the compressor control system.
Final Control Primary Elements

Section Control Controller
Element (FCE) (Transmitters)
26-PIT-0018/0318
Suction throttling 26-PV-0002/0302 26-PIC-0002/0302
26-FIT-0013/0313
1st 26-PIT-0018/0318
By-pass 26-FV-0032/0332 26-FIC-0032/0332 26-FIT-0013/0313
26-PIT-0019/0319
Hot gas by-pass 26-TV-0023/0323 26-TIC-0023/0323 26-TIT-0023/0323
nd 26-PIT-0046/0346
2
By-pass 26-FV-0056/0356 26-FIC-0056/0356 26-FIT-0041/0341
26-PIT-0047/0347
Hot gas by-pass 26-TV-0102/0402 26-TIC-0102/0402 26-TIT-0102/0402
26-PIT-0069/0369
3rd
By-pass 26-FV-0081/0381 26-FIC-0081/0381 26-FIT-0067/0367
26-PIT-0073/0373
The final control elements (FCEs) can also be seen in figure 4.9 (PFD for the OGPU) and they are in all cases
control valves. The controllers are ordinary PID controllers receiving their control signal from the transmitters
and controlling the openings of the FCEs. The controllers and transmitters can all be found in the HYSYS
DynamicsTM model Process Flow Diagram as seen in appendix B.
Thus, the entire control system developed in the HYSYS DynamicsTM model is based solely on the possibilities
for measurement and control provided by these elements. The actual control system, however, is part of
packages delivered by external vendors and therefore the control system applied to the model might not reflect
the intentions in the final design/setup of the control system.
The control system in the HYSYS DynamicsTM model has the following features
39
• Anti-surge control on all compressors

• Hot gas by-pass on 2nd and 3rd section compressors to avoid leaning of gas on recycle
• Distribution of loads – Load-sharing – on the 1st section compressors by suction throttling
• Capacity control by 1st section suction throttling
The setup of these control features are described in the following paragraphs.
Antisurge control
The anti-surge control system is based on the pressure ratio vs. reduced flow rate coordinate system (as
described in section 3.2.1).
Since the actual volume flow in the model is measured directly from the material stream – and not by means of
an orifice flow meter – it has been necessary to make some preliminary computations to convert the model
measurement of flow into what is really measured: the pressure drop across an orifice at suction. The
computations are performed in the surge-control spreadsheets located next to the anti-surge controllers as seen
on the PFD in appendix B.
By rearranging equation 3.35 for flow through an orifice the pressure drop across the orifice is calculated as
V& 2 ⋅ (1 − β 4 ) ρ
Δpo = ⋅ (4.41)
(C d ⋅ ε ⋅ Ao ) 2
2
The above equation can be solved by simply assuming a discharge coefficient, C d , of 0.60 and an expansibility
factor, ε , of 1.0 as described in section 3.2.2. The gas density, ρ , and the actual volume flow-rate, V& , are
continuously read from the material streams in HYSYS. Values for the factor, β , has been presumed, and are as
such not based on actual design data. Thus, the pressure drop across the orifice is continuously calculated by
readings of actual volume flow and density in the HYSYS DynamicsTM model.
The orifice pressure drop is subsequently used to calculate the Process Variable ( PV ) of the anti-surge
controller which is the reduced flow rate squared. This is done by using equation 3.34 with the constant C 1 set
arbitrarily to 106 for all compressors. Thus, the PV is calculated as
ΔPo ,s
PV = 106 ⋅ (4.42)
P1
The Set Point ( SP ) is calculated by modifying equation 3.39 to give
ΔPo ,s ⎛P ⎞ 1
SP = = ⎜ 2 − 1⎟ ⋅ (4.43)
P1 ⎝ P1 ⎠ C2
The calculated values for SP and PV are both imported to a PID-controller where an Operating Variable
( OP ) is calculated by the characteristic control equation
Kc de (t )
OP (t ) = OPss + K c ⋅ e (t ) +
Ti ∫ e (t ) dt + K c ⋅Td
dt
(4.44)
Where OP (t ) : Operating value at time t

OPss : Operating value at steady state; i.e. bias
e (t ) : Error at sampling time t; i.e. difference between SP and PV
Kc : Controller Gain
Ti : Integral time
40
Td : Differential time
HYSYS DynamicsTM solves the controller by using a discretized version of equation 4.44. This is discussed in
more detail in Appendix A section A.3.3.
As discussed in section 3.3.1 the selection of C 2 determines the SP of the anti-surge control system.
C 2 has been selected by trial and error to enable anti-surge control at the flows given in table 4.10.
Table 4.10. Settings of the anti-surge control system.
Surge line relative

Presumed surge Anti-surge
Compressor C 2 −1 distance from
point control line
control line
1st section 2500 m3/h 2700 m3/h 2420 8%
2nd section 550 m3/h 605 m3/h 670 10 %
3rd section 150 m3/h 165 m3/h 133 10 %
As seen in table 4.10 the selection of constants C 2 has given surge control lines in a relative distance of 8-10 %
from the actual (presumed) surge points. Exact points of surge has not been provided by the compressor vendor,
and hence the presumed surge point is the lower minimum flow reported in the performance curves delivered
by the vendor.
To have good anti-surge control, the controller must be quite aggressively tuned in order to be effective on
sudden load changes. At the same time overshoot and oscillations must be avoided.
For correct tuning of the anti-surge controllers, a series of tests have been performed. In the tests the inlet gas
flow is instantaneously reduced to 50 % of the normal gas flow. The starting point for the controller tuning is
the rules of thumb for flow controllers as given in table 4.8. Compressor inlet actual volume flows and anti-
surge valve openings versus simulation time for the 1st section compressors are seen in figure 4.26.
3400 20
3300 18
3200 16
26-KA-001A - Actual Volume Flow
Actual Volume Flow [m /h]
26-KA-001B - Actual Volume Flow

3100 14
Percentage Open [%]
26-FV-0032 - Percentage open
3

3000 12
2900 10
2800 8
2700 6
2600 4
2500 2
2400 0
4370 4372 4374 4376 4378 4380 4382 4384 4386
Time [min]
st
Figure 4.26. Anti-surge control activation on 1 section compressors upon an inlet gas flow reduction
to 50 % of normal flow. Kc=0.5, Ti=0.15 min, and Td=0.
41
As seen in figure 4.26, the anti-surge controller reacts by opening the by-pass valves as the actual volume flow
to the compressors reaches the surge control line at approximately 2700 m3/h. The difference between the flows
and responses of the A and B sections is a result of difference in piping configuration (load-sharing is
deactivated in these tests). The actual volume flow of compressor 26-KA-001B initially drops to 2600 m3/h
before stabilizing at the surge control line at 2700 m3/h. Hence the overshoot is 100 m3/h. A measure of the
relative overshoot can be defined as
Anti-surge Control Flow − Minimum Flow 2700 mh − 2600 mh

3 3
= 3 = 50 % (4.45)
Anti-surge Control Flow − Actual Surge Flow 2700 mh − 2500 mh
3
Thus, a sudden reduction of the gas flow by 50 % results in an overshoot of 50 % which is unacceptable. Hence,
the anti-surge controller should be more aggressively tuned.
In figure 4.27 and 4.28 the response of the anti-surge control system for the 2nd and 3rd section compressors can
be seen.
680 30 210 30
660 26-KA-002A - Actual Volume Flow 25 200 25

Actual Volume Flow [m3/h]
Actual Volume Flow [m3/h]

Percentage Open [%]
26-FV-0356 - Percentage open 26-KA-003A - Actual Volume Flow
Percentage Open [%]

640 20 190 20
620 15 180 15
600 10 170 10
580 5 160 5
560 0 150 0
4370 4372 4374 4376 4378 4380 4382 4384 4386 4370 4372 4374 4376 4378 4380 4382 4384 4386
Time [min] Time [min]
Figure 4.27. Anti-surge control activation on 2nd Figure 4.28. Anti-surge control activation on 3rd
section compressors upon an inlet gas flow section compressors upon an inlet gas flow
reduction to 50 % of normal flow. Kc=0.5, reduction to 50 % of normal flow. Kc=0.5,
Ti=0.15 min, and Td=0. Ti=0.15 min, and Td=0.
Calculating the relative overshoot for the 2nd and 3rd section anti-surge control systems gives 52 % and 64 %,
respectively.
In order to reduce the overshoot, while maintaining a stable non-oscillating system a series of tests have been
performed to find the optimal tuning parameters. The approach is to gradually increase the aggressiveness of
the controller until a satisfying result is obtained. A summary of the simulations performed are given in
appendix C. The selected tuning parameters are controller gains of 4 and integral time of 0.1 minutes for 1st
section anti-surge control and 0.2 minutes for 2nd and 3rd section anti-surge controllers. This gives acceptable
overshoots of 10-15 % for a sudden gas flow reduction of 50 % as seen in figures 4.29, 4.30, and 4.31.
42
3400 20
3300 26-KA-001B - Actual Volume Flow 18
3200 26-FV-0332 - Percentage open 16
3100 14
Percentage Open [%]

3
3000 12
2900 10
2800 8
2700 6
2600 4
2500 2
2400 0
4398 4400 4402 4404 4406 4408 4410 4412 4414 4416
Time [min]
st
Figure 4.29. Anti-surge control activation on 1 section compressors upon an inlet gas flow reduction
to 50 % of normal flow. Kc=4, Ti=0.1 min, and Td=0. Max. overshoot 10 %.
680 45 210 50
26-KA-002A - Actual Volume Flow 26-KA-003A - Actual Volume Flow
26-KA-002B - Actual Volume Flow 205 26-KA-003B - Actual Volume Flow 45
670 40
26-FV-0056 - Percentage open 26-FV-0081 - Percentage open
26-FV-0356 - Percentage open 26-FV-0381 - Percentage open
200 40
660 35
195 35
Percentage Open [%]
Percentage Open [%]

3
650 30
3
190 30
640 25
185 25
630 20
180 20
620 15
175 15
610 10
170 10
600 5
165 5
590 0
160 0
4398 4400 4402 4404 4406 4408 4410 4412 4414 4416
4398 4400 4402 4404 4406 4408 4410 4412 4414 4416
Time [min]
Time [min]
Figure 4.30. Anti-surge control activation on 2nd Figure 4.31. Anti-surge control activation on 3rd
section compressors upon an inlet gas flow section compressors upon an inlet gas flow
reduction to 50 % of normal flow. Kc=4, Ti=0.2 reduction to 50 % of normal flow. Kc=4, Ti=0.2
min, and Td=0. Max. overshoot 13 %. min, and Td=0. Max. overshoot 15 %.
As seen the overshoots are significantly reduced at the expense of some oscillation of the flow, especially on the
2nd and 3rd section. These oscillations can, however, better be accepted than a large overshoots in the case of
anti-surge control and the responses are close to having a Quarter Decay Ratio.
Hot gas by-pass

On the second and third stage compressors a hot-gas by-pass is installed. As described in section 3.3.2 the
purpose is to avoid leaning of the gas in situations where gas is continuously recycled through the anti-surge
valve. In the HYSYS model of the OGPU the hot gas by-pass remains closed until the anti-surge valve is 10 %
43
open. The reason for this it is that it is not necessary to by-pass hot gas at low flow-rates due to the very limited
cooling effect at low flow-rates. Hereby it is attempted to avoid process oscillations.
With the restriction described above the hot-gas by-pass PID controllers are tuned as ordinary flow controllers
with gains of 0.5 and integral times of 0.15 minutes.
Distribution of loads – Load-sharing

Using the suction throttling valves 26-PV-0002 and 26-PV-0302 for the 1st section compressors it is possible to
integrate load-sharing in the compressor control system. However, the load-sharing control only works on the
1st section compressors because the gas flow is merged into one pipeline after the 1st section compressors before
being split again for the second stage compressors. The situation is depicted schematically in figure 4.32.
Figure 4.32. Configurations of gas compression system with suction throttling valves 26-PV-0002
and 26-PV-0302.
As is evident from figure 4.32 it is not possible to control the distribution of loads on the 2nd and 3rd stage
compressors because there is no suction throttling valve on these sections. However, as the flow between 2nd
and 3rd section is kept separate for the A and B train it would require only two suction throttling valves placed
just before the 2nd section suction scrubbers (26-VG-002A/b) to enable load-sharing at the 2nd and 3rd section.
As mentioned in section 3.4 load-sharing for similarly designed compressors should only be activated as the
flow approaches the surge control line. In the HYSYS simulation of the OGPU the load-sharing enable line of
the 1st section compressors has been established approximately 10 % above the surge control line. Thus, the
compressors are allowed to operate unrestricted until the load-sharing enable line is reached.
In order to illustrate the effect of load-sharing a case has been run where the inlet gas flow is linearly reduced
to 50 % of normal flow over a period of 30 minutes (in the simulation this is done by using the Ramp function
in a Transfer Function Block (see appendix A section A.3.3)). The actual volume flows at the compressor inlets
and the suction throttling valve openings versus time can be seen in figure 4.33. In order to emphasize the
effect of load-sharing a flow restriction has been applied to the 26-KA-001A compressor inlet in the HYSYS
model. This is the reason for the difference in flows of approximately 100 m3/h before the load share enable line
is reached. The controllers are tuned as ordinary flow controllers with a gain of 0.5 and an integral time of 0.15
minutes.
44
3600 100
3400
95
3200
Percentage Open [%]

3
3000
90
2800
85
2600
2400
26-PV-0002 - Percentage open
80
26-PV-0302 - Percentage open
2200
2000 75
5175 5180 5185 5190 5195 5200 5205 5210 5215 5220
Time [min]
Figure 4.33. Effect of load-sharing control on 1st section compressors. The load share is enabled at
approximately 3000 m3/h.
As seen in figure 4.33 the suction throttling valve 26-PV-0302 starts closing as the actual volume flow to
compressor 26-KA-001A reaches approximately 3000 m3/h. Full load-sharing is obtained at a compressor inlet
flow of approximately 2800 m3/h. Shortly hereafter anti-surge control is enabled and the flow is kept constant
at approximately 2700 m3/h.
Capacity Control
The suction throttling valves at the 1st section compressors can to a limited extend be also be used for capacity
control. However, they can never be allowed to close fully and in the simulation the suction throttling valves
are set to always have a minimum opening of 70 %. The valves are controlled by the suction pressures of the 1st
section compressors and in the HYSYS DynamicsTM model they are set to 12 barg.
Hence controller for the throttling valve should react on two signals. In the HYSYS DynamicsTM model the
controller is modeled by two separate controllers and the combined signal determine the opening of the valve.
However, capacity control can overwrite load-sharing control. To distinguish the controllers in the HYSYS
DynamicsTM model they are followed by a suffix of “Load” and “Pressure”, for Load-sharing control and
Pressure control, respectively.
45
Simulation Scenarios
5 Simulation Scenarios
The HYSYS DynamicsTM model for the OGPU has been used to investigate the performance of the gas
compression system under various operating conditions. Thus, three simulation scenarios have been defined.
These are
• Scenario A: Reduced gas flow

• Scenario B: Slug flow at well-fluid inlet
• Scenario C: Changed well-fluid composition
The general purpose of the simulations is to identify potential problems with the current compressor control
setup, which subsequently can be used to suggest modifications to the present layout.
5.1 Scenario A
An inlet gas flow reduction is likely to activate the anti-surge control system on both the A and B train
compressors. As described previously, the current system does not give the possibility to share loads on the 2nd
and 3rd section compressors, because a suction throttling valve (or other means for load-share control) is not
present in this system. Therefore, a gas flow reduction could result in either of the two parallel coupled
compressors to take most of the net-load, while the other recycles. If this is the case is investigated in the
following.
5.1.1 Definition of Scenario

The action initiated in the scenario and the variables monitored are given in table 5.11.
Table 5.11. Action initiated and variables monitored for scenario A.
Action Reduce inlet gas flow to 60 % of normal flow over a 30 minute period
Compressor inlet actual volume flow
Anti-surge valve openings
Monitor
Suction Throttling valve openings (1st section)
Hot-gas By-pass valve openings (2nd and 3rd section)
5.1.2 Results
1st section compressors

In figure 5.34 results from the 1st section compressor can be found.
46
3400 100
3300 90
3200 80

Percentage Open [%]

3
26-PV-0002 - Percentage Open

3000 26-PV-0302 - Percentage Open 60
2900 50
2800 40
2700 30
2600 20
2500 10
2400 0
5400 5450 5500 5550 5600 5650
Time [min]
st
Figure 5.34. Results from 1 section compressors.
From figure 5.34 it is obvious that the load-sharing strategy works as the actual volume flow to the two
compressors are kept equal over the entire simulation period of 3 hours. However, the anti-surge control valve
(26-FV-0332) on the B-compressor closes after approximately one hour of anti-surge control, while the A-
compressor anti-surge control valve (26-FV-0032) opens more in that period. This does not affect the load-
sharing, but the recycle fractions on the two compressors diverge over time.
Thus, with the current configuration it can be concluded that load-sharing on the first compressor works, but
due to the placement of the suction throttling valves it is not possible to balance the recycle fractions on the
two parallel compressors. If the suction throttling valves were placed before the mixing of the incoming gas
with the recycled gas it would be possible to keep the recycle fractions on the compressors equal. The current
and the alternative configuration can be seen in figure 5.35 and 5.36, respectively.
Figure 5.35. Current configuration of suction Figure 5.36. Alternative configuration of suction
throttling valves. throttling valves.
2nd and 3rd section compressors

In figure 5.37 and 5.38 results from the 2nd and 3rd section compressor can be found.
47
690 100
680 90

670 80
Percentage Open [%]

3
26-TV-0023 - Percentage Open

650 60
640 50
630 40
620 30
610 20
600 10
590 0
5400 5450 5500 5550 5600 5650
Time [min]
Figure 5.37. Results from 2nd section compressors.
210 100
205 90
200 26-KA-003A - Actual Volume Flow 80


Percentage Open [%]
3

190 26-TV-0402 - Percentage Open 60
185 50
180 40
175 30
170 20
165 10
160 0
5400 5450 5500 5550 5600 5650
Time [min]
Figure 5.38. Results from 3rd section compressors.
48
As expected the missing load-share control possibility at the 2nd and 3rd section compressors result in a situation
where the A-train compressors (26-KA-002A, 26-KA-003A) takes most of the net-load, while a large part of the
gas is recycled in the B-train (Recycle valves are 35-45 % open for most of the simulation period).
In figure 5.37 and 5.38 the openings of the hot-gas by-pass valves and the openings of the anti-surge valves are
shown. Comparing the results of these graphs it is seen that, as the anti-surge valves reaches openings of 10 %,
which activates the hot-gas by-pass, process oscillations occur for a relatively short period of time. These
oscillations can be ascribed to a dynamic coupling between the anti-surge valve and the hot-gas by-pass valve.
After oscillating for approximately 10 minutes the system settles down with the operating points of the parallel
compressors moving away from each other.
The effect of the dynamic coupling problem on the actual volume flows to the compressors is difficult to see in
figures 5.37 and 5.38. An enlargement of the compressor inlet flows in the period of process oscillations can be
seen in figure 5.39 and 5.40.
630 178
625 176
26-KA-002A - Actual Volume Flow 26-KA-003A - Actual Volume Flow
26-KA-002B - Actual Volume Flow 26-KA-003B - Actual Volume Flow
620 174

3
615 172
610 170
605 168
600 166
595 164
590 162
5440 5445 5450 5455 5460 5465 5470 5475 5480 5445 5450 5455 5460 5465 5470 5475
Time [min] Time [min]
Figure 5.39. 2nd section compressors inlet actual Figure 5.40. 3rd section compressors inlet actual
volume flows for the period of process volume flows for the period of process
oscillations. oscillations.
As seen from figure 5.39 and 5.40 the actual volume flows do at no point in time reach a flow where the
compressors are likely to surge. However, the dynamic coupling should be avoided, because under different
circumstances the surge flow might be reached, which could be devastating for the compressors.
5.2 Scenario B
The incoming well-fluid is 3-phase and hence the potential for slug flow is present. Especially severe slugging
pose a problem to the compression train because of severe oscillations in the gas flows can lead to pressure
oscillations in the gas compression trains. Due to the limited capacitance and limited possibility for capacity
control in the gas compression system, it is likely to be sensitive to severe slugging. Therefore, the performance
of the system upon slugging is investigated.
The main concern with slugs in the inlet well-fluid in regards to the gas compression system is that the
pressures in the compression system stay within the pre-defined pressure alarm settings given in table 5.12.
Table 5.12. Pressure alarm settings.
PAHH PAH PAL PALL

1st section inlet 25 barg 20 barg 8 barg 5 barg
1st section discharge / 2nd section inlet 50 barg 45 barg 30 barg 25 barg
2nd section discharge / 3rd section inlet 130 barg 110 barg 85 barg 75 barg
3rd section discharge 269 barg 260 barg 235 barg 225 barg
49

The slug flow at the well-fluid inlet is modeled by multiplying the incoming oil, gas, and water flow by a step-
function (approached by Fourier series). The period of the step function is selected as eight minutes and the
amplitude are varied between 30 % and 70 %. In a situation with 50 % amplitude the inlet flows at standard
conditions are given in figure 5.41.
120000 120.00
Oil - Std Liq Vol Flow
Water - Std Liq Vol Flow
Gas - Std Gas Flow
100000 100.00
Std. Gas Flow [MMSCFD]

Std. Liquid Flow [bbl/d]
80000 80.00
60000 60.00
40000 40.00
20000 20.00
0 0.00
5465 5467 5469 5471 5473 5475 5477 5479
Time [min]
Figure 5.41. Slug modeling of well-fluid inlet flows. Amplitude of slugs

is 50 % of average/normal flows and period length is 8 minutes.
Three simulations have been run, with slug amplitudes of 30 %, 50 %, and 70 %, respectively.
The action initiated in the scenarios and the variables monitored are given in table 5.13.
Action Reduce inlet gas flow to 60 % of normal flow over a 30 minute period
Compressor inlet actual volume flows
Monitor
Compressor suction and discharge pressure
5.2.2 Results
Slug amplitude 30 %
Compressor inlet actual volume flow, and suction and discharge pressures plotted against time for simulations
with a slug flow amplitude of 30 % can be seen in figure 5.42 through 5.44.
50
26-KA-001A - Actual Volume Flow 26-KA-001B - Actual Volume Flow 26-KA-001A - Suction Pressure
26-KA-001B - Suction Pressure 26-KA-001A - Discharge Pressure 26-KA-001B - Discharge Pressure
4200 45
4000 40
3800 35
3
3600 30
Pressure [barg]
3400 25
3200 20
3000 15
2800 10
2600 5
2400 0
5535 5540 5545 5550 5555 5560 5565
Time [min]
Figure 5.42. Actual volume flow, suction and discharge pressures for 1st section compressors. Slug
amplitude 30 % of normal flow and slug period 8 minutes.
800 120
750 100
3
700 80
Pressure [barg]
650 60
600 40
550 20
500 0
5535 5540 5545 5550 5555 5560 5565
Time [min]
Figure 5.43. Actual volume flow, suction and discharge pressures for 2nd section compressors. Slug
51
300 300
250 250
3
200 200
Pressure [barg]
150 150
100 100
50 50
0 0
5535 5540 5545 5550 5555 5560 5565
Time [min]
Figure 5.44. Actual volume flow, suction and discharge pressures for 3rd section compressors. Slug
Slug amplitude 50 %
52
4200 45
4000 40
3800 35
3
3600 30
Pressure [barg]
3400 25
3200 20
3000 15
2800 10
2600 5
2400 0
5520 5525 5530 5535 5540 5545 5550
Time [min]
800 120
750 100
3
700 80
Pressure [barg]
650 60
600 40
550 20
500 0
5520 5525 5530 5535 5540 5545 5550
Time [min]
53
280 300
260 270
240 240
3
Pressure [barg]
220 210
200 180
180 150
160 120
140 90
120 60
5520 5525 5530 5535 5540 5545 5550
Time [min]
Slug amplitude 70 %
54
4200 45
4000 40
3800 35
3
3600 30
Pressure [barg]
3400 25
3200 20
3000 15
2800 10
2600 5
2400 0
5525 5530 5535 5540 5545 5550
Time [min]
1000 140
120
900
100
3
800
Pressure [barg]
80
700
60
600
40
500
20
400 0
5525 5530 5535 5540 5545 5550
Time [min]
55
300 300
270
250
240
210
3
200
Pressure [barg]
180
150 150
120
100
90
60
50
30
0 0
5525 5530 5535 5540 5545 5550
Time [min]
Summary of results
For the slug scenarios simulated here it can be concluded that a situation with slugs with amplitudes of 30 %
and a period length of 8 minutes can be handled by the gas compression system. However, there are pressure
fluctuations with period lengths equal to the slugs on the discharge pressure of the 3rd section compressor of
245-259 barg, but it is within the PAL and PAH settings. On the 1st section compressor the pressure drops to
approximately 7 barg, which is below the PAL, when the gas flow is at its minimum. The flow also fluctuates
and on the 2nd and 3rd section compressors the surge control line is reached each slug period.
For the 50 % slug scenarios the pressure and flow fluctuations are increased. In addition, the problem of
dynamic coupling of the hot-gas by-pass valve with the anti-surge valves on the 2nd and 3rd section recurs.
However, at no point the surge flows are reached, but this is probably mainly due to the shortness of the period
length. If the slug periods were longer, the oscillations due to dynamic coupling would have time to amplify.
The pressures at the first and 2nd stage compressors stay within the boundaries of PAL and PAH, but on the 3rd
section compressors the discharge pressure reaches 270 barg, which is just above the PAHH. Hence, with the
current configuration this situation would be at the boundary for the capabilities for the gas compression
system.
In the 70 % slug scenario the effects seen in the 50 % scenario is greatly enhanced. The flow fluctuations due to
the dynamic coupled anti-surge and hot-gas by-pass valves are so significant that the surge flow is reached both
on 2nd and 3rd section compressors. Hence, the authenticities of the simulations are limited, but certainly it
illustrates the importance of dynamically de-coupling of the anti-surge and the hot-gas by-pass valves. A
maximum discharge pressure on the 3rd section compressors of 290 barg is reached which is well above the
PAHH of 269 barg.
A summary of the minimum and maximum pressures reached for suction and discharge are given in table 5.14.
56
Table 5.14. Minimum and maximum pressures reached for the 1st, 2nd, and 3rd section compressors.
Yellow values: PAL/PAH reached; Red values: PALL/PAHH values reached.
1st section 2nd section 3rd section

26-KA-001A/B 26-KA-002A/B 26-KA-003A/B
Suction Discharge Suction Discharge Suction Discharge
Slug
Pressure Pressure Pressure Pressure Pressure Pressure
amplitude
[barg] [barg] [barg] [barg] [barg] [barg]
30% Minimum 6.99 32.90 32.22 93.47 93.18 245.00
30% Maximum 10.40 41.53 40.23 108.53 108.01 258.82
50% Minimum 6.05 31.13 30.73 89.28 89.06 237.75
50% Maximum 10.41 41.45 40.15 108.37 107.85 270.23
70% Minimum 5.46 30.16 29.77 85.04 84.82 227.87
70% Maximum 10.92 43.32 41.99 121.16 120.74 290.41
5.3 Scenario C
The overall idea with the OGPU has been to design it to be generic in the meaning of it to be all-round.
Therefore it can be anticipated that the gas to be handled will vary in composition and moleweight. From the
discussion of compressor performance in section 2.4 this significantly alter the performance of the compressors
as less head is required to compress a denser gas and more head is required to compress a leaner gas.
In order to investigate the effects on the total compression system two scenarios have been setup where the
composition is changed to get leaner and denser gas, respectively. The compressor performance curves used for
these simulations are unaltered. Thus, there are no corrections made for the stage mismatching effects that are
likely to be present when changing the composition. An optimal situation would be to acquire compressor
curves made for the composition used in these scenarios. However, it is believed that the results obtained from
the simulations give a reasonable picture of the overall performance of the compression system upon a gas
composition change.

The action initiated in the scenarios and the variables monitored are given in table 5.13.
Action Change composition of inlet gas flow

Compressor inlet actual volume flows
Monitor Compressor suction and discharge pressures
Moleweights at the compressors
Only the inlet gas composition is changed and hence the inlet flow-rate is similar to that used in the base case.
Leaner Gas
The inlet compositions used for the leaner gas case are given in table 5.16.
57
Table 5.16. Well-fluid composition at upstream choke pressure of 15 bara

for the lean gas case.

Component Compostion Compostion Compostion Compostion
H2S 0.0001% 0.0002% 0.0001% 0.0000%
N2 0.265% 1.129% 0.019% 0.000%
CO2 0.503% 2.040% 0.191% 0.005%
Methane 18.482% 77.706% 3.222% 0.000%
Ethane 1.494% 5.930% 0.884% 0.000%
Propane 0.979% 3.468% 1.322% 0.000%
i-Butane 0.179% 0.543% 0.406% 0.000%
n-Butane 0.528% 1.465% 1.430% 0.000%
i-Pentane 0.135% 0.278% 0.534% 0.000%
n-Pentane 0.162% 0.299% 0.704% 0.000%
n-Hexane 0.837% 0.877% 4.837% 0.000%
APL C7* 1.336% 0.795% 8.795% 0.000%
APL C8* 1.475% 0.436% 10.491% 0.000%
APL C9* 1.423% 0.221% 10.479% 0.000%
APL C12* 1.460% 0.032% 11.099% 0.000%
APL C17* 1.766% 0.001% 13.494% 0.000%
APL C23* 1.127% 0.000% 8.607% 0.000%
APL C31* 2.308% 0.000% 17.630% 0.000%
APL C47* 0.698% 0.000% 5.331% 0.000%
H2O 64.845% 4.779% 0.524% 99.994%
Denser Gas
The inlet compositions used for the denser gas case are given in table 5.17.
Table 5.17. Well-fluid composition at upstream choke pressure of 15 bara

for the dense gas case.

Component Compostion Compostion Compostion Compostion
H2S 0.0001% 0.0002% 0.0000% 0.0000%
N2 0.231% 1.003% 0.017% 0.000%
CO2 0.442% 1.820% 0.172% 0.005%
Methane 14.152% 60.491% 2.542% 0.000%
Ethane 4.252% 17.102% 2.559% 0.000%
Propane 2.340% 8.360% 3.171% 0.000%
i-Butane 0.455% 1.384% 1.023% 0.000%
n-Butane 0.790% 2.198% 2.116% 0.000%
i-Pentane 0.126% 0.260% 0.489% 0.000%
n-Pentane 0.153% 0.281% 0.649% 0.000%
n-Hexane 0.811% 0.846% 4.528% 0.000%
APL C7* 1.312% 0.779% 8.316% 0.000%
APL C8* 1.461% 0.433% 9.989% 0.000%
APL C9* 1.416% 0.222% 10.012% 0.000%
APL C12* 1.459% 0.033% 10.644% 0.000%
APL C17* 1.766% 0.001% 12.950% 0.000%
APL C23* 1.127% 0.000% 8.260% 0.000%
APL C31* 2.308% 0.000% 16.919% 0.000%
APL C47* 0.698% 0.000% 5.116% 0.000%
H2O 64.700% 4.786% 0.528% 99.995%
58
5.3.2 Results
The results given in the following are found after the model has been allowed to reach steady state and are
reported as average values found for a 20 minute period (simulation time). It could be argued that a steady state
model would do the job, but that is not the case. This is because in the HYSYS DynamicsTM model the
pressure/flow equations are solved based on resistance equations, which is not the case in steady state modeling
where pressure/flow relations are specified by the user. A more thorough discussion can be found in appendix
A.
The composition changes applied to the model result in the following moleweights at the compressors as given
in table 5.18.
Table 5.18. Gas moleweights at the compressors. All

moleweights are average for the A and B train
compressors.
Compressor section
Case
1st 2nd 3rd
Lean gas 21.39 20.70 20.70
Normal gas 23.63 22.71 22.71
Dense gas 25.91 24.70 24.70
Hence the deviations in moleweight from the base case are approximately ±2 g/mole for all compressor sections.
In table 5.19 the resulting average actual volume flows at the compressor suction are given.
Table 5.19. Actual volume flow at suction.

*The flow is at the anti-surge control line.
Compressor section
Case
1st 2nd 3rd
Lean gas 2667 m3/h *584 m3/h 190 m3/h
Normal gas 3347 m3/h 667 m3/h 199 m3/h
3
Dense gas 3803 m /h 770 m3/h 209 m3/h
As seen from table 5.19 the anti-surge control line for the lean gas case at the 2nd section compressors have
moved down to a flow of 584 m3/h, which is just 6 % above the presumed surge flow. In itself this is not
troubling but it shows that the coordinate system used for surge control is not truly invariant to changes in the
process conditions.
In general the flows are lower for the leaner the gas, which is due to the fact that more head is needed to obtain
the same compression ratio for lean gas as compared to heavy gas.
Compressor suction pressures for the three setups are given in table 5.20.
Table 5.20. Suction
Compressor section
Case
1st 2nd 3rd
Lean gas 11.4 barg 43.4 barg 112.5 barg
Normal gas 8.9 barg 36.3 barg 101.1 barg
Dense gas 7.9 barg 31.4 barg 89.9 barg
The suction pressures for the lean gas situation need to be greater because the compressors deliver lower
pressure ratios as the moleweight is decreased. The pressures in the lean gas case are all close to the PAH
59
settings given in table 5.12, whereas the pressures in the dense gas case all are close to the PAL settingns. As
such these cases may define the boundaries of obtaining normal operation.
Finally the discharge pressures of the compressors are given in table 5.21.
Table 5.21.
Compressor section
Case
1st 2nd 3rd
Lean gas 44.2 barg 112.9 barg 251.4 barg
Normal gas 37.4 barg 101.5 barg 251.5 barg
Dense gas 32.7 barg 90.3 barg 251.5 barg
Summary of results
In summary it has been shown that a gas moleweight deviation of ±2 g/mole at the compressors can be handled
by the gas compression system under normal operating conditions. However, it is indicated that due to the
inter-section pressures reaching the PAL/PAH levels a moleweight deviation of ±2 g/mole seems to be the limit
of normal operation.
60
Discussion
6 Discussion
In this section issues related to the current project are discussed. The discussion is divided into two sections
• Modifications to the present system

• Future work
Modifications to the present system are proposals of initiatives that can enhance the operability of the gas
compression system on the OGPU.
Future work proposals are given both with regard to the OGPU gas compression system, but also with regard to
working with models in HYSYS DynamicsTM.
6.1 Modifications to present system

6.1.1 Throttling valve at 1st section compressors
In the current compression system a suction throttling valve is placed at the inlet of the 1st section compressors.
To a limited extend these valves can be used for capacity control of the entire gas compression system, but the
effect is limited by the fact that there must be a limit to the minimum opening of the valve. Perhaps the most
important function of these valves is that they can be used to enable load-sharing control on the 1st section
compressors. It is a question whether the valves should be placed before the merging with the recycle stream or
after as is the current configuration. Through simulation it has been shown that the current placement after the
merging of the incoming gas with the recycle gas make the openings of the recycle valves drift in opposite
direction. However, in the situation where anti-surge control is enabled both compressors are kept at their anti-
surge control lines, and as such the load-sharing control does the job.
The only reason to move the suction throttling valves outside the recycle loop is to avoid a situation where one
of the compressors recycle a large portion of the gas and the other does not. In this situation the gas could be
leaned out in the recycling loop due to the missing hot-gas by-pass in the first compressor section. An optimal
technical solution would be to place the suction throttling valve before the recycle loop and have it controlled
by flow measurements upstream the suction throttling valves. Hereby, the anti-surge control and the load-
sharing control would be independent of one another.
6.1.2 Load-sharing possibility at 2nd and 3rd section

At the 2nd and 3rd stage compressors it is not possible to enable load-sharing with the current configuration of
the system. It has been shown that as the anti-surge control is activated on these compressors a situation where
one compressor recycles a large part of the gas while the other takes most of the net load is likely to occur. This
is not a critical issue for the compression capabilities of the compression system, but it reduces the overall
efficiency of the system.
Since the A and B train compressors in section 2 and 3 are separate from each other (i.e. there are no cross-over
between the sections) load-sharing capability can be introduced by inserting a suction throttling valve at the 2nd
section compressors, only. Preferably the valve should be placed before the recycle loop for the same reasons
stated above.
61
Discussion
6.1.3 Dynamic De-coupling of anti-surge and hot-gas by-

pass valves
Through the simulations it has been shown that significant coupling of the anti-surge valves and the hot-gas
by-pass valves exist with the current configuration. In order to secure reliable anti-surge control it is essential
that this potential problem is acknowledged and action is taken to prevent the process oscillations that can be
the consequence. It can be discussed how the valves should be dynamically de-coupled. The simplest approach
would be to apply looser controller settings to the hot-gas by-pass valve. However, a loose control loop will be
slow responding and therefore to improve it a bias signal dependent on the opening of the anti-surge valve
could be introduced to improve the overall performance.
6.2 Future work

Suggestions for future work are
• Validation of the HYSYS DynamicsTM model of the OGPU

• Alternative anti-surge control systems
• Modeling of the glycol contactor
• Own plug-ins for HYSYS
Short explanations of the above listed proposals are given in the following.
6.2.1 Validation of HYSYS DynamicsTM model of the OGPU

The HYSYS DynamicsTM model has been created based on a comprehensive amount of design data. Since the
OGPU at present are under construction it has not been possible to validate the model by means of comparing it
with actual process data. Could data from future operation of the OGPU be received it would be interesting to
compare the model to these data. In particular it could be investigated how model details such as nozzle
elevations affect the accuracy of the model. A prioritized list of the impact of certain model details to the
accuracy could be of interest.
6.2.2 Alternative anti-surge control systems

As described in the project it seems that the anti-surge control system is not as invariant to changes in process
conditions as expected. Hence it could be interesting to hold different control strategies up against each other.
6.2.3 Modeling of the glycol contactor

Between the 1st and the 2nd compressor section in the gas compression system a glycol contactor is placed. The
purpose of the glycol contactor is to remove water and hydrogen sulfide. In the present model of the OGPU the
glycol contactor has been modeled as a component splitter and as such the processes occurring inside the vessel
are approximated by applying a predefined split (currently the splitter is set to remove 97.7 % of the water in
the gas). By using the glycol fluid-package it is possible to actually simulate the processes occurring inside the
glycol contactor.
6.2.4 Own plug-ins for HYSYS

It is possible to implement self-made plug-ins into HYSYS. These can be written in Visual Basic as macros and
implemented into HYSYS. This approach could also be a method to model the glycol contactor. Another idea
could be to create more sophisticated models of separators, pipelines, etc.
62
Conclusion
7 Conclusion
The primary objective of this project has been to create a realistic model of the oil and gas processing
equipment on an Oil and Gas Production Unit (OGPU). The model has been created using the general purpose
simulation tool HYSYS DynamicsTM. Special attention has been given to the modeling of the gas compression
train and to the setup of the compressor control system.
The model has been used to investigate the performance of the gas compression system at off-design conditions.
Through the simulations it has been shown that the system can handle sluggish flow at amplitudes of 30 % of
normal flow at a period length of 8 minutes. At larger amplitudes the system has proven unstable, especially
because dynamic de-coupling of anti-surge valves and hot-gas by-pass valves. The problem is likely to be solved
by applying loose control to the hot-gas by-pass controllers.
With the current configuration it has been found that it is not possible to share the compression load between
the parallel coupled compressors at the 2nd and 3rd section of the compression train. Therefore, as the anti-surge
control is activated a situation occurs where one compressor train takes a larger quantity of the net-load while
the other recycles. In order to avoid the situation and thereby achieve a less power consuming compression two
suction throttling valves could be implemented at the 2nd section compressors.
The OGPU has been designed based on a specific well-fluid composition representative of the North Sea region.
However, as the has not been designed for a specific field, but rather as a generic OGPU it is likely that it is
going to operate at a field with a well-fluid composition differing from the one used as design basis. Therefore,
the model has been used to investigate how the system will respond to changes in the inlet gas composition. It
has been found that gas compositions with deviations in the moleweight at the compressors of ±2 g/mol are
close to the boundary of what the system can handle with the current configuration.
A secondary objective is to contribute to the evaluation of HYSYS as it is a candidate to substitute currently
used simulation tools at Aalborg University Esbjerg. The project set an example of the possibilities of using
HYSYS DynamicsTM as a process simulation tool. The extensiveness of the possibilities available in the program
– especially the possibility of implementing self-made pieces of code – makes it well-suited for use on the
master level educations. In addition, it can be used for steady state as well as dynamic simulations, which is not
the case with the presently used process simulation tool.
63
References
References
API Standard 617. Axial and Centrifugal Compressors and Expander-compressors for Petroleum, Chemical, and
Gas Industry Services; Downstream Segment 2002, 7th ed.
Aspen COMThermo, Reference Guide. Aspen Technology, Inc., Burlington, Massachusetts, 2007.
Aspen HYSYS, Dynamic Modeling. Aspen Technology, Inc., Burlington, Massachusetts, 2007.
Aspen HYSYS, Operations Guide. Aspen Technology, Inc., Burlington, Massachusetts, 2007.
Aspen HYSYS, Simulation Basis. Aspen Technology, Inc., Burlington, Massachusetts, 2007.
Aspen HYSYS, Tutorials and Applications. Aspen Technology, Inc., Burlington, Massachusetts, 2007.
Aspen HYSYS, User’s Guide. Aspen Technology, Inc., Burlington, Massachusetts, 2007.
AspenTech HYSYS, Version 2006.5 (build 21.0.2.6924); Aspen Technology, Inc., Burlington, Massachusetts,
2007.
Bloch, H. P. A Practical Guide to Compressor Technology; 2nd ed.; John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New
Jersey, 2006.
Gresh, M. Theodore. Compressor Performance: aerodynamics for the user; 2nd ed.; Butterworth-Heinemann:
Woburn, Massachusetts, 2001.
Hanlon, P. C. Compressor Handbook; 1st ed.; McGraw-Hill: New York, 2001.
ISO 5167-1. Measurement of fluid flow by means of pressure differential devices, Part 1: Orifice plates, nozzles
and Venturi tubes inserted in circular cross-section conduits running full; Measurement of fluid flow in closed
conduits 1991, 1st ed.
Lüdtke, K. Aerodynamic Stage Mismatching – The Key to Understand Multistage Process Centrifugal
Compressor Behavior; VDI Berichte, no. 1425, Düsseldorf, Germany, 1998.
Lüdtke, K. H. Process Centrifugal Compressors: Basics, Function, Operation, Design, Application; 1st ed.;
Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg New York, 2004.
Microsoft Office Excel 2003, Version 11.5612.5606; Microsoft Corporation.
Microsoft Visual Basic 6.3; Microsoft Corporation.
Rammler, R. Considerations for advanced centrifugal compressor control; ISA Transactions, Vol. 33, p. 153-157,
Houston, USA, 1994.
Sandler, S. I. Chemical, Biochemical, and Engineering Thermodynamics; 4th ed.; John Wiler & Sons, Inc.:
Hoboken, New Jersey, 2006.
Seborg, D. E., Edgar, T. F., Mellichamp, D. A. Process Dynamics and Control; 2nd ed.; John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,
Hoboken, New Jersey, 2004.
Shinskey, F. G. Process Control Systems: Application, Design, and Tuning; 4th ed.; McGraw-Hill, New York,
1996.
Svrcek, W. Y., Mahoney, D. P., Young, B. R. A Real Time Approach to Process Control; 2nd ed.; John Wiley &
Sons Ltd, Chichester, West Sussex, England, 2006.
Tham, M. Discretised PID Controllers – Part of a set of study notes on Digital Control. Chemical Engineering
and Advanced Materials; University of Newcastle upon Tyne; Web-site visited June 4, 2008.
http://lorien.ncl.ac.uk/ming/digicont/digimath/dpid1.htm#Positional
Turton, R. K. Principles of Turbomachinery; 2nd ed.; Chapman & Hall, London, UK, 1995.
64
Appendix A – Simulation in HYSYS
A Simulation in HYSYS
This appendix is an introduction to simulation in HYSYS, which is a general purpose process simulation tool
developed for use in the oil and gas business. However, it can be used for a wide variety of applications not
related to oil and gas as well.
The present appendix is meant as an introduction to the possibilities in using HYSYS. It is not a step-by-step
tutorial but rather a short compilation of some of the possibilities of simulating in HYSYS. For more detailed
information and access to tutorials the program documentation should be consulted (attached on CD-ROM).
The possibilities for simulations in HYSYS described in this appendix are available if using the licenses in the
AspenTech University Package for Process Modeling. However, the particular programs and plugins must be
installed to be available.
Two general modes of simulating in HYSYS are steady state and dynamic simulation. The basis for the two
types of simulations is equal but in dynamic mode time and volume are used in addition to the mass and energy
balances solved; i.e. the accumulation term is included.
The subjects discussed in this appendix are
• Program Structure
• Steady state simulation
• Dynamic simulation
A.1 Program Structure

HYSYS has a highly modular design. The backbone or basis of any simulation is the basis environment where
the fluid model for the simulation is chosen. Before doing any simulation a fluid package must be defined and at
least one component selected. Once the basis for the simulation has been established the user can enter the
simulation environment and start the actual simulation.
A fundamental thing about HYSYS is that it is not possible to press ‘OK’ or the like, whenever a change has
been made. HYSYS is event driven which means that changes made to the simulation are registered in the
instance they are entered and therefore one can simply close the windows after making a change. This feature
also makes it possible to have an unlimited number of sub-windows open at the same time.
In the following paragraphs the basis environment and the simulation environment are described. These are
fundamental parts of any simulation be it steady state or dynamic.
A.1.1 Basis Environment

After opening HYSYS and creating a new case one can enter the basis environment by pressing the button:
. This opens the Simulation Basis Manager which is shown in figure A.1.
65
Figure A.1. Basis environment – components tab.
The first two tabs – Components and Fluid Pkgs – are essential to any simulation be it steady state or dynamic.
Component selection
Components can be added to the Master Component List by pressing the View… button as seen on figure A.1.
By pressing Add multiple component lists can be made which can be an advantage in simulations where
separate systems have different combinations of components. In case of multiple component lists the Master
Component List contains all the components used in the component lists. Standard components can be selected
from a large database.
In addition to the standard components available in the HYSYS database it is possible to generate pseudo
components in the Hypotheticals tab. These are often used for separation processes in the oil and gas industry.
The data necessary for creating a pseudo component is Normal Boiling Point (NBP), Molecular Weight (MW),
Std. Liquid Density, Critical Temperature (Tc), Critical Pressure (Pc), Critical Volume (Vc), Acentricity. It is,
however, possible to let HYSYS estimate one or more of these properties. The minimum amount of data
necessary is NBP or Std. Liquid Density and MW.
Fluid Package selection

The selection of fluid packages can be challenging because of the extensiveness of possibilities. For most oil and
gas applications, though, it is sufficient to select the Peng-Robinson equation of state. However, when dealing
with non-ideal systems care should be taken in selecting the proper fluid package. See the “Aspen HYSYS
Simulation Basis” for details. It should also be noted that pseudo components are generated for use with a
particular fluid package.
In the PVT environment which can be entered from the Simulation Basis Manager window (as seen in figure
A.1) a particular fluid package can be generated by use of DBR PVTPro or InfoChem Multiflash. These are
separate programs are available in the AspenTech University Package for Process Modelling and can be used as
a well-fluid characterization tool. From the PVT Environment it is also possible to import fluid packages
generated in PVTSim and Pet-Ex Gap (these programs are not provided by AspenTech). If creating fluid
packages in the PVT Environment it is not necessary to select fluid packages or create component lists inside
HYSYS as these are defined by the well-fluid characterization programs.
In the Oil Manager tab available from the Simulation Basis Manager it is possible to Enter Oil
Environment… Here crude oil assay data can be entered to characterize the crude oil. This function is often
applied when simulating refinery operations – mainly distillations.
66
A.1.2 Simulation Environment

After selection of components and fluid package(s) it is possible to press Enter Simulation Environment… In
here the actual simulation case is created by dragging and dropping equipment such as separators, compressors,
pumps, pipes, valves, etc. from the Object palette and onto the PFD and connecting them with material
streams and energy streams. All equipment must be connected with a predefined number of material streams
(pumps have 1 inlet and 1 outlet; three-phase separators have minimum 1 inlet and 3 outlets, etc.). Energy
streams must be applied to pumps, compressors, pipe segments, columns, heaters, and coolers and they can
optinally be applied to all other equipment to simulate e.g. a heat loss from a separator.
The simulation environment is shown in figure A.2.
Figure A.2. Simulation environment with object palette to the right.
For HYSYS to continuously do calculations the -button must be activated.
A.2 Steady State Simulation

A steady state simulation as opposed to dynamic simulation gives one solution for a given problem and is
independent on time and volume considerations. Thus, even though it is possible to apply volumes to the
equipment it is a waste of time unless the model is to be converted to a dynamic simulation later on.
After applying equipment to the PFD and connecting it with the proper number of material and energy streams
it is time to enter specifications to the simulation.
A.2.1 Specifications
Applying specifications to the model is frequently done by specifying the conditions at the inlet and outlet of
the equipment. However, it is also possible to define a pressure drop over a valve or a certain power input to
and efficiency of a pump, etc. The only rule is that the number of specifications must match the number of
equations for a certain operation; i.e. it must neither be underspecified nor overspecified.
67
The starting point of stream specification is to define a composition, flowrate, pressure, and temperature of one
stream in the PFD. Because HYSYS is event driven, it calculates all other properties of the stream when these
four specifications have been applied. After specifying one material stream specifications must be given to the
unit operations and/or material and energy stream throughout the PFD. Whenever a material stream – or a unit
operation – is fully specified HYSYS performs the calculations and it turns dark blue.
The most common error encountered when simulating in HYSYS steady state is probably that equipment is
over specified. User specified values are always written in blue and thus if an over specification error occur
trouble-shooting consist in examining the specifications applied to the model.
A.2.2 Equipment
The configuration of common pieces of equipment is described in the following.
Valves
In steady state, valves are simply means of reducing pressure. As mentioned before the pressures of the material
streams connected to the valves can be specified (thus defining the valve pressure drop) or a specific pressure
drop can be defined in the valve Design/Parameters tab. In the Rating/Sizing tab the valve can be sized giving
a Cv value. It is important to note that this value is not used for any calculations when in the steady state mode
of HYSYS. It is merely a possibility to calculate an appropriate size of the valve.
Pumps and compressors

Pumps and compressors can be specified in several ways giving numerous combinations of specifications.
Perhaps the simplest is to specify the pressures at the inlet and outlet and using the default efficiency. Hereby
HYSYS calculates the necessary amount of power to drive the pump or compressor (based on the efficiency).
A more complicated but more realistic approach is to apply centrifugal pump/compressor curves if these are
available. For pumps it is even possible to generate curves from a single operating point. The pumping curves
are generated under the assumption that the fan laws are applicable to incompressible fluids. Since the fan laws
are not applicable to compressible flow it is not possible to generate compressor curves in the same way. For
these curves a minimum two points for head versus actual volume flow must be provided for HYSYS to
interpolate a curve.
Heat exchangers
The simplest forms of heat exchangers are heaters and coolers where an effect can be defined to give a
temperature change or vice versa.
A more realistic approach is to simulate heat exchangers as e.g. shell and tube or plate heat exchangers. Several
possibilities for configuring the heat exchangers exist. The simplest is to configure it as a constant UA
exchanger by specifying UA. However, if data is available it is possible to apply detailed information of e.g.
length, diameter, and pitch of tubes, details of materials used etc. From these details HYSYS calculates the Area
and Heat Transfer Coefficient.
The default method for heat exchanger design in HYSYS is the end-point model where the total heat
transferred, Q, is calculated by
Q = U ⋅ A ⋅ ΔT LM ⋅ Ft (A.1)
Where U: Overall heat transfer coefficient
A: Surface area available for heat transfer
ΔT LM : Log-mean temperature difference (LMTD)
Ft : LMTD correction factor
68
The end-point model should be used when there is no phase change and when Cp’s of both fluids are
approximately constant. If phase changes occur on either side of the exchanger the weighted model should be
used. Here the heating curves are broken into intervals and a heat balance performed along each interval.
Yet another possibility is to use one of the advanced heat exchanger simulation programs supplied by
AspenTech as plugins in HYSYS. Each plugin must be activated on the Design/Parameters tab of the specific
equipment. The plugins available for the different types of heat exchangers are given in table A.1. It should be
noted that these plugins only can be used for steady state simulation in HYSYS.
Table A.1. Heat exchanger plug-ins available with AspenTech University

Package.
Heat Exchanger type Plug-in Program

Shell/Tube HTFS - TASC HTFS+ - TASC+
Air Cooler HTFS - ACOL HTFS+ - ACOL+
Plate Heat Exchanger (LNG Exchanger) HTFS - MUSE
Pipes
Pipes can be applied to a model as a Pipe segment which can be used for both gas and liquid flow or as a Gas
pipe which uses models only applicable to pure gas flow.
The default correlation for pressure drop calculation in the Pipe segment is the Beggs and Brill correlation
because it can model liquid holdup, vertical flow, horizontal flow, and predict the flow regime. The other
methods available all have a lack of at least one of these four modeling abilities. The OLGAS models are not
available using the AspenTech University Package.
The Gas pipe is originally meant for dynamic simulations but is available for use in steady state as well. The
only advantage of using such pipes in steady state is that the maximum Mach No. is reported.
Separators
Separators can either be 2-phase or 3-phase. Tanks are simulated exactly the same way as 2-phase separators.
The basis of the separators is the calculation of the thermodynamic equilibrium. Separators can have multiple
inlets and it is possible to apply energy streams to the separators. For 3-phase separators the bottom outlet is the
heaviest liquid, the middle outlet is the light liquid, and the top outlet is the gas.
It is possible to simulate imperfect separations by application of the Carry over model available.
Columns
Columns available in HYSYS are
• Distillation Column (with reboiler and condenser)

• Refluxed Absorber
• Reboiled Absorber
• Absorber
• Three phase distillation (Distillation column with reboiler, and condenser with two outlets)
• Liquid-liquid extractor
• Component Splitter
• Short Cut Distillation column
The setup of these except for the component splitter and short-cut distillation column are made by following
the steps provided when opening the unconfigured column.
It can be a difficult task to select an appropriate number of stages and reflux ratio for a distillation column. An
approach to this is to use the short-cut column where a desired split can be defined and hereafter a minimum
69
number of stages will be calculated for a given reflux ratio. The calculated values can hereafter be applied to an
ordinary distillation column that performs a more rigorous calculation.
The component splitter can be used to remove certain components from a stream. Thus, it is merely a kind of
pseudo splitter as it does not reflect a real process.
Logical operators
Commonly used logical operators in HYSYS steady state are Adjust, Set, and Recycle.
The Adjust operation can be used to obtain a required value or specification by iteration. Thus, an independent
value is changed until the dependent variable reaches the required value.
The Set operation can be used to transfer a process or stream specification from one unit or stream to another.
The Recycle operation must be used whenever there is a recycle in the simulation for example when upstream
material is mixed with downstream material or vice versa. The Recycle operator creates a break in the
simulation allowing calculation of the entire flowsheet to be based on previously guessed values. Afterwards the
guessed values are updated and the calculation of the flowsheet is repeated. This iteration process is continued
until inlet and outlet of the Recycle operator are equal.
Spreadsheet
It is possible to insert a spreadsheet into the simulations. These can be used to gather up relevant process data in
lists. From the spreadsheet it is also possible to import the user specified variables and changing the from the
spreadsheet.
A.3 Dynamic Simulation

The switch between steady state simulation and dynamic is done by pressing the buttons Steady State Mode
and Dynamics Mode in the simulation environment (cf. figure A.2).

For the majority of applications a dynamic simulation is merely an extension of the steady state simulation. In
fact one method to create a dynamic simulation is to convert a steady state simulation to a dynamic simulation.
Using this approach can, however, cause problems because extensive modifications and changes might have to
be made to the model. Therefore, it can be advantageous to start from scratch with a dynamic simulation case.
When creating the dynamic simulation it is generally a good idea to do it step-wise in order to continuously
confirm that the values entered for a specific operation give reasonable performance. It can be very difficult to
start-up a complex dynamic simulation (as well as it requires an experienced operator to start-up a real system!).
In this section the main differences between steady state and dynamic simulation will be described. In addition,
hints to make life easier when doing dynamic simulations will be given.
As described in the previous component and fluid packages must be selected in the Basis environment before
entering the Simulation environment (cf. section A.1.1 Basis Environment). The two environments are the
same for both kinds of simulation.
A.3.1 Integrator settings

The integrator is turned on and off by the buttons and . It is not possible to turn the integrator on
before the flow-sheet is complete; that is before the number of equations to be solved matches the number of
variables.
In the Integrator (ctrl+I) it is possible to enable/disable functions such as static head contributions, modeling of
choked liquid flow, etc. Other important settings are the integration time step and execution rate of the
material, energy, and composition balances and the execution rate of control and logical operations.
The execution rate in HYSYS DynamicsTM has a default time step of 0.50 seconds. Reducing the value increases
accuracy at the expense of computation time, and increasing the time step has the opposite effect. For some
70
applications it can be a good idea to reduce the timestep, especially if the accuracy of the absolute values
coming out of the model has great importance.
For most applications the default execution rates should not be altered.
A.3.2 Stream specifications and boundary conditions

The starting point of dynamic simulation is a set of material streams defined as the boundaries of the
simulation. In a separation of oil and gas the boundaries would typically be the incoming wellhead stream and
the export oil and gas (and water) streams.
There are two options for specifying boundary conditions. These are pressure and/or flow. Usually each stream
at the boundary of the simulation must be supplied with one of these specifications. However, it is possible to
define a stream placed in the central part of the flowsheet. The only rule is that the number of pressure/flow
specifications must be equal to the sum of material streams in and out of the entire flowsheet.
AspenTech generally recommends the use of pressure specifications rather than flow specifications. That is
because if a flow specification is entered and a valve is suddenly closed, then HYSYS tries to force the flow
through by increasing the pressure in the flow-specified stream rapidly. Thus, situations can occur where
pressure is increased to levels that do not make sense in reality. The corresponding situation when using
pressure specifications is when there is no resistance in the processing equipment at all. In that situation the
HYSYS will increase the flow rapidly; however, the consequences of this are limited as compared to the sudden
elevation of pressure, and it is not possible to create a complex model without some kind of pressure-drop.
A.3.3 Equipment
As mentioned previously the accumulation term is included in the mass and composition balances in dynamic
simulation. Hence, volumes must be entered for all equipment, unless it is regarded unimportant (this could be
the case for the hold-up volume of e.g. a heat-exchanger or a valve).
In the following the application of common pieces of equipment to a HYSYS DynamicsTM model will be
described with emphasis on the differences to steady state simulation.
Valves and actuators

In steady state valves can only be specified by a specific outlet pressure or by a specific pressure drop across the
valve. In Dynamic mode it is also a possibility to define a valve by a specific pressure drop, however, it is a very
crude approach that does not resemble reality (or for that matter take advantage of the possibilities of HYSYS
DynamicsTM).
The logical approach is to give the valve a Cv value and the flow and pressure drop be a function of that
according to the general formula
⎛ 59.64 p2 ⎞
Qvap = υfracfac ⋅ 1.06 ⋅C g ⋅ ρ ⋅ p1 ⋅ sin ⎜⎜ 1− ⋅ cp fac ⎟⎟ (A.2)
⎝ C1 p1 ⎠
Q liq = (1 − υfracfac ) ⋅ 63.338 ⋅C v ⋅ ρ ⋅ ( p1 − p 2 ) (A.3)
Cg Km 0.4839 Cp
Where C1 = C1 = cp fac = ⎛ γ ⎞
γ=
Cv 0.001434 ⎜ ⎟ Cv
⎛ 2 ⎞ ⎝ γ −1 ⎠
1−⎜ ⎟
⎝1+γ ⎠
Cv : Fluid flow sizing coefficient in USGPM (US gallons per minute)
Cg : Gas flow sizing coefficient in USPGM
Km : Pressure recovery coefficient, by default 0.90 (equivalent to C 1 = 25.0 )
71
υfracfac : Equal to 1 for outlet molar vapor fraction >0.1

Equal to 0 for outlet molar vapor fraction =0
molar vapor fraction
Otherwise equal to
0.1
ρ: 3
Density in lb/ft
p1 : Pressure of inlet stream in psia
p2 : Pressure of outlet stream in psia, without static head contribution
Sizing can be done by specifying either C v or C g in combination with either C 1 or Km . Vapor choked flow is
always modeled, but liquid choked flow is only modeled if specified in the Dynamics/Flow Limits tab of the
valve.
The valve operating characteristics can be selected as linear (default), equal percentage, quick opening, or by
entering data in the user table. Some general rules of thumb for selecting the correct valve type are given in
table A.2, however, the overall goal is to obtain a linear installed characteristic; that is when there is a linear
relationship between valve stroke and the process variable.
Table A.2. Rules of thumb for selecting valve characteristics.
Valve type Select when Example

Linear valve Valve pressure drop is large compared to the Anti-surge control valves
system pressure drop ( ΔPvalve > ΔPsystem ).
Equal Valve pressure drop is a small percentage of Suction throttling valve

Percentage the total system pressure drop Flow control valve
( ΔPvalve << ΔPsystem ) or when variations in
pressure drop are expected.
Also used to compensate for the non-linear
relationship between heat transfer and flow
in temperature control loops. [Shinskey,
1996]
Quick Opening It is necessary to have a fast reacting valve Pressure safety valves
but normally closed valve. Seldomly used in closed
control loops.
In addition to the valve characteristics it is possible to specify the actuator type as instantaneous, linear, or first
order reacting. It is also possible to specify a maximum opening rate etc. Another option is to specify a
minimum and/or maximum position of the valve/actuator.
Compressors and pumps

It is possible to simulate the compressor as either centrifugal or reciprocating (positive displacement). Pumps
are modeled as centrifugal pumps, only. In the pump model the fluid is regarded as incompressible. In order to
take compressibility into account the pump should be modeled by using a compressor as a pump.
Centrifugal compressors and pumps should always be simulated using performance curves in dynamic mode.
Either polytropic or adiabatic (isentropic) compressor curves can be selected. It is possible to specify multiple
curves for variable speed compressors and furthermore it is possible to apply multiple MW or IGV curves if
available. HYSYS then interpolates (or extrapolates) the operating point from the curves applied to the model.
Surge and stonewall for centrifugal compressors are modeled in HYSYS DynamicsTM whenever the flow reaches
the surge or stonewall limit (which should be entered by the user). Surge flow is modeled by causing the flow-
rate to fluctuate randomly below the surge flow. At stonewall the actual volume flow is fixed at the value
specified here.
72
Heat exchangers
Heat exchangers are simulated as constant UA exchangers and the heat transfer is calculated by equation A.1.
Since UA is a function of flow it is possible to enter a reference flow and the UA used is then calculated by
0.8
⎛ m& ⎞
U ⋅ Aused = U ⋅ ASpecified ⋅ ⎜ current ⎟ (A.4)
&
⎝ mreference ⎠
Pressure drop across the heat exchanger is best modeled by specifying a k-value from which the pressure drop is
calculated as
m& 2
Δp = (A.5)
ρ ⋅k 2
Where m& : Mass flow-rate
k: Constant for frictional pressure loss
It is not possible to use the heat exchanger plug-ins in the dynamic simulation mode.
Pipes
Pipes are simulated as in steady state mode. Even though it is possible to simulate slugs in steady state it is not a
possibility in dynamic mode.
Long pieces of pipeline are best simulated by using either Gas Pipe or Pipe Segment because in these models
the pipeline can be broken down into a number of segments. AspenTech recommends that each pipe-segment
has a pressure drop of less than 10 % of the absolute pressure.
For smaller pipelines such as those between processing equipment it can be advantageous to apply a valve and
select the Disable Valve (Pipe Only) in the Dynamics/Pipe tab. By this method the pipeline is modeled by a
simple pressure flow relation. However, the hold-up volume is not automatically calculated but has to be
entered manually. The advantage of this is that it is possible to enter the length as an equivalent length and the
hold-up volume as the actual hold-up volume. Another advantage is shorter computation time which is a huge
advantage for large complex systems.
Separators
The modeling of separators does not differ significantly from steady state other than the necessity of defining a
volume. It should be noted that the placement of nozzles on the separator dictates which phase is drawn from
the separator.
Logical operators
In dynamic mode the logical operator Adjust is typically replaced by a PID Controller, however, other
controller types are available.
The Recycle operator can be used but it is not necessary. The set operator can be used in the same manner as in
steady state mode, however, is may not always resemble an actual process. In most cases application of a PID
Controller better resemble actual processes.
A PID controller in HYSYS solve the characteristic control equation
Kc de (t )
OP (t ) = OPss + K c ⋅ e (t ) +
Ti ∫ e (t ) dt + K c ⋅Td
dt
(A.6)
Where OP (t ) : Operating value at time t

OPss : Operating value at steady state; i.e. bias
e (t ) : Error at sampling time t, i.e. difference between SP and PV
73
Kc : Controller Gain
Ti : Integral time
Td : Differential time
In HYSYS the PID control equation can be solved by use of two basically different algorithms. These are
• PID velocity Form

• PID Positional Form
In the velocity (or differential) form the discretized controller equation is given by
⎪⎧ ⎡e (t ) − 2e (t − 1) + e (t − 2 )⎤⎦ ⎪⎫
e (t ) ⋅ h + Td ⎣
1
u (t ) = u (t − 1) + K c ⎨e (t ) − e (t − 1) + ⎬ (A.7)
⎪⎩ Ti h ⎪⎭
Where u (t ) : Controller output at sampling time t

h: Sampling period
The discretized controller equation for the PID Positional form algorithms are given by
⎪⎧ ⎡e (t ) − e (t − 1)⎦⎤ ⎪⎫
e ( i ) + Td ⎣
n
h
u (t ) = K c ⎨e (t ) + ∑ ⎬
⎩⎪ Ti i=1 h ⎭⎪
Thus, by using the positional form of discretization the integral term is summed up continuously, as opposed to
the velocity form where the integral term is calculated for each sampling period. A side effect of the
continuous summation of errors in the positional form algorithm is called integral windup. The effect is best
described by looking at a typical response for a PID controller upon a SP change and comparing it with the
response when integral windup occurs.
Signal Signal
PV PV
B
A
SP Typical Response SP Typical response
without with
Integral Windup Integral Windup
Time Time
Figure A.3. The effect of integral windup.
As seen in figure A.3 the integral wind-up effect tends to prolong the period of overshoot that occurs upon a SP
change. This is because the positional form algorithm sums up all previous errors and therefore it is the first
overshoot period basically continues until the areas A and B are equal. This is not the absolute truth because
other corrective action is also taken but it illustrates the effect of integral windup.
74
Therefore, the positional form algorithm should, as a general rule, not be used whenever the controller is setup
with integral action. The integral wind-up phenomenon is also the reason that the velocity form algorithm is
set as default in HYSYS.
Transfer Function Block

The transfer function block can be used to simulate the output from transmitters including lag, noise, delays,
etc. on the measurements.
In simulations the Transfer Fuction Block can be used to generate sinusoidal waves and ramp functions, which
are effective means to control the boundary conditions of a dynamic simulation after a pre-defined scheme.
75
Appendix B – HYSYS DynamicsTM PFD for the OGPU
B HYSYS DynamicsTM PFD for the OGPU

The Process Flow Diagram, which is the user interface in HYSYS DynamicsTM can be seen in figure B.1.
Figure B.1. Process Flow Diagram of the OGPU as modeled in HYSYS DynamicsTM.
76
Appendix C–Anti-surge controller tuning
C Anti-surge controller tuning

Tuning of anti-surge controllers have been performed by trial-and-error. Starting point has been taken in the
rules of thumb for flow loops using a gain of 0.5 and an integral time of 0.15 minutes. Subsequently the gain has
been increased until the overshoot has reached a satisfactory level and subsequently the response has been
trimmed by the adjusting the integral time. In total seven tests have been performed and the selected tuning
parameters are those of test no. 7. Results can be seen in table C.1 and the actual simulations are available on
the CD-ROM.
Table C.1. Anti-surge controller tuning.
Test Compressor Gain Integral Time Maximum Notes

[min] Overshoot
26-KA-001A/B 0.5 0.15 50% Large Overshoot
1 26-KA-002A/B 0.5 0.15 52% Large Overshoot
26-KA-003A/B 0.5 0.15 64% Large Overshoot
26-KA-001A/B 1 0.15 31% Large Overshoot
2 26-KA-002A/B 1 0.15 32% Large Overshoot
26-KA-003A/B 1 0.15 38% Large Overshoot
26-KA-001A/B 2 0.15 19% Overshoot
3 26-KA-002A/B 2 0.15 21% Oscillations
26-KA-003A/B 2 0.15 24% Oscillations
26-KA-001A/B 4 0.15 12% OK
4 26-KA-002A/B 4 0.15 12% Severe oscillations
26-KA-003A/B 4 0.15 15% Severe oscillations
26-KA-001A/B 4 0.10 10% OK
5 26-KA-002A/B 2 0.10 17% Oscillations
26-KA-003A/B 2 0.10 17% Oscillations
26-KA-001A/B 4 0.10 10% OK
6 26-KA-002A/B 2 0.20 23% No Oscillations, overshoot
26-KA-003A/B 2 0.20 28% No Oscillations, overshoot
26-KA-001A/B 4 0.10 10% OK
7 26-KA-002A/B 4 0.20 13% OK
26-KA-003A/B 4 0.20 15% OK
77

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Dynamic Simulation of Compressor

Final Thesis for the degree of

M.Sc. in Oil & Gas Technology

Aalborg University Esbjerg

Education: Master of Science in Oil and Gas Technology

Project period: February 1 – June 13, 2008

Student: Claus Hansen

Supervisor: Prof., Dr. Ing. Bjørn H. Hjertager

Front page: Excerpts from HYSYS DynamicsTM model

2 CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR THEORY ........................................................................3

3 COMPRESSOR CONTROL ...............................................................................................24

4 MODELING OF THE OGPU.............................................................................................32

1.2 Thesis Overview

2 Centrifugal Compressor Theory

• Positive Displacement Compressors

• Design of centrifugal compressors

2.1 Design of Centrifugal Compressors

Inlet nozzle Outlet nozzle

Figure 2.1. Centrifugal Compressor with five stages.

2.1.1 Main Components

Where ϕ: Dimensionless flow coefficient

Figure 2.2. Shrouded 2D impeller to the left and shrouded 3D-impeller to

Low pressure side High pressure side

Figure 2.3. Principle of a labyrinth seal at the shaft.

2.2 Compression Process

• Isentropic compression (reversible and adiabatic) – entropy is constant

Reference process – Isentropic compression

Where y s : Isentropic head

Reference process – Isothermal compression

Reference process – Polytropic compression

Where y p : Polytropic head

Actual compression process

Where η p : Polytropic efficiency

Figure 2.4. Flow of gas through the impeller.

Where M : Total moments of momentum

τ = ∫ ρ1 ⋅V n ⋅Vu ⋅ R1 ⋅ dA1 − ∫ ρ2 ⋅V n ⋅Vu ⋅ R2 ⋅ dA2

m& = ∫ ρ1 ⋅V n ⋅ dA1 = ∫ ρ2 ⋅V n ⋅ dA2

τ = m& (Vu ⋅ R1 −Vu ⋅ R2 )

Where ω : Angular velocity

2.3 Impeller configuration

2.3.1 Impeller types

Figure 2.5. Forward leaning, radial, and backward leaning impellers.

Head Head Head

Actual Volume Flow Actual Volume Flow Actual Volume Flow

2.3.2 Impeller arrangement – in-line and back-to-back

Gas inlet Gas outlet

Figure 2.7. Straight through compressor arrangement

Gas inlet Gas outlet

2.4 Performance calculation

Figure 2.9. Polytropic Head/Efficiency vs. Actual volume flow.

2.4.1 Polytropic change of state

Isolating the discharge pressure p 2 gives equation 2.24.

The isentropic discharge temperature is found by the equation of state.

Where ρ : Density at suction (1) and discharge (2)

2.4.2 Calculation scheme

Calculate: MW and Z1 , ρ1 , V1 by EOS

Set Polytropic Head and

Calculate T2s by EOS

Adjust nν by secant-method Calculate ρ 2 by EOS