BASIC CONCEPT OF

THERMODYNAMICS

28 January 2020
 INTRODUCTION
• Greek word: “thermo ( heat) dynamics (force)”
• It began in early 19th century. Focus on the power
of heat (capacity of body produce work).
• Today the scope widen, which also consider
energy in relationship to property of matter.
• Ability to convert heat to power.
• All aspects of energy and energy transfer
including power production / generation,
refrigeration and property relation of substances.

Prepared By: Puteri Nur Syaza Wardiah 2

 INTRODUCTION CONT.
Study physical and chemical
behavior of fixed quantities of
matter at rest and uses the
principles of thermodynamics
Physics to relate properties of matter

Engineering
Sciences

Study the systems and how Thermodynamics

they interact with the
surrounding. The study
extended to how matter flow

Prepared By: Puteri Nur Syaza Wardiah 3

 BASIC LAW OF
THERMODYNAMICS
BASIC LAW OF
THERMODYNAMICS

1st Law of
Thermodynamics 2nd Law of
(Conservation of Thermodynamics
Energy Principles)

Energy can change

Energy has its quality
from one form to
and quantity: a real
another form with the
process occurs in the
amount of the energy
decreasing quality of
kept constant
energy.

ENERGY BALANCE ENTROPY BALANCE

Prepared By: Puteri Nur Syaza Wardiah 4
 APPLICATION OF
THERMODYNAMICS

Prepared By: Puteri Nur Syaza Wardiah 5

 DIMENSIONS
DIMENSIONS
(measure of
physical quantity)

FUNDAMENTAL DERIVED /
/ PRIMARY SECONDARY
DIMENSIONS DIMENSIONS

Mass (m), Length (L),

Time (t), Temperature Velocity (v), Energy (E),
(T), Electric Current (I), Volume (V), Force (F),
Amount of matter (mol) & Power (P), etc.
Amount of light (Candela,cd)
Prepared By: Puteri Nur Syaza Wardiah 6
 UNITS

UNITS
(magnitudes assigned
to the dimensions)

FUNDAMENTAL DERIVED /
/ PRIMARY SECONDARY
UNITS UNITS

accompany primary accompany derived

dimensions dimensions

Prepared By: Puteri Nur Syaza Wardiah 7

 DIFFERENCES OF UNIT SYSTEMS
Fundamnetal / SI Unit ES Unit
Derived Dimensions
Mass (m) kg lbm, oz
Length (L) M ft, in
Time (t) s s
Temperature (T) K, °C °F,R
Amount of matter (mol) Kmol lb mol
Velocity (v) ms¯¹ ft s¯¹
Energy (E) J (Joule) Btu, cal
Volume (V) m³ gal
Force (F) N(Newton) lbf
Power (P) W (Watt) hp
Pressure N/m² (Pascal) psia,psig

Prepared By: Puteri Nur Syaza Wardiah 8

STANDARD PREFIXES IN SI
UNITS
Prefix Multiple
tera, T 10¹²
giga, G 10⁹
mega, M 10⁶
kilo, k 10³
deci, d 10¯¹
centi, c 10¯²
milli, m 10¯³
macro, μ 10¯⁶
nano, n 10¯⁹
pico, p 10¯¹²
Prepared By: Puteri Nur Syaza Wardiah 9
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SI AND ES

1) Force (F) = Mass x acceleration

F = ma (kg x ms¯²)
SI unit : newton (N)
ES unit : pound-force (lbf)

Prepared By: Puteri Nur Syaza Wardiah 10

2) Weight (W) = a type of force W=mg (N)
 Weight (W) = Mass (m)
(derived) (fundamental)

• Mass of a body is constant, but its weight can change

depending on gravitational acceleration (g) that
varies with the placement.
g = 9.807 m/s² or 32.174 ft/s² at sea level and
45° latitude

Prepared By: Puteri Nur Syaza Wardiah 11

3) Work (W) = a form of energy = Force x Distance
1 N.m = 1 J

• ES unit: Btu (British Thermal Unit).

• 1 Btu = energy required to increase the temperature
of 1 lbm of water at 68°F by 1°F.
• Other unit : calorie (cal).
• 1 cal = energy required to increase the temperature
of 1 g of water at 15°C by 1°C.

Prepared By: Puteri Nur Syaza Wardiah 12

 DIMENSIONAL HOMOGENEITY
• In engineering world, all equations must be dimensionally
homogeneous = every term in an equation must have similar unit.
1) Addition, Subtraction & Equality Operations :
• Eg : 4 s + 1.9 s
1 kg + 2 lb 2.204 lb + 2 lb = 1 kg + 0.907 kg
2 m + 1.5 ft 6.562 ft + 1.5 ft = 2 m + 0.4572 m
10.6 N + 1.4 kgms¯²
2) Multiplication & Division Operations :
• Eg : N X m2
kg x m2
s
Nx 1
m Prepared By: Puteri Nur Syaza Wardiah 13
 SYSTEMS
• System = a quantity of matter or a region in space
chosen for study. Consists of:
◦ Surroundings
◦ Boundary

• 2 types of systems:
◦ Closed systems / control mass
◦ Open systems / control volumes

Prepared By: Puteri Nur Syaza Wardiah 14

 CLOSED SYSTEMS
• Also known as control mass.
• Characteristics of closed systems:
Contains a fixed amount of mass and no mass can across
its boundary.
 Energy in the form of heat or work can cross the
boundary.
 Volume of closed systems does not have to be fixed.
• In special case, when energy is not allowed to cross
the boundary of closed systems = isolated system.

Prepared By: Puteri Nur Syaza Wardiah 15

 CLOSED SYSTEMS

Mass cannot cross the An example of closed system

boundaries of a closed with a moving boundary
system, but energy can piston cylinder device

Prepared By: Puteri Nur Syaza Wardiah 16

CLOSED SYSTEMS

Prepared By: Puteri Nur Syaza Wardiah 17

 OPEN SYSTEMS
• Also known as control volumes.
• Characteristics of control volumes:
Both mass and energy can cross its boundary
called as boundary surface.
Its volume always fixed but its
mass not necessarily fixed.

Prepared By: Puteri Nur Syaza Wardiah 18

OPEN SYSTEMS

Prepared By: Puteri Nur Syaza Wardiah 19

 ENERGY
• Exist in variable forms : heat, mechanical, kinetic,
potential,electric, magnetic, chemical and nuclear
• Definition: Energy = Force x Distance (Unit = N.m = J)
• Total energy, E = amount of all forms of energies that
exist in a system.
Total energy based on a unit mass, e (kJ/kg):

Prepared By: Puteri Nur Syaza Wardiah 20

 ENERGY CONT
• Total energy can be divided into 2 groups:
1) Macroscopic energies – related to motion and
the influence of some external effects such as
gravity, magnetism, electricity, surface tension,
kinetic and potential energies.
2) Microscopic energies – related to the
molecular structure of a system. Eg : chemical,
nuclear, latent heat, sensible heat. The sum of
microscopic energies internal energy, U.
Prepared By: Puteri Nur Syaza Wardiah 21
 MACROSCOPIC ENERGY
• 2 main forms of macroscopic energies:
1) Kinetic energy – a system possesses as a
result of its motion relative to some reference
frame:
with, v = velocity of the system.
2) Potential energy – a system possesses as a
result of its elevation in a gravitational field.

with, g = gravitational acceleration,

z = elevation of the gravity center of a system.
Prepared By: Puteri Nur Syaza Wardiah 22
 MACROSCOPIC ENERGY CONT
• Other forms of macroscopic energies:
Gravity
Magnetism
Electricity
Surface tension

Prepared By: Puteri Nur Syaza Wardiah 23

 MICROSCOPIC ENERGY
• The sum of microscopic energies internal
energy, U.
• Phase change of a system such
as liquid phase changes to gas
phase.
• Atom bonding in a molecule in
chemical reactions.

• Strong bonds within the nucleus

of atoms.

Prepared By: Puteri Nur Syaza Wardiah 24

 TOTAL ENERGY
• Neglecting the effects of gravity, magnetism,
electricity and surface tension, hence the total
energy is the sum of KE, PE and U:

• Almost all closed systems remain stationary

(KE=PE=0) during a process (unless stated)
stationary systems.
Prepared By: Puteri Nur Syaza Wardiah 25
SUMMARY OF TOTAL ENERGY

Prepared By: Puteri Nur Syaza Wardiah 26

SUMMARY OF SYSTEMS

OPEN
SYSTEM

Prepared By: Puteri Nur Syaza Wardiah 27

 PROPERTIES OF A SYSTEM
• Any characteristic of a system property.
• Eg. :
pressure P,
temperature T,
volume V,
mass m,
viscosity,
thermal conductivity,
thermal expansion coefficient,
elevation etc.
Prepared By: Puteri Nur Syaza Wardiah 28
PROPERTIES OF A SYSTEM

Prepared By: Puteri Nur Syaza Wardiah 29

DEFINITIONS OF FEW PROPERTIES
• Density, ρ = mass per unit volume.
Reciprocal of density specific volume,
v (volume per unit mass)
• Relative density, ρs or specific gravity (SG) =
ratio of the density of a substance to the
density of some standard substance at a
specified temperature (usually water at 4°C,
ρH2O = 1000 kg/m³).

Prepared By: Puteri Nur Syaza Wardiah 30

• All extensive properties per unit mass
specific properties
• Eg:
Specific volume ,v=V/m
Specific total energy ,e=E/m
Specific internal energy ,u=U/m

Prepared By: Puteri Nur Syaza Wardiah 31

 STATE & EQUILIBRIUM
STATE
• For a system not undergoing any change, at this
point all the properties can be measured or
calculated throughout the entire system = a set of
properties that completely describes the condition =
the state of the system.
• At a given state, all the properties of a system have
fixed values. If the value of even one property
changes, the state will change to a different state.

Prepared By: Puteri Nur Syaza Wardiah 32

 EQUILIBRIUM

• Equilibrium = state of balance. In an equilibrium

state there are no unbalanced potentials (or driving
forces) within the system = experiences no changes
when it is isolated from its surroundings.
• Types of equilibrium states:
a. Thermal equilibrium if the temperature is the same
throughout the entire system.
b. Mechanical equilibrium if there is no change in
pressure at any point of the system with time.

Prepared By: Puteri Nur Syaza Wardiah 33

 EQUILIBRIUM CONT

c. Phase equilibrium when the mass of each phase

reaches an equilibrium level and stays there such as
water and ice in equilibrium.
d. Chemical equilibrium if its chemical composition
does not change with time, that is, no chemical
reactions occur.

A closed system achieves thermal equilibrium

Prepared By: Puteri Nur Syaza Wardiah 34

EQUILIBRIUM CONT

Prepared By: Puteri Nur Syaza Wardiah 35

 PROCESS & CYCLES
PROCESS
• Any change that a system undergoes from one
equilibrium state to another = process, and
the series of states through which a system
passes during a process = the process path.

Prepared By: Puteri Nur Syaza Wardiah 36

 EXAMPLES OF PROCESSES
• A compression process in a piston-cylinder
device:

Prepared By: Puteri Nur Syaza Wardiah 37

• Processes in which one thermodynamic
property is kept constant:

PROCESS CONSTANT
PROPERTIES
Isobaric Pressure (P)
Isothermal Temperature (T)
Isochoric/Isometric Volume (V)
Isentropic Entropy (S)

Prepared By: Puteri Nur Syaza Wardiah 38

 CYCLES
• A system is said to have undergone a cycle if it
returns to its initial state at the end of the
process = for a cycle the initial and final states
are identical.

Prepared By: Puteri Nur Syaza Wardiah 39

 PRESSURE
• Pressure = normal force exerted by a fluid per
unit area.
• Pressure only deals with gas or liquid.

Prepared By: Puteri Nur Syaza Wardiah 40

• Pressure in solids = normal stress.
• Unit SI : Pascal (Pa) = Nm¯²
• English System : psi = lbf/in² (pound-force per square
inch), psia, psig.
• Other units: bar, standard atmosphere (atm).
• Pressure at any point in a fluid is the same in all
directions.
• Pressure varies in vertical directions due to gravity
effects but does not vary in the horizontal directions.

Prepared By: Puteri Nur Syaza Wardiah 41

Prepared By: Puteri Nur Syaza Wardiah 42
ABSOLUTE PRESSURE, GAGE PRESSURE &
VACUUM PRESSURE
• The actual pressure at a given position = absolute
pressure - measured relative to absolute vacuum (i.e.
absolute zero pressure).
• Most pressure-measuring devices are calibrated to
read zero in the atmosphere, and so they indicate
the difference between the absolute pressure and
the local atmospheric pressure = gage pressure.
• Pressures below atmospheric pressure (P<Patm)=
vacuum pressures -measured by vacuum gages that
indicate the difference between the atmospheric
pressure and the absolute pressure.
Prepared By: Puteri Nur Syaza Wardiah 43
 CONT
• Absolute, gage, and vacuum pressures are all positive
quantities.
• Must use absolute pressures in thermodynamic
problems.
• In ES unit, gage pressure and absolute pressure are
differentiated by their respective units.

Prepared By: Puteri Nur Syaza Wardiah 44

RELATION BETWEEN ABSOLUTE PRESSURE,
GAGE PRESSURE & VACUUM PRESSURE

Prepared By: Puteri Nur Syaza Wardiah 45

 PRESSURE-MEASURING DEVICES
• Manometer
• Barometer
• Bourdon Tube

Prepared By: Puteri Nur Syaza Wardiah 46

 MANOMETER
• Consists of a glass or plastic U-tube containing one or
more fluids such as mercury, water, alcohol, or oil.
• Measures small and moderate pressure differences.
• The height of the fluid in the tube represents the
pressure difference between the system and the
surroundings of the manometer which is equal to the
gage pressure.

Prepared By: Puteri Nur Syaza Wardiah 47

MANOMETER

Prepared By: Puteri Nur Syaza Wardiah 48

 BAROMETER
• Measures atmospheric pressure, hence
atmospheric pressure also known as
barometric pressure.
• Consists of a mercury-filled tube inverted into
a mercury container that is open to the
atmosphere.

Prepared By: Puteri Nur Syaza Wardiah 49

 Referring to Figure 1:

Prepared By: Puteri Nur Syaza Wardiah 50

 BOURDON TUBES
• Another type of commonly used mechanical pressure
measurement device.
• Consists of a hollow metal tube bent like a hook
whose end is closed and connected to a dial indicator
needle.
• Calibrated to read zero, so it measures gage pressure.
• Modern pressure sensors = pressure transducers –
convert the pressure effect to an electrical effect
such as a change in voltage, resistance, or
capacitance.
Prepared By: Puteri Nur Syaza Wardiah 51
 BOURDON TUBES
• Types of
Bourdon Tubes :

Prepared By: Puteri Nur Syaza Wardiah 52

 TEMPERATURE
• Temperature is one of the thermodynamic properties
- a measure of “hotness” or “coldness” or the energy
content of a body.
• When heat is transferred to a body, E T .
• Temperature difference causes the heat transfer
• from a hot body (with T) to an another cold body
(with T).
• Two bodies are in thermal equilibrium when both
• of the bodies achieve similar temperature.

Prepared By: Puteri Nur Syaza Wardiah 53

 TEMPERATURE CONT
• Similar to pressure, temperature applied in
thermodynamic problems must be in absolute units.
• Absolute temperature scale in SI unit is Kelvin and
Rankine in unit ES.

Prepared By: Puteri Nur Syaza Wardiah 54

TEMPERATURE SCALES

212°F

Prepared By: Puteri Nur Syaza Wardiah 55

KELVIN AND CELCIUS
• Magnitude for each part
of 1K and 1°C is similar:

• Similar case with 1R and 1°F :

Prepared By: Puteri Nur Syaza Wardiah 56

 EXAMPLE OF QUESTION
• A piston-cylinder device initially contains 0.27
kg of helium gas at 150 kPa and 210°C. The
helium is now expanded isothermally to a
pressure of 95 kPa. Determine the boundary
work done during this process.

Prepared By: Puteri Nur Syaza Wardiah 57

SYSTEMATIC PROBLEM SOLVING

Prepared By: Puteri Nur Syaza Wardiah 58