‫ ﻋﺒﺎس راﺿﻲ ﻋﺒﺎس‬/‫اﻟﻤﮭﻨﺪس‬

CHAPTER 2

PVT ANALYSIS FOR OIL

2.1 INTRODUCTION

In Chapter 1, the importance of PVT analysis was stressed for relating observed
volumes of gas production at the surface to the corresponding underground withdrawal.
For gas this relationship could be obtained merely by determining the single or two
phase Z−factor, and using it in the equation of state. The basic PVT analysis required
to relate surface production to underground withdrawal for an oil reservoir is
necessarily more complex due to the presence, below the bubble point pressure, of
both a liquid oil and free gas phase in the reservoir.

This chapter concentrates on defining the three main parameters required to relate
surface to reservoir volumes, for an oil reservoir, and then proceeds to describe how
these parameters can be determined in the laboratory by controlled experiments
performed on samples of the crude oil.

The subject is approached from a mechanistic point of view in merely recognising that
PVT parameters can be determined as functions of pressure by routine laboratory
analysis. No attempt is made to describe the complex thermodynamic processes
implicit in the determination of these parameters. For a more exhaustive treatment of
the entire subject the reader is referred to the text of Amyx, Bass and Whiting1 .

Finally, a great deal of attention is paid to the conversion of PVT data, as presented by
the laboratory, to the form required in the field. The former being an absolute set of
measurements while the latter depend upon the manner of surface separation of the
gas and oil.

2.2 DEFINITION OF THE BASIC PVT PARAMETERS

The Pressure−Volume−Temperature relation for a real gas can be uniquely defined by

the simple equation of state

pV = ZnRT (1.15)

in which the Z−factor, which accounts for the departure from ideal gas behaviour, can
be determined as described in Chapter 1, sec. 5. Using this equation, it is a relatively
simple matter to determine the relationship between surface volumes of gas and
volumes in the reservoir as

p Tsc 1 p
E= × × = 35.37 (scf / rcf ) (1.25)
psc T Z ZT

Unfortunately, no such simple equation of state exists which will describe the PVT
properties of oil. Instead, several, so-called, PVT parameters must be measured by
laboratory analysis of crude oil samples. The parameters can then be used to express
 PVT ANALYSIS FOR OIL 44

the relationship between surface and reservoir hydrocarbon volumes, equivalent to

equ. (1.25).

The complexity in relating surface volumes of hydrocarbon production to their

equivalent volumes in the reservoir can be appreciated by considering fig. 2.1.
free gas
+
solution gas solution gas

SURFACE

stock tank stock tank

oil oil

oil gas

oil
RESERVOIR (a) (b)

Fig. 2.1 Production of reservoir hydrocarbons (a) above bubble point pressure,
(b) below bubble point pressure

Above the bubble point only one phase exists in the reservoir − the liquid oil. If a
quantity of this undersaturated oil is produced to the surface, gas will separate from the
oil as shown in fig. 2.1(a), the volume of the gas being dependent on the conditions at
which the surface separation is effected. In this case, it is relatively easy to relate the
surface volumes of oil and gas to volumes at reservoir conditions since it is known that
all the produced gas must have been dissolved in the oil in the reservoir.

If the reservoir is below bubble point pressure, as depicted in fig. 2.1(b), the situation is
more complicated. Now there are two hydrocarbon phases in the reservoir, gas
saturated oil and liberated solution gas. During production to the surface, solution gas
will be evolved from the oil phase and the total surface gas production will have two
components; the gas which was free in the reservoir and the gas liberated from the oil
during production. These separate components are indistinguishable at the surface and
the problem is, therefore, how to divide the observed surface gas production into
liberated and dissolved gas volumes in the reservoir.

Below bubble point pressure there is an additional complication in that the liberated
solution gas in the reservoir travels at a different velocity than the liquid oil, when both
are subjected to the same pressure differential. As will be shown in Chapter 4, sec. 2,
the flow velocity of a fluid in a porous medium is inversely proportional to the fluid
viscosity. Typically, gas viscosity in the reservoir is about fifty times smaller than for
liquid oil and consequently, the gas flow velocity is much greater. As a result, it is
normal, when producing from a reservoir in which there is a free gas saturation, that
gas will be produced in disproportionate amounts in comparison to the oil. That is, one
 PVT ANALYSIS FOR OIL 45

barrel of oil can be produced together with a volume of gas that greatly exceeds the
volume originally dissolved per barrel of oil above bubble point pressure.

Control in relating surface volumes of production to underground withdrawal is gained

by defining the following three PVT parameters which can all be measured by
laboratory experiments performed on samples of the reservoir oil, plus its originally
dissolved gas.

Rs − The solution (or dissolved) gas oil ratio, which is the number of standard
cubic feet of gas which will dissolve in one stock tank barrel of oil when
both are taken down to the reservoir at the prevailing reservoir pressure
and temperature (units − scf. gas/stb oil).

Bo − The oil formation volume factor, is the volume in barrels occupied in the
reservoir, at the prevailing pressure and temperature, by one stock tank
barrel of oil plus its dissolved gas (units – rb (oil + dissolved gas)/stb oil).

Bg − The gas formation volume factor, which is the volume in barrels that one
standard cubic foot of gas will occupy as free gas in the reservoir at the
prevailing reservoir pressure and temperature (units − rb free gas/ssf gas).

Both the standard cubic foot (scf) and the stock tank barrel (stb) referred to in the
above definitions are defined at standard conditions, which in this text are taken as
60°F and one atmosphere (14.7 psia). It should also be noted that Rs and Bo are both
measured relative to one stock tank barrel of oil, which is the basic unit of volume used
in the field. All three parameters are strictly functions of pressure, as shown in fig. 2.5,
assuming that the reservoir temperature remains constant during depletion.

Precisely how these parameters can be used in relating measured surface volumes to
reservoir volumes is illustrated in figs. 2.2 and 2.3.

solution gas Rsi scf / stb

pi

p
P +

T 1 stb oil
Phase diagram

Bo rb ( oil + dissolved gas) / stb

Fig. 2.2 Application of PVT parameters to relate surface to reservoir hydrocarbon

volumes; above bubble point pressure.
 PVT ANALYSIS FOR OIL 46

Fig. 2.2 depicts the situation when the reservoir pressure has fallen from its initial value
pi to some lower value p, which is still above the bubble point. As shown in the P−T
diagram (inset) the only fluid in the reservoir is undersaturated liquid oil. When this oil is
produced to the surface each stock tank barrel will yield, upon gas oil separation, Rsi
standard cubic feet of gas. Since the oil is undersaturated with gas, which implies that it
could dissolve more if the latter were available, then the initial value of the solution gas
oil ratio must remain constant at Rsi (scf/stb) until the pressure drops to the bubble
point, when the oil becomes saturated, as shown in fig. 2.5(b).

Figure 2.2 also shows, in accordance with the definitions of Bo and Rs, that if Rsi scf of
gas are taken down to the reservoir with one stb of oil, then the gas will totally dissolve
in the oil at the reservoir pressure and temperature to give a volume of Bo rb of oil plus
dissolved gas. Figure 2.5(a) shows that Bo increases slightly as the pressure is reduced
from initial to the bubble point pressure. This effect is simply due to liquid expansion
and, since the compressibility of the undersaturated oil in the reservoir is low, the
expansion is relatively small.

Typical values of Bo and Rs above the bubble point are indicated in fig. 2.5, these are
the plotted results of the laboratory analysis presented in table 2.4. The initial value of
the oil formation volume factor Boi is 1.2417 which increases to 1.2511 at the bubble
point. Thus initially, 1.2417 reservoir barrels of oil plus its dissolved gas will produce
one stb of oil. This is a rather favourable ratio indicating an oil of moderate volatility
and, as would be expected in this case, the initial solution gas oil ratio is also relatively
low at 510 scf/stb. Under less favourable circumstances, for more volatile oils, Boi can
have much higher values. For instance, in the Statfjord field in the North Sea, Boi is
2.7 rb/stb while the value of Rsi is approximately 3000 scf/stb. Obviously the most
favourable value of Boi is as close to unity as possible indicating that the oil contains
hardly any dissolved gas and reservoir volumes are approximately equal to surface
volumes. The small oil fields of Beykan and Kayaköy in the east of Turkey provide good
examples of this latter condition having values of Boi and Rsi of 1.05 and 20 scf/stb
respectively.

Below the bubble point the situation is more complicated as shown in fig. 2.3.
 PVT ANALYSIS FOR OIL 47

R = Rs + (R - Rs) scf / stb

pi

p
p
1 stb oil
T

Bo rb ( oil + dissolved gas) / stb

(R - Rs) Bg rb (free gas) / stb

Fig. 2.3 Application of PVT parameters to relate surface to reservoir hydrocarbon

volumes; below bubble point pressure

In this case each stock tank barrel of oil is produced in conjunction with R scf of gas,
where R (scf/stb) is called the instantaneous or producing gas oil ratio and is measured
daily. As already noted, some of this gas is dissolved in the oil in the reservoir and is
released during production through the separator, while the remainder consists of gas
which is already free in the reservoir. Furthermore, the value of R can greatly exceed
Rsi, the original solution gas oil ratio, since, due to the high velocity of gas flow in
comparison to oil, it is quite normal to produce a disproportionate amount of gas. This
results from an effective stealing of liberated gas from all over the reservoir and its
production through the relatively isolated offtake points, the wells. A typical plot of R as
a function of reservoir pressure is shown as fig. 2.4.

R
scf / stb 4000 scf / sfb

510 scf / stb

R = Rsi

pb Reservoir pressure

Fig. 2.4 Producing gas oil ratio as a function of the average reservoir pressure
for a typical solution gas drive reservoir
 PVT ANALYSIS FOR OIL 48

The producing gas oil ratio can be split into two components as shown in fig. 2.3, i.e.

R = Rs +(R−Rs)

The first of these, Rs scf/stb, when taken down to the reservoir with the one stb of oil,
will dissolve in the oil at the prevailing reservoir pressure to give Bo rb of oil plus
dissolved gas. The remainder, (R − Rs) scf/stb, when taken down to the reservoir will
occupy a volume

æ scf ö æ rb ö
(R − Rs ) ç ÷ × Bg ç ÷ = (R − Rs ) Bg (rb. − free gas / stb) (2.1)
è stb ø è scf ø

and therefore, the total underground withdrawal of hydrocarbons associated with the
production of one stb of oil is

(Underground withdrawal)/stb = Bo + (R − Rs) Bg (rb/stb) (2.2)

The above relationship shows why the gas formation volume factor has the rather
unfortunate units of rb/scf. It is simply to convert gas oil ratios, measured in scf/stb,
directly to rb/stb to be compatible with the units of Bo. While Bg is used almost
exclusively in oil reservoir engineering its equivalent in gas reservoir engineering is E,
the gas expansion factor, which was introduced in the previous chapter and has the
units scf/rcf. The relation between Bg and E is therefore,

æ rb ö 1
Bg ç ÷ = (2.3)
è scf ø 5.615E

thus Bg has always very small values; for a typical value of E of, say, 150 scf/rcf the
value of Bg would be .00119 rb/scf.
 PVT ANALYSIS FOR OIL 49

Bo
(rb / stb)
1.3

1.2

1.1

pb= 3330 psia

1.0
1000 2000 3000 4000
Rs PRESSURE (psia)
(scf / stb)
600

400

200

1000 2000 3000 4000

Bg PRESSURE (psia) E
(rb / scf) (scf / rcf)

.010 - 200

.008

.006 c
- 100
.004

.002

-0
1000 2000 3000 4000
PRESSURE (psia)

Fig. 2.5 PVT parameters (Bo, Rs and Bg), as functions of pressure, for the analysis
presented in table 2.4; (pb = 3330 psia).
 PVT ANALYSIS FOR OIL 50

The shapes of the Bo and Rs curves below the bubble point, shown in fig. 2.5(a) and
(b), are easily explained. As the pressure declines below pb, more and more gas is
liberated from the saturated oil and thus Rs, which represents the amount of gas
dissolved in a stb at the current reservoir pressure, continually decreases. Similarly,
since each reservoir volume of oil contains a smaller amount of dissolved gas as the
pressure declines, one stb of oil will be obtained from progressively smaller volumes of
reservoir oil and Bo steadily declines with the pressure.

EXERCISE 2.1 UNDERGROUND WITHDRAWAL

The oil and gas rates, measured at a particular time during the producing life of a
reservoir are, x stb oil/day and y scf gas/day.

1) What is the corresponding underground withdrawal rate in reservoir barrels/day.

2) If the average reservoir pressure at the time the above measurements are made
is 2400 psia, calculate the daily underground withdrawal corresponding to an oil
production of 2500 stb/day and a gas rate of 2.125 MMscf/day. Use the PVT
relationships shown in figs. 2.5(a) − (c), which are also listed in table 2.4.

3) If the density of the oil at standard conditions is 52.8 lb/cu.ft and the gas gravity is
0.67 (air = 1) calculate the oil pressure gradient in the reservoir at 2400 psia.

EXERCISE 2.1 SOLUTION

1) The instantaneous or producing gas oil ratio is R = y/x scf/stb. If, at the time the
surface rates are measured, the average reservoir pressure is known, then Bo, Rs
and Bg can be determined from the PVT relationships at that particular pressure.

The daily volume of oil plus dissolved gas produced from the reservoir is then
y
xBo rb, and the liberated gas volume removed daily is x( − Rs ) Bg rb. Thus the
x
total underground withdrawal is

y
x (Bo + ( − Rs )Bg ) rb / day (2.4)
x

2) At a reservoir pressure of 2400 psia, the PVT parameters obtained from table 2.4
are:

Bo = 1.1822 rb/stb; Rs = 352 scf/stb and Bg = .0012 rb/ scf

Therefore, evaluating equ. (2.4) for x = 2500 stb/d and y = 2.125 MMscf/d gives a
total underground withdrawal rate of

2500 (1.1822 + (850 − 352) × .0012) = 4450 rb/d

3) The liquid oil gradient in the reservoir can be calculated by applying mass
conservation, as demonstrated in exercise 1.1 for the calculation of the gas
gradient. In the present case the mass balance is
 PVT ANALYSIS FOR OIL 51

Mass of 1 stb of oil Mass of Bo rb of oil

+ = +
Rs scf dissolved gas dissolved gas in the
at standard conditions reservoir

or

é æ lb ö ù é æ lb ö ù
ê1(stb) × ρo sc ç cu.ft ÷ × 5.615 ú + êRs (scf ) × ρg sc ç cu.ft ÷ ú
ë è ø û ë è øû
æ lb ö
= Bo (rb) × ρo r ç ÷ × 5.615
è cu.ft ø

in which the subscripts sc and r refer to standard conditions and reservoir

conditions, respectively.

The gas density at standard conditions is

ρsc = γg × 0.0763 (refer equ. (1.30))

= 0.0511 lb/cu ft

Therefore,

( ρo sc × 5.615) + (Rs × ρg sc )
ρor =
Bo × 5.615
(52.8 × 5.615) + (352 × 0.0511)
= = 47.37 lb / cu ft
1.1822 × 5.615

and the liquid oil gradient is 47.37/144 = 0.329 psi/ft.

2.3 COLLECTION OF FLUID SAMPLES

Samples of the reservoir fluid are usually collected at an early stage in the reservoir's
producing life and dispatched to a laboratory for the full PVT analysis. There are
basically two ways of collecting such samples, either by direct subsurface sampling or
by surface recombination of the oil and gas phases. Whichever technique is used the
same basic problem exists, and that is, to ensure that the proportion of gas to oil in the
composite sample is the same as that existing in the reservoir. Thus, sampling a
reservoir under initial conditions, each stock tank barrel of oil in the sample should be
combined with Rsi standard cubic feet of gas.

a) Subsurface sampling

This is the more direct method of sampling and is illustrated schematically in fig. 2.6.
 PVT ANALYSIS FOR OIL 52

sample chamber

pressure

pi
pb

pwf
r

Fig. 2.6 Subsurface collection of PVT sample

A special sampling bomb is run in the hole, on wireline, to the reservoir depth and the
sample collected from the subsurface well stream at the prevailing bottom hole
pressure. Either electrically or mechanically operated valves can be closed to trap a
volume of the borehole fluids in the sampling chamber. This method will obviously yield
a representative combined fluid sample providing that the oil is undersaturated with gas
to such a degree that the bottom hole flowing pressure pwf at which the sample is
collected, is above the bubble point pressure. In this case a single phase fluid, oil plus
its dissolved gas, is flowing in the wellbore and therefore, a sample of the fluid is bound
to have the oil and gas combined in the correct proportion. Many reservoirs, however,
are initially at bubble point pressure and under these circumstances, irrespective of
how low the producing rate is maintained during sampling, the bottom hole flowing
pressure pwf will be less than the bubble point pressure pb as depicted in fig. 2.6. In this
case, there will be saturated oil and a free gas phase flowing in the immediate vicinity
of the wellbore, and in the wellbore itself, and consequently, there is no guarantee that
the oil and gas will be collected in the correct volume proportion in the chamber.

In sampling a gas saturated reservoir, two situations can arise depending on the time at
which the sample is collected. If the sample is taken very early in the producing life it is
possible that the fluid flowing into the wellbore is deficient in gas. This is because the
initially liberated gas must build up a certain minimum gas saturation in the reservoir
pores before it will start flowing under an imposed pressure differential. This, so−called,
critical saturation is a phenomenon common to any fluid deposited in the reservoir, not
just gas. The effect on the producing gas oil ratio, immediately below bubble point
pressure, is shown in fig. 2.4 as the small dip in the value of R for a short period after
the pressure has dropped below bubble point. As a result of this mechanism there will
be a period during which the liberated gas remains in the reservoir and the gas oil ratio
measured from a subsurface sample will be too low. Conversely, once the liberated gas
saturation exceeds the critical value, then as shown in fig. 2.4 and discussed
previously, the producing well will effectively steal gas from more remote parts of the
reservoir and the sample is likely to have a disproportionately high gas oil ratio.
 PVT ANALYSIS FOR OIL 53

The problems associated with sampling an initially saturated oil reservoir, or an

undersaturated reservoir in which the bottom hole flowing pressure has been allowed to
fall below bubble point pressure, can be largely overcome by correct well conditioning
prior to sampling. If the well has already been flowing, it should be produced at a low
stabilized rate for several hours to increase the bottom hole flowing pressure and
thereby re-dissolve some, if not all, of the free gas saturation in the vicinity of the well.
Following this the well is closed in for a reasonable period of time during which the oil
flowing into the wellbore, under an ever increasing average pressure, will hopefully re-
dissolve any of the remaining free gas. If the reservoir was initially at bubble point
pressure, or suspected of being so, the subsurface sample should then be collected
with the well still closed in. If the reservoir is known to be initially undersaturated the
sample can be collected with the well flowing at a very low rate so that the bottom hole
flowing pressure is still above the bubble point. With proper well conditioning a
representative combined sample can usually be obtained.

One of the main drawbacks in the method is that only a small sample of the wellbore
fluids is obtained, the typical sampler having a volume of only a few litres. Therefore,
one of the only ways of checking whether the gas oil ratio is correct is to take several
downhole samples and compare their saturation pressures at ambient temperature on
the well site. This can be done using a mercury injection pump and accurate pressure
gauge connected to the sampler. The chamber normally contains both oil and a free
gas phase, due to the reduction in temperature between wellbore and surface. Injecting
mercury increases the pressure within the chamber until at a saturation pressure
corresponding to the ambient surface temperature all the gas will dissolve. This
saturation pressure can be quite easily detected since there is a distinct change in
compressibility between the two phase and single phase fluids. If it is experimentally
determined, on the well site, that successive samples have markedly different
saturation pressures, then either the tool has been malfunctioning or the well has not
been conditioned properly.

In addition, it is necessary to determine the static reservoir pressure and temperature

by well testing, prior to collecting the samples. Further details on bottom hole sampling
techniques are given in references 2 and 3 listed at the end of this chapter.

b) Surface recombination sampling

In collecting fluid samples at the surface, separate volumes of oil and gas are taken at
separator conditions and recombined to give a composite fluid sample. The surface
equipment is shown schematically in fig. 2.7.
 PVT ANALYSIS FOR OIL 54

gas meter

p sep
T sep gas
sample

p st
T st

separator

oil stock tank oil

well
sample

Fig. 2.7 Collection of a PVT sample by surface recombination

The well is produced at a steady rate for a period of several hours and the gas oil ratio
is measured in scf of separator gas per stock tank barrel of oil. If this ratio is steady
during the period of measurement then one can feel confident that recombining the oil
and gas in the same ratio will yield a representative composite sample of the reservoir
fluid. In fact, a slight adjustment must be made to determine the actual ratio in which
the samples should be recombined. This is because, as shown in fig. 2.7, the oil
sample is collected at separator pressure and temperature whereas the gas oil ratio is
measured relative to the stock tank barrel, thus the required recombination ratio is

REQUIRED MEASURED SHRINKAGE

é scf ù é scf ù é stb ù

Rsep ê ú = R ê ú × S ê ú
ë sep.bbl û ë stb û ë sep.bbl û

Dimensionally, the measured gas oil ratio must be multiplied by the shrinkage factor
from separator to stock tank conditions. This factor is usually determined in the
laboratory as the first stage of a PVT analysis of a surface recombination sample by
placing a small volume of the oil sample in a cell at the appropriate separator
conditions and discharging it (flash expansion) to a second cell maintained at the field
stock tank conditions. During this process some gas will be liberated from the separator
sample, due to the reduction in pressure and temperature, and the diminished stock
tank oil volume is measured, thus allowing the direct calculation of S. In order to be
able to perform such an experiment it is important that the engineer should accurately
measure the pressure and temperature prevailing at both separator and stock tank
during sampling and provide the laboratory with these data.

One of the attractive features of surface recombination sampling is that statistically it

gives a reliable value of the producing gas oil ratio measured over a period of hours;
furthermore, it enables the collection of large fluid samples. Of course, just as for
subsurface sampling, the surface recombination method will only provide the correct
 PVT ANALYSIS FOR OIL 55

gas oil ratio if the pressure in the vicinity of the well is at or above bubble point
pressure. If not, the surface gas oil ratio will be too low or too high, depending upon
whether the free gas saturation in the reservoir is below or above the critical saturation
at which gas will start to flow. In this respect it should be emphasized that PVT samples
should be taken as early as possible in the producing life of the field to facilitate the
collection of samples in which the oil and gas are combined in the correct ratio.

2.4 DETERMINATION OF THE BASIC PVT PARAMETERS IN THE LABORATORY AND

CONVERSION FOR FIELD OPERATING CONDITIONS

Quite apart from the determination of the three primary PVT parameters Bo, Rs and Bg,
the full laboratory analysis usually consists of the measurement or calculation of fluid
densities, viscosities, composition, etc. These additional measurements will be briefly
discussed in section 2.6. For the moment, the essential experiments required to
determine the three basic parameters will be detailed, together with the way in which
the results of a PVT analysis must be modified to match the field operating conditions.

The analysis consists of three parts:

− flash expansion of the fluid sample to determine the bubble point pressure;

− differential expansion of the fluid sample to determine the basic parameters Bo,
Rs and Bg;

− flash expansion of fluid samples through various separator combinations to

enable the modification of laboratory derived PVT data to match field separator
conditions.

The apparatus used to perform the above experiments is the PV cell, as shown in
fig. 2.8. After recombining the oil and gas in the correct proportions, the fluid is charged
to the PV cell which is maintained at constant temperature, the measured reservoir
temperature, throughout the experiments. The cell pressure is controlled by a positive
displacement mercury pump and recorded on an accurate pressure gauge. The
plunger movement is calibrated in terms of volume of mercury injected or withdrawn
from the PV cell so that volume changes in the cell can be measured directly.

The flash and differential expansion experiments are presented schematically in

figs. 2.9(a) and 2.9(b). In the flash experiment the pressure in the PV cell is initially
raised to a value far in excess of the bubble point. The pressure is subsequently
reduced in stages, and on each occasion the total volume vt of the cell contents is
recorded. As soon as the bubble point pressure is reached, gas is liberated from the oil
and the overall compressibility of the system increases significantly. Thereafter, small
changes in pressure will result in large changes in the total fluid volume contained in
the PV cell. In this manner, the flash expansion experiment can be used to "feel" the
bubble point. Since the cell used is usually opaque the separate volumes of oil and
gas, below bubble point pressure, cannot be measured in the experiment and
therefore, only total fluid volumes are recorded. In the laboratory analysis the basic unit
of volume, against which all others are compared, is the volume of saturated oil at the
 PVT ANALYSIS FOR OIL 56

bubble point, irrespective of its magnitude. In this chapter it will be assumed, for
consistency, that this unit volume is one reservoir barrel of bubble point oil (1−rbb).

Heise pressure
gauge

mercury
PV reservoir
cell
thermal
jacket

mercury pump

Fig. 2.8 Schematic of PV cell and associated equipment

pi pb p < pb

vt = vo oil oil gas

vt = 1
vt
oil

Hg Hg Hg

(a)

gas

pb p < pb

oil vg gas vo oil

vo = 1 vo
oil

Hg Hg Hg

(b)

Fig. 2.9 Illustrating the difference between (a) flash expansion, and (b) differential
liberation
 PVT ANALYSIS FOR OIL 57

Table 2.1 lists the results of a flash expansion for an oil sample obtained by the
subsurface sampling of a reservoir with an initial pressure of 4000 psia and
temperature of 200°F; the experiment was conducted at this same fixed temperature.

Pressure Relative Total

Volume
psia vt = v/vb = (rb/rbb)
5000 0.9810
4500 0.9850
4000 (pi) 0.9925
3500 0.9975
3330 (pb ) 1.0000
3290 1.0025
3000 1.0270
2700 1.0603
2400 1.1060
2100 1.1680
TABLE 2.1
Results of isothermal flash expansion at 200°F

The bubble point pressure for this sample is determined from the flash expansion as
3330 psia, for which the saturated oil is assigned the unit volume. The relative total fluid
volumes listed are volumes measured in relation to this bubble point volume. The flash
expansion can be continued to much lower pressures although this is not usually done
since the basic PVT parameters are normally obtained from the differential liberation
experiment. Furthermore, the maximum volume to which the cell can expand is often a
limiting factor in continuing the experiment to low pressures.

The essential data obtained from the differential liberation experiment, performed on
the same oil sample, are listed in table 2.2. The experiment starts at bubble point
pressure since above this pressure the flash and differential experiments are identical.
 PVT ANALYSIS FOR OIL 58

Cumulative
Pressure Relative Gas Relative Relative Gas expansion Z−factor Relative Oil
Vol. (at p and T) Gas Vol. (sc) Gas Vol. (sc) Factor Vol. (at p and T)
psia vg Vg F E Z vo
3330 (pb ) 1.0000
3000 .0460 8.5211 8.5211 185.24 .868 .9769
2700 .0417 6.9731 15.4942 167.22 .865 .9609
2400 .0466 6.9457 22.4399 149.05 .863 .9449
2100 .0535 6.9457 29.3856 129.83 .867 .9298
1800 .0597 6.5859 35.9715 110.32 .874 .9152
1500 .0687 6.2333 42.2048 90.73 .886 .9022
1200 .0923 6.5895 48.7943 71.39 .901 .8884
900 .1220 6.4114 55.2057 52.55 .918 .8744
600 .1818 6.2369 61.4426 34.31 .937 .8603
300 .3728 6.2297 67.6723 16.71 .962 .8459
14.7 (200°F) 74.9557 .8296
14.7 ( 60°F) 74.9557 .7794
All volumes are measured relative to the unit volume of oil at the bubble point pressure of 3330 psi
TABLE 2.2
Results of isothermal differential liberation at 200º F
 PVT ANALYSIS FOR OIL 60

In contrast to the flash expansion, after each stage of the differential liberation, the total
amount of gas liberated during the latest pressure drop is removed from the PV cell by
injecting mercury at constant pressure, fig. 2.3. Thus, after the pressure drop from
2700 to 2400 psia, table 2.2, column 2, indicates that 0.0466 volumes of gas are
withdrawn from the cell at the lower pressure and at 200°F. These gas volumes vg are
measured relative to the unit volume of bubble point oil, as are all the relative volumes
listed in table 2.2. After each stage the incremental volume of liberated gas is
expanded to standard conditions and re−measured as Vg relative volumes. Column 4 is
simply the cumulative amount of gas liberated below the bubble point expressed at
standard conditions, in relative volumes, and is denoted by F = Σ Vg. Dividing values in
column 3 by those in column 2 (Vg/vg) gives the gas expansion factor E defined in
Chapter 1, sec. 6. Thus the .0466 relative volumes liberated at 2400 psia will expand to
give 6.9457 relative volumes at standard conditions and the gas expansion factor is
therefore 6.9457/.0466 = 149.05. Knowing E, the Z−factor of the liberated gas can be
determined by explicitly solving equ . (1.25) for Z as

p Tsc 1 p
Z = × × = 35.37
psc T E ET

and for the gas sample withdrawn at 2400 psia

2400
Z = 35.37 × = 0.863
149.05 × 660

These values are listed in column 6 of table 2.2.

Finally, the relative oil volumes, vo, are measured at each stage of depletion after
removal of the liberated gas, as listed in column 7.

Before considering how the laboratory derived data presented in table 2.2 are
converted to the required field parameters, Bo, Rs and Bg, it is first necessary to
compare the physical difference between the flash and differential liberation
experiments and decide which, if either, is suitable for describing the separation of oil
and gas in the reservoir and the production of these volumes through the surface
separators to the stock tank.

The main difference between the two types of experiment shown in fig. 2.9(a) and (b) is
that in the flash expansion no gas is removed from the PV cell but instead remains in
equilibrium with the oil. As a result, the overall hydrocarbon composition in the cell
remains unchanged. In the differential liberation experiment, however, at each stage of
depletion the liberated gas is physically removed from contact with the oil and
therefore, there is a continual compositional change in the PV cell, the remaining
hydrocarbons becoming progressively richer in the heavier components, and the
average molecular weight thus increasing.

If both experiments are performed isothermally, in stages, through the same total
pressure drop, then the resulting volumes of liquid oil remaining at the lowest pressure
will, in general, be slightly different. For low volatility oils, in which the dissolved gas
 PVT ANALYSIS FOR OIL 61

consists mainly of methane and ethane, the resulting oil volumes from either
experiment are practically the same. For higher volatility oils, containing a relatively
high proportion of the intermediate hydrocarbons such as butane and pentane, the
volumes can be significantly different. Generally, in this latter case, more gas escapes
from solution in the flash expansion than in the differential liberation, resulting in a
smaller final oil volume after the flash process. This may be explained by the fact that
in the flash expansion the intermediate hydrocarbon molecules find it somewhat easier
to escape into the large gas volume in contact with the oil than in the case of the
differential liberation, in which the volume of liberated gas in equilibrium with the oil, at
any stage in the depletion, is significantly smaller.

The above description is a considerable simplification of the complex processes

involved in the separation of oil and gas; also, it is not always true that the flash
separation yields smaller oil volumes. What must be appreciated, however, is that the
flash and differential processes will yield different oil volumes and this difference can
be physically measured by experiment. The problem is, of course, which type of
experiment will provide the most realistic values of Bo, Rs and Bg, required for relating
measured surface volumes to volumes withdrawn from the reservoir at the current
reservoir pressure and fixed temperature.

The answer is that a combination of both flash and differential liberation is required for
an adequate description of the overall volume changes. It is considered that the
differential liberation experiment provides the better description of how the oil and gas
separate in the reservoir since, because of their different flow velocities, they will not
remain together in equilibrium once gas is liberated from the oil, thus corresponding to
the process shown in fig. 2.9(b). The one exception to this is during the brief period
after the bubble point has been reached, when the liberated gas is fairly uniformly
distributed throughout the reservoir and remains immobile until the critical gas
saturation is exceeded.

The nature of the volume change occurring between the reservoir and stock tank is
more difficult to categorise but generally, the overall effect is usually likened to a non-
isothermal flash expansion. One aspect in this expansion during production is worth
considering in more detail and that is, what occurs during the passage of the reservoir
fluids through the surface separator or separators.

Within any single separator the liberation of gas from the oil may be considered as a
flash expansion in which, for a time, the gas stays in equilibrium with the oil. If two or
more separators are used then the gas is physically removed from the oil leaving the
first separator and the oil is again flashed in the second separator. This physical
isolation of the fluids after each stage of separation corresponds to differential
liberation. In fact, the overall effect of multi-stage separation corresponds to the
process shown in fig. 2.9(b), which is differential liberation, only in this case it is not
conducted at constant temperature. It is for this reason that multi-stage separation is
commonly used in the field because, as already mentioned, differential liberation will
normally yield a larger final volume of equilibrium oil than the corresponding flash
expansion.
 PVT ANALYSIS FOR OIL 62

The conclusion reached, from the foregoing description of the effects of surface
separation, is somewhat disturbing since it implies that the volume of equilibrium oil
collected in the stock tank is dependent on the manner in which the oil and gas are
separated. This in turn means that the basic PVT parameters Bo and Rs which are
measured in terms of volume "per stock tank barrel" must also be dependent on the
manner of surface separation and cannot be assigned absolute values.

The only way to account for the effects of surface separation is to perform a series of
separator tests on oil samples as part of the basic PVT analysis, and combine the
results of these tests with differential liberation data. Samples of oil are put in the PV
cell, fig. 2.8, and raised to reservoir temperature and bubble point pressure. The cell is
connected to a single or multi-stage model separator system, with each separator at a
fixed pressure and temperature. The bubble point oil is then flashed through the
separator system to stock tank conditions and the resulting volumes of oil and gas are
measured. The results of such a series of tests, using a single separator at a series of
different pressures and at a fixed temperature, are listed in table 2.3 for the same oil as
described previously (tables 2.1 and 2.2).

Separator Stock tank Shrinkage factor GOR

p T p T Rsi f

(psia) (° F) (psia) (° F) cb f (stb/rbb) (scf/stb)

200 80 14.7 60 .7983 512
150 80 14.7 60 .7993 510
100 80 14.7 60 .7932 515
50 80 14.7 60 .7834 526
TABLE 2.3
Separator flash expansion experiments performed on the oil sample
whose properties are listed in tables 2.1 and 2.2

The shrinkage factor cb f , listed in table 2.3, is the volume of oil collected in the stock
tank, relative to unit volume of oil at the bubble point (stb/rbb), which is the reason for
the subscript b (bubble point). The subscript f refers to the fact that these experiments
are conducted under flash conditions. All such separator tests, irrespective of the
number of separator stages, are described as flash although, as already mentioned,
multi-stage separation is closer to a differential liberation. In any case, precisely what
the overall separation process is called does not really matter since the resulting
volumes of oil and gas are experimentally determined, irrespective of the title. Rsi f is
the initial solution gas oil ratio corresponding to the separators used and is measured
in the experiments in scf/stb.

Using the experimental separator flash data, for a given set of separator conditions, in
conjunction with the differential liberation data in table 2.2, will provide a means of
obtaining the PVT parameters required for field use. It is considered that the differential
liberation data can be used to describe the separation in the reservoir while the
separator flash data account for the volume changes between reservoir and stock tank.
 PVT ANALYSIS FOR OIL 63

What is required for field use is Bo expressed in rb/stb. In the differential liberation data
the corresponding parameter is vo (rb/rbb), that is, reservoir barrels of oil per unit barrel
at the bubble point. But from the flash data it is known that one reservoir barrel of oil, at
the bubble point, when flashed through the separators yields cb f stb. Therefore, the
conversion from the differential data to give the required field parameter Bo is

é rb ù v é rb rbb ù
Bo ê ú = o ê ú
ë stb û cb f ë stb rbb û

Similarly, the solution gas oil ratio required in the field is Rs (scf/stb). The parameter in
the differential liberation data from which this can be obtained is F (cumulative gas vol
at sc/oil vol at pb = stb/rbb). In fact, F, the cumulative gas liberated from the oil, must be
proportional to Rsi f − Rs (scf/stb), which is the initial solution gas oil ratio, as determined
in the flash experiment, minus the current solution gas oil ratio at some lower pressure.
The exact relationship is

é scf ù é stb ù é scf ù 1 é rbb ù

(Rsi f − Rs ) ê =Fê ú × 5.615 ê ú×
ú
ë stb û ë rbb û ë stb û cb f êë stb úû

Finally, the determination of the third parameter Bg can be obtained directly from the
differential parameter E as

é rb ù 1 é rcf ù 1 é rb ù
Bg ê ú = ×
ë scf û E ë scf û 5.615 êë rcf úû
ê ú

Thus the laboratory differential data can be transformed to give the required field PVT
parameters using the following conversions

Laboratory Required
Differential Field Conversion
Parameter Parameter

vo é rb ù
vo (rb/ rbb) Bo Bo = ê stb ú (2.5)
cb f ë û

5.615 F é rb ù
F (stb/rbb) Rs Rs = Rsi f − ê stb ú (2.6)
cb f ë û

1 é rb ù
E (scf/rcf) Bg Bg = (2.7)
5.612 E êë scf úû

EXERCISE 2.2 CONVERSION OF DIFFERENTIAL LIBERATION DATA TO GIVE

THE FIELD PVT PARAMETERS Bo, Rs AND Bg

Convert the laboratory differential liberation data presented in table 2.2 to the required
PVT parameters, for field use, for the optimum separator conditions listed in table 2.3.
 PVT ANALYSIS FOR OIL 64

EXERCISE 2.2 SOLUTION

The optimum separator pressure in table 2.3 is 150 psia since this gives the largest
value of the flash shrinkage factor cb f as 0.7993 (stb/rbb) and correspondingly, the
lowest flash solution gas oil ratio Rsi f of 510 scf/stb. Using these two figures the
laboratory differential data in table 2.2 can be converted to give the field parameters Bo,
Rs and Bg using equs. (2.5) − (2.7), as follows

Pressure vo 5.615 F 1
Bo = Rs = Rsif − Bg =
cbf cbf 5.615 E
(psia) (rb/stb) (scf/stb) (rb/scf)

4000 (pi) 1.2417 (Boi f ) 510 (Rsi f )

3500 1.2480 510

1
3330 (pb) 1.2511 (Bob f = ) 510 .00087
cb f
3000 1.2222 450 .00096
2700 1.2022 401 .00107
2400 1.1822 352 .00119
2100 1.1633 304 .00137
1800 1.1450 257 .00161
1500 1.1287 214 .00196
1200 1.1115 167 .00249
900 1.0940 122 .00339
600 1.0763 78 .00519
300 1.0583 35 .01066
TABLE 2.4
Field PVT parameters adjusted for single stage, surface separation
at 150 psia and 80°F; cb f = .7993 (Data for pressures above 3330 psi
are taken from the flash experiment, table 2.1)

The data in table 2.4 are plotted in fig. 2.5(a) − (c).

In summary of this section, it can be stated that the laboratory differential liberation
experiment, which is regarded as best simulating phase separation in the reservoir,
provides an absolute set of PVT data in which all volumes are expressed relative to the
unit oil volume at the bubble point, the latter being a unique volume. The PVT
parameters conventionally used in the field, however, are dependent on the nature of
the surface separation. The basic differential data can be modified in accordance with
the surface separators employed using equs. (2.5) − (2.7) in which cb f and Rb f are
determined by flashing unit volume of reservoir oil through the separator system. The
modified PVT parameters thus obtained approximate the process of differential
 PVT ANALYSIS FOR OIL 65

liberation in the reservoir and flash expansion to stock tank conditions. Therefore if,
during the producing life of the reservoir, the separator conditions are changed, then
the fixed differential liberation data will have to be converted to give new tables of Bo
and Rs using values of cb f and Rsi f appropriate for the altered separator conditions.

This combination of differential liberation in the reservoir and flash expansion to the
surface is generally regarded as a reasonable approximation to Dodson's PVT analysis
technique4. In this form of experiment a differential liberation is performed but after
each pressure stage the volume of the oil remaining in the PV cell is flashed to stock
tank conditions through a chosen separator combination. The ratio of stock tank oil
volume to original oil volume in the PV cell prior to flashing gives a direct measure of
Bo, while the gas evolved in the flash can be used directly to obtain Rs. The process is
repeated taking a new oil sample for each pressure step, since the remaining oil in the
PV cell is always flashed to surface conditions. This type of analysis, while more
accurately representing the complex reservoir-production phase separation, is more
time consuming and therefore more costly, furthermore, it requires the availability of
large samples of the reservoir fluid. For low and moderately volatile crudes, the manner
of deriving the PVT parameters described in this section usually provides a very good
approximation to the results obtained from the Dodson analysis. For more volatile
crudes, however, the more elaborate experimental technique may be justified.

2.5 ALTERNATIVE MANNER OF EXPRESSING PVT LABORATORY ANALYSIS

RESULTS

The results of the differential liberation experiment, as listed in table 2.2, provide an
absolute set of data which can be modified, according to the surface separators used,
to give the values of the PVT parameters required for field use. In table 2.2 all volumes
are measured relative to the unit oil volume at the bubble point. There is, however, a
more common way of representing the results of the differential liberation in which
volumes are measured relative to the volume of residual oil at stock tank conditions.
This volume is obtained as the final step in the differential liberation experiment by
flashing the volume of oil measured at atmospheric pressure and reservoir
temperature, to atmospheric pressure and 60°F. This final step is shown in table 2.2 in
which 0.8296 relative oil volumes at 14.7 psia and 200°F yield 0.7794 relative oil
volumes at 14.7 psia and 60°F. This value of 0.7794 is the shrinkage factor for a unit
volume of bubble point oil during differential liberation to stock tank conditions and is
denoted by cb d . The value of cb d ,is not dependent on any separator conditions and
therefore, relating all volumes in the differential liberation to this value of cb d , which is
normally referred to as the "residual oil volume", will provide an alternative means of
expressing the differential liberation results.

It should be noted, however, that the magnitude of cb d is dependent on the number of

pressure steps taken in the differential experiment. Therefore, the differential liberation
results, in which all volumes are measured relative to cb d do not provide an absolute
set of data such as that obtained by relating all volumes to the unit volume of oil at the
bubble point.
 PVT ANALYSIS FOR OIL 66

In the presentation of differential data, in which volumes are measured relative to cb d ,

the values of vo and F in table 2.2 are replace by Bo d and Rs d where

Bo d = Differential oil formation volume factor

(rb/stb-residual oil)
and Rs d = Differential solution gas oil ratio
(scf/stb-residual oil)

Alternatively, by replacing cb f in equs. (2.5) and (2.6) by cb d , these parameters can be

expressed as

vo é rb rbb ù
Bod = ê ú (2.8)
cbd ë stb − residual rbb û

5.615 F é scf ù
and Rsd = Rsi d − ê ú (2.9)
cb d ë stb − residual û

where Rsi d is the initial dissolved gas relative to the residual barrel of oil at 60°F, and is
proportional to the total gas liberated in the differential experiment, thus

(Maximum value of F) é scf ù

Rsi d = × 5.615 ê ú (2.10)
cb d ë stb − residual û

and for the differential data presented in table 2.2

74.9557 × 5.615
Rsi d = = 540 scf stb − residual oil
.7794

The majority of commercial laboratories serving the industry would normally present
the essential data in the differential liberation experiment (table 2.2) as shown in
table 2.5.

There is a danger in presenting the results of the differential liberation experiment in

this way since a great many engineers are tempted to use the Bo d and Rs d values
directly in reservoir calculations, without making the necessary corrections to allow for
the surface separator conditions. In many cases, the error in directly using the data in
table 2.5 is negligible, however, for moderate and high volatility oils the error can be
quite significant and therefore, the reader should always make the necessary
correction to the data in table 2.5 to allow for the field separator conditions, as a matter
of course.
 PVT ANALYSIS FOR OIL 67

Pressure Formation Vol. Factor Solution GOR

Bo d = vo / cb d Rs d = Rsi d − 5.615 F / cb d
(psia)
4000 1.2734 540
3500 1.2798 540
3300 1.2830 (Bob d ) 540 (Rsi d )
3000 1.2534 479
2700 1.2329 428
2400 1.2123 378
2100 1.1930 328
1800 1.1742 281
1500 1.1576 236
1200 1.1399 118
900 1.1219 142
600 1.1038 97
300 1.0853 52
14.7 (200°F) 1.0644 0
14.7 ( 60°F) 1.0000 0
TABLE 2.5
Differential PVT parameters as conventionally presented by laboratories, in which
Bo and Rs are measured relative to the residual oil volume at 60°F

The conversion can be made by expressing and Rsd, in table 2.5, in their equivalent,
absolute forms of vo and F, in table 2.2, using equs. (2.8) and (2.9) and thereafter,
using equs. (2.5) and (2.6) to allow for the surface separators. This will result in the
required expressions for Bo and Rs. Alternatively, the required field parameters can be
calculated directly as

vo v é cb d ù é Bob f ù
Bo = = o ê ú = Bo d ê ú (2.11)
cb f cb d êë cb f úû êë Bob f úû

where

vo / cb d = Bo d the differential oil formation volume factor measured relative to the

residual oil volume as listed in table 2.5 (rb/stb-residual);

Bob f = 1/ cb f is the oil formation volume factor of the bubble point oil (rbb/stb)
determined by flashing the oil through the appropriate surface separators
and is measured relative to the stock tank oil volume (refer tables 2.3 and
2.4); and

Bob d = 1/ cb d is the oil formation volume factor of the bubble point oil determined
during the differential liberation experiment and is measured relative to
the residual oil volume (refer table 2.5) (rbb/stb-residual).

Similarly, the required solution gas oil ratio for use under field operating conditions is,
equ. (2.6)
 PVT ANALYSIS FOR OIL 68

5.615 F 5.615 F é cb d ù
Rs = Rsi f − = Rsi f − ê ú
cb f cb d êë cb f ûú

which, using equ. (2.9), can be expressed as

é Bob ù
Rs = Rsi f − (Rsi d − Rs d ) ê f ú (2.12)
B
ëê ob f úû

where

Rsi f = solution gas oil ratio of the bubble point oil, determined by flashing the oil
through the appropriate surface separators, and is measured relative to the oil volume
at 60°F and 14.7 psia (refer tables 2.3 and 2.4) (scf/stb).

Rsi d = solution gas oil ratio of the bubble point oil determined during the
differential experiment and measured relative to the residual oil volume at
60°F and 14.7 psia (refer table 2.5 and equ. (2.10)) (scf/stb-residual).

The differential data, as presented in table 2.5, can be directly converted to the
required form, table 2.4, using the above relations. For instance, using the following
data from table 2.5, at a pressure of 2400 psi

Bo d = 1.2123 (rb /barrel of residual oil at 60°F and 14.7 psia)

Rs d = 378 (scf/ —" — )

Bob d = 1.2830 (rb / —"— )

Rsi d = 540 (scf/ —" — )

while from the separator flash tests (table 2.3), for the optimum separator conditions of
150 psia and 80°F

Bob f = (1/ cb f ) = 1.2511(rb / stb)

Rsi f = 510 (scf / stb)

Therefore, using equ. (2.11)

1.2511
Bo = 1.2123 × = 1.1822 rb stb
1.2830

and equ. (2.12)

1.2511
Rs = 510 − (540 − 378) × = 352 scf / stb
1.2830
 PVT ANALYSIS FOR OIL 69

2.6 COMPLETE PVT ANALYSIS

The complete PVT analysis for oil, provided by most laboratories, usually consists of
the following experiments and calculations.

a) Compositional analysis of the separator oil and gas, for samples collected at the
surface, together with physical recombination, refer sec. 2.3(b), or; compositional
analysis of the reservoir fluid collected in a subsurface sample.

Such analyses usually give the mole fractions of each component up to the
hexanes. The hexanes and heavier components are grouped together, and the
average molecular weight and density of the latter are determined.

b) Flash expansion, as described in sec. 2.4 (table 2.1), conducted at reservoir

temperature. This experiment determines
− the bubble point pressure
− the compressibility of the undersaturated oil as

1 dvo 1 dBo
co = − = − (2.13)
vo dp Bo dp

− the total volume vt of the oil and gas at each stage of depletion.

c) Differential liberation experiment as described in sec. 2.4 to determine

− E, Z, F and vo (as listed in table 2.2), with F and vo measured relative to the
unit volume of bubble point oil.
Alternatively, by measuring cb d during the last stage of the differential liberation,
the above data can be presented as
− E, Z, Rsi d − Rs d (or just Rs d ) and Bo d (as listed in table 2.5), with Rs d and
Bo d measured relative to residual oil volume. In addition, the gas gravity is
measured at each stage of depletion.

d) Measurement of the oil viscosity at reservoir temperature (generally using the

rolling ball viscometer1,3), over the entire range of pressure steps from above
bubble point to atmospheric pressure. Gas viscosities are normally calculated at
reservoir temperature, from a knowledge of the gas gravity, using standard
correlations5.

e) Separator tests to determine the shrinkage, cb f , and solution gas oil ratio, Rsi f , of
unit volume of bubble point oil (1 barrel) when flashed through various separator
combinations (refer table 2.3). Instead of actually performing these tests, in many
cases the results are obtained using the phase equilibrium calculation
technique1.

f) Composition and gravity of the separator gas in the above separator tests.
 PVT ANALYSIS FOR OIL 70

REFERENCES

1) Amyx, J.W., Bass, D.M. and Whiting, R.L., 1960. Petroleum Reservoir
Engineering; Physical Properties. McGraw-Hill Book Company: 359−425.

2) Reudelhuber, F.O., 1957. Sampling Procedures for Oil Reservoir Fluids. J.Pet.
Tech., December.

3) Anonymous, 1966. API Recommended Practice for Sampling Petroleum

Reservoir Fluids. Official publication of the American Petroleum Institute,
January (API RP 44).

4) Dodson, C.R., Goodwill, D. and Mayer, E.H., 1953. Application of Laboratory PVT
Data to Reservoir Engineering Problems. Trans. AIME, 198: 287−298.

5) Carr, N.L., Kobayashi, R. and Burrows, D.B., 1954. Viscosity of Hydrocarbon

Gases under Pressure. Trans. AlME, 201: 264−272.