* Space Based Atronomy.

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A BRIEF HISTORY OF
THE UNITED STATES
ASTRONOMY SPACECRAFT
AND CREWED SPACE FLIGHTS
The early successes of Sputnik and the Explorer series spurred the
United States to develop long-range programs for exploring space. Once
the United States became comfortable with the technical demands of
spacecraft launches, NASA quickly began scientific studies in space
using both crewed and non-crewed spacecraft launches.
Teams of scientists began their studies in space Australia. After launch, scientists
close to home by exploring the Moon and the chase the balloon in a plane as the
solar system. Encouraged by those successes, balloon follows the prevailing winds,
they have looked farther out to nearly the begin- traveling thousands of kilometers
ning of the universe. before sinking back to Earth. A typ-
ical balloon launch yields many
Observing the heavens from a vantage point hours of astronomical observations.
above Earth is not a new idea. The idea of plac-
ing telescopes in orbit came quite early—at least Rocket research in the second half of
by 1923 when Hermann Oberth described the the 20th century developed the tech-
idea. Even before his time, there were a few nology for launching satellites.
attempts at space astronomy. In 1874, Jules Between 1946 and 1951, the U.S.
Janseen launched a balloon from Paris with two launched 69 V-2 rockets. The V-2
aeronauts aboard to study the effects of the rockets were captured from the
atmosphere on sunlight. Astronomers continue Germans after World War II and
to use balloons from launch sites in the used for high altitude research.
Antarctic; Palestine, Texas; and Alice Springs, Several of those flights studied ultra- U.S. V-2 rocket launch

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violet and x-ray emissions from the Sun. Today,

sounding rockets are used primarily by universi-
ties. They are inexpensive and quick, but provide
only a few minutes of observations.

To conduct its current research, NASA uses big

rockets like Atlas, Delta, Titan, and the Space NASA’s Kuiper Airborne Observatory
Shuttle as well as small rockets launched from a B-
52 aircraft to lift satellites into orbit. Except for the accommodate a 2.5 meter reflecting telescope,
largest rockets, which are launched in Florida and which is slightly larger than the Hubble Space
California, rocket research and launches occur at Telescope (HST) at 2.4 meters. Like KAO,
many places around the United States. NASA also SOFIA will conduct infrared astronomy and fly at
uses the Kuiper Airborne Observatory (KAO) that an altitude of 13,000 meters for 8 hours.
carries a 0.9-meter telescope inside a C-141 air-
craft. It flies above the densest part of the atmos- Over the years, NASA space probes have sent
phere and observes in the far-infrared and submil- back detailed images of the planets Mercury,
limeter wavelengths. KAO flies approximately 80 Venus, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and
times a year. KAO can reach an altitude of 13,700 Neptune. Mariner 2 was the first spacecraft to
meters with a normal flight time of 7.5 hours. explore another planet when it flew past Venus
in 1962. The missions to the planets have rede-
In the near future, NASA will begin flying the fined the picture of our solar system. Scientists
Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy have an incredible set of data from almost every
(SOFIA). SOFIA is a 747 aircraft modified to planet in the solar system.

Black Brandt sounding rocket ready for launch to study Final inflation of an instrument-carrying helium balloon before
Supernova 1987A launch from Palestine, TX

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of our nearest star. In the 1970’s, Skylab astro-

nauts brought back from orbit a wealth of data
on the Sun, using x-rays to study its activity.

In 1978, one of the most successful astronom-

ical satellite missions, the International
Ultraviolet Explorer (IUE), was launched.
This satellite has an ultraviolet telescope that
has been used to study the universe in the
ultraviolet portion of the electromagnetic
spectrum. Many scientists continue to use
IUE simultaneously with other satellites and
Earth telescopes to gather multi-wavelength
data on astronomical objects.

Other NASA satellites have carried x-ray

detectors into space. One of the first (1970)—
Skylab 4 picture of the Sun in ionized helium light called Uhuru (Swahili for freedom)—mapped
the entire sky in x-ray wavelengths. Later
We learned that Venus is hotter than Mercury. (1978), the second High Energy Astrophysics
Data from satellites in orbit around Venus have Observatory (HEAO-2), called Einstein,
told us about the atmosphere and terrain of the imaged many objects in x-ray light. Today a
planet. By monitoring Venus’ atmosphere, scien- satellite called ROSAT (a name honoring the
tists can study the effects of a runaway green- physicist who discovered x-rays, Dr. Wilhelm
house effect. Several Russian spacecraft have Roentgen) continues the study of individual
explored the surface of Venus as well as the sources of x-rays in the sky. All of these satel-
Moon and Mars. lites added new objects to the astronomical
zoo and helped scientists understand the
Although spacecraft have mapped the surface of processes that make x-rays in space. The sheer
Mars, the Mars Viking mission gently deposit- number of high-energy objects discovered by
ed two landers on the surface that sent back these satellites surprised and excited the scien-
data. They still sit on the surface there. The two tific community.
interplanetary travelers, Voyager 1 and 2
(launched in September and August 1977, The Infrared Astronomical Satellite (IRAS)
respectively) visited Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, was launched in 1983. It mapped the sky in
and Neptune and are now leaving the solar sys- infrared wavelengths. IRAS scientists have dis-
tem on their way into interstellar space. They covered thousands of infrared sources never
sent back new data on these gas giant planets. seen before. The infrared part of the spectrum
Their discoveries included volcanoes on Io (a tells about molecules in space and gas and dust
satellite of Jupiter), storms on Neptune, and clouds where new stars are hidden until they
ring shepherd satellites around Saturn. The two are bright enough to outshine their birth
Voyager missions represent an incredible suc- cloud.
cess story. They provided unique glimpses of
the planets and redefined the history of our The Space Shuttle is used to introduce instru-
solar system. ments into low Earth orbit. Satellites like the
HST orbit about 600 kilometers above Earth’s
Beginning in 1962, NASA launched a series of surface. This is a low Earth orbit and accessible
nine orbiting observatories to observe the Sun. to the Shuttle. To put satellites into high Earth
Astrophysicists began to understand the interior orbit, an upper stage must be carried in the

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Top: Thermal background radiation measured by the COBE The Hubble Space Telescope attached to the Space Shuttle
spacecraft Endeavour during the 1993 service mission

Bottom: Image of the Milky Way taken by the COBE spacecraft astronomer of the 17th century) took pictures of
several asteroids. The Galileo spacecraft was
Shuttle’s payload bay or the satellite is lofted designed to study Jupiter’s atmosphere, satellites,
with one of several different kinds of non- and surrounding magnetosphere. The spacecraft
crewed launch vehicles. For example, the is currently orbiting Jupiter and performing an
Geostationary Operational Environmental extended study of the planet’s moons.
Satellite (GOES) orbits about 40,000 kilome-
ters above Earth’s surface. A Delta rocket was Cosmic Background Explorer (COBE)
used to put GOES into high orbit. The choice Just a month later, in November 1989, the
of altitude—high Earth orbit or low Earth Cosmic Background Explorer (COBE) was
orbit—depends on the data to be measured. launched from a Delta rocket. This satellite sur-
veyed the entire sky in microwave wavelengths
Recent and Multi-Mission Programs and provided the first precise measurement of
variations in the background radiation of the uni-
Magellan verse. The distribution of this radiation does not
In May 1989, the Magellan spacecraft was follow the predictions of the Big Bang Theory.
released from the Space Shuttle and sent on its
way to orbit Venus. The atmosphere of Venus is The Hubble Space Telescope (HST)
unfriendly to humans with its thick sulfuric acid In April 1990, the crew of the Space Shuttle
clouds, high pressures, and high temperatures. Discovery launched the HST. This telescope
Magellan used radar to penetrate Venus’s dense combines ultraviolet and optical imaging with
atmosphere and map the planet’s surface. spectroscopy to provide high quality data of a
variety of astronomical objects. Although the
Galileo primary mirror aboard the satellite was later dis-
In October of that same year, another Shuttle covered to be slightly flawed, astronomers were
mission launched Galileo on its way to visit the able to partially compensate for the slightly out-
planet Jupiter. On its way out to Jupiter, Galileo of-focus images through computer processing. In
(named after Galileo Galilei, an Italian December 1993, the Hubble servicing mission

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Gamma ray bursts detected by the Compton Gamma Ray

Observatory

• Gamma ray loud blazars (quasars with particle

jets aimed at us) to be a new class of objects;
Deployment of the Compton Gamma Ray Observatory from and
the Space Shuttle Atlantis in 1991
• The galactic center glows in antimatter radia-
permitted astronauts to add compensating tion.
devices to the flawed mirror, to readjust its focus,
and to replace or repair other instruments and CGRO was safely and flawlessly de-orbited over
solar arrays. The servicing mission has led to the Pacific Ocean on June 4, 2000.
images of unprecedented light sensitivity and
clarity. Extreme Ultraviolet Explorer (EUVE)
In May 1992, a Delta rocket boosted the
Astro-1 and the Broad-Band X-ray Telescope Extreme Ultraviolet Explorer (EUVE) into orbit.
(BBXRT) This satellite, which concluded its mission in
In December 1990, the crew of the Space Shuttle December 2000, studied the far ultraviolet part
Columbia conducted two experiments during its of the spectrum. One unexpected result from
flight. The Astro-1 instrument platform and the this mission was the distances at which ultravio-
Broad-Band X-ray Telescope (BBXRT) both let sources were seen. The scientists expected to
study the x-ray and ultraviolet emissions of see ultraviolet radiation only from within 50
astronomical objects. light years of the Sun. EUVE detected extreme
ultraviolet emissions from distant galaxies in its
Compton Gamma Ray Observatory (CGRO) first year of operation.
A few months later, in April 1991, the Compton
Gamma Ray Observatory (CGRO) was Cassini-Huygens
launched from the Space Shuttle. CGRO is the Launched in October 1997, the Cassini-Huygens
second of NASA’s Great Observatories. During mission will do a detailed study of Saturn, its
its lifetime, CGRO made some of the most rings, its magnetosphere, its icy satellites, and its
important discoveries in the field of gamma-ray moon Titan. The Cassini Orbiter’s mission con-
astronomy: sists of delivering the Huygens probe (provided
by the European Space Agency) to Titan to study
• Gamma ray bursts (short-lived, but extreme- its clouds, atmosphere, and surface, and then
ly powerful explosions) are evenly distributed remaining in orbit around Saturn for detailed
across the sky, and thus outside the Milky studies of the planet and its rings and satellites.
Way galaxy; Cassini will arrive at Saturn on July 1, 2004.

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Chandra X-ray Observatory the Explorer program has a long history of pro-
Launched in July of 1999, Chandra is the third viding scientific instruments as part of other
of NASA’s Great Observatories, after the HST nations’ missions. Current Explorer missions
and CGRO. It is performing an exploration of include:
the hot turbulent regions in space and has 8- • Submillimeter Wave Astronomy Satellite
times greater resolution than previous x-ray tele- (SWAS)
scopes enabling it to detect sources more than • Advanced Composition Explorer (ACE)
20-times fainter than previous observations. • Transition Region and Coronal Explorer
Chandra’s improved sensitivity will make possi- (TRACE)
ble more detailed studies of black holes, super- • Fast Auroral Snapshot Explorer (FAST)
novas, and dark matter and increase our under- • Solar Anomalous and Magnetospheric Particle
standing of the origin, evolution, and destiny of Explorer (SAMPEX)
the universe. • Far Ultraviolet Spectroscopic Explorer (FUSE)
• Imager for Magnetopause-to-Aurora Global
The Discovery Program Exploration (IMAGE)
Discovery represents the implementation of • High Energy Transient Explorer-2 (HETE-2)
“Faster, Better, Cheaper” planetary missions. The • High Energy Solar Spectroscopic Imager
philosophy of Discovery is to solicit proposals (HESSI)
for an entire mission, put together by consortia • Microwave Anisotropy Probe (MAP)
comprised of industry, small businesses, and uni- • Cooperative Astrophysics and Technology
versities. The goal is to launch many, smaller Satellite (CATSAT)
missions that do focused science with fast turn- • Galaxy Evolution Explorer (GALEX)
around times and for which the entire mission • Cosmic Hot Interstellar Plasma Spectrometer
cost (design, development, launch vehicle, (CHIPS)
instruments, spacecraft, launch, mission opera- • Inner Magnetosphere Explorer (IMEX)
tions, and data analysis) is minimal. Discovery • Two Wide-Angle Imaging Neutral-Atom
missions selected to date include: Spectrometer (TWINS)
• Swift
• Near Earth Asteroid Rendezvous (NEAR) • Full-Sky Astrometric Mapping Explorer
• Mars Pathfinder (FAME)
• Lunar Prospector • Coupled Ion-Neutral Dynamics Investigations
• Stardust (CINDI)
• Genesis
• Comet Nucleus Tour (CONTOUR) The Mars Surveyor Program
• ASPERA-3 The Mars Surveyor program reflects a long-term
• Deep Impact commitment to the exploration of the Red
• Mercury Surface Space Environment Planet. NASA intends to launch one or two
Geochemistry and Ranging mission (MES- spacecraft to Mars whenever Mars’ orbit allows,
SENGER) approximately every 26 months. The first space-
craft in this series was the Mars Global Surveyor
The Explorer Program in 1996. The Mars ‘98 Orbiter and Lander were
The Explorer Program began with the launch of launched in December 1998 and January 1999
Explorer 1 in 1958, and became a sustained pro- but were lost during their journey to Mars. The
gram beginning in 1961. Over 70 “Explorer” 2001 Mars Odyssey orbiter is scheduled to arrive
missions have been launched successfully, pio- at Mars in late 2001 and is expected to produce
neering space research on micrometeoroids, the exceptional science mapping the mineralogy of
Earth’s magnetosphere, x-ray astrophysics, the the Martian surface. Currently under develop-
cosmic microwave background and many other ment are twin scientific exploration rovers sched-
fields of space science investigation. In addition, uled for launch in 2003. Each of the rovers will

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Astronomy Space Missions

(partial list)

Year Mission Target Year Mission Target

1957 Stratoscope I Sun 1983 IRAS infrared sky

1961 Explorer 11 gamma rays 1985 Spacelab-2 infrared sky
1962 Arobee X-ray sources 1989 Magellan Venus
1962 Mariner 2 Venus 1989 Galileo Jupiter/asteroids/
1963 Mars 1 Mars Earth/Venus
1965 Mariner 4 Mars 1989 COBE microwave sky
1967 OSO-3 gamma rays 1990 HST UV sky
1968 RAE-1 radio 1990 ROSAT X-ray sky
1968 OAO-2 UV sky 1990 Ulysses Sun
1969 Vela 5A gamma rays 1990 ASTRO-1 X-ray and UV sky
1969 Apollo 11 Moon 1990 ROSAT X-ray sky
1970 SAS-1 X-ray sky 1991 Yohko Sun in X-rays
1971 Explorer 43 solar wind/ radio 1992 Extreme UV Explorer X-ray sky
1971 Mariner 9 Mars 1994 Wind Solar wind
1972 Pioneer 10 deep space 1994 Clemintine Moon
1972 Copernicus UV sky 1995 Infrared Telescope in Space IR sky
1973 Pioneer 11 deep space 1995 Infrared Space Observatory IR sky
1973 Skylab Sun 1995 Rossi X-ray Timing Explorer X-ray sky
1973 Explorer 49 radio sources 1995 Solar Heliospheric Observatory Sun
1974 Mariner 10 Mercury 1995 ASTRO-2 UV sky
1975 SAS-3 X-ray sources 1996 Mars Global Surveyor Mars
1975 Viking 1 & 2 Mars 1996 Near Earth Asteroid Rendezvous Asteroid
1976 Viking 1 & 2 Mars 1996 Mars Pathfinder Mars
1977 Voyager 2 outer planets 1997 Cassini Saturn
1977 Voyager 1 outer planets 1998 Lunar Prospector Moon
1978 IUE UV sky 1999 Stardust Comet
1978 Pioneer Venus-A radar studies 1999 Mars Climate Orbiter Mars
1978 HEAO-2 X-ray sky 1999 Mars Polar Orbiter Mars
1999 Chandra X-ray Observatory X-ray sky

be delivered to the surface protected by inflated New Millennium Program

airbags similar to the successful Mars Pathfinder. NASA has an ambitious plan for space explo-
Each rover will be equipped with an integrated ration in the next century. It envisions a scenario
suite of instruments (cameras, spectrometers, in which spacecraft will have revolutionary new
microscopes, and abrasion tool) that will allow it capabilities compared to those of today.
to behave as a robotic field geologist. They will Spacecraft are envisioned as flying in formation,
have an exploration range of up to 1 kilometer or in fleets, or having artificial intelligence to
during their 90 days of operational life on the provide the kind of capability that can answer
surface of Mars. In 2005, NASA plans to launch the more detailed level of questions that scien-
a powerful scientific orbiter. This mission, the tists have about the universe. Missions include:
Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter, will focus on ana-
lyzing the surface at new spatial scales and in • Deep Space 1
new spectral regions in an effort to follow the • Deep Space 2
potential evidence of water from the Mars • Starlight
Global Surveyor images and to bridge the gap • Earth Observing 1
between surface observations and measurements • Earth Observing 3
from orbit. The next step in the Mars explo- • Space Technology 5
ration program strategy will be to send a long- • Space Technology 6
range, long-duration mobile science laboratory
to Mars (at least by 2009, and as early as 2007). The goal of the New Millennium Program (NMP)
This “smart lander” will be a major leap in sur- is to identify and test advanced technologies that
face measurements and pave the way for a future will provide spacecraft with the capabilities they
sample return mission. need in order to achieve NASA’s vision.

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Technologies such as solar electric propulsion and the coupled Sun-Earth system that directly affect
artificial intelligence promise a great leap forward life and society on Earth. LWS missions include:
in terms of future spacecraft capability, but they
also present a risk to missions that use them for the • Solar Dynamics Observatory (SDO)
first time. Through a series of deep space and Earth • Sentinels
orbiting flights, NMP will demonstrate these • Radiation Belt Mappers (RBM)
promising but risky technologies in space to prove • Ionospheric Mappers (IM)
that they work. Once validated, the technologies
pose less of a risk to missions that would like to use Scientific Balloon Program
them to achieve their scientific objectives. Balloons offer a low-cost, quick response method
for doing scientific investigations. Balloons are
International Solar Terrestrial Physics (ISTP) mobile, meaning they can be launched where the
Program scientist needs to conduct the experiment, and can
Collaborative efforts by NASA, the European be readied for flight in as little as six months.
Space Agency (ESA), and the Institute of Space Balloon payloads provide us with information on
and Astronautical Science (ISAS) of Japan led to the atmosphere, the universe, the Sun, and the
the International Solar-Terrestrial Physics pro- near-Earth and space environment. NASA launch-
gram, consisting of a set of missions being carried es about 30 scientific balloons each year.
out during the 1990’s and into the next century.
This program combines resources and scientific Sounding Rocket Program
communities on an international scale using a Experiments launched on sounding rockets pro-
complement of several missions, along with com- vide a variety of information, including chemical
plementary ground facilities and theoretical makeup and physical processes taking place in the
efforts, to obtain coordinated, simultaneous inves- atmosphere; the natural radiation surrounding the
tigations of the Sun-Earth space environment over Earth; and data on the Sun, stars, and galaxies.
an extended period of time. Missions include: Sounding rockets provide the only means of mak-
ing in-situ measurements at altitudes between the
• Wind maximum altitudes for balloons (about 30 miles
• Polar or 48 kilometers) and the minimum altitude for
• Geotail satellites (100 miles or 161 kilometers).
• The Solar and Heliospheric Observatory
(SOHO) Using space-borne instruments, scientists now
• Ulysses map the universe in many wavelengths.
• Advanced Composition Explorer (ACE) Satellites and telescopes provide data in radio,
• IMP-8 microwave, infrared, visible, ultraviolet, x-ray,
• EQUATOR-8 and gamma ray. By comparing data from an
object in the sky, in all wavelengths,
Living With A Star (LWS) astronomers are learning more about the history
Living With A Star (LWS) is a NASA initiative of our universe. Visit http://spacescience.nasa.gov,
that will develop the scientific understanding for more information about NASA Space
necessary to effectively address those aspects of Science missions and programs.

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