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Mathematical Modelling of Wind Turbine in a Wind Energy Conversion System:

Power Coefficient Analysis

Article  in  Applied Mathematical Sciences · January 2012

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Applied Mathematical Sciences, Vol. 6, 2012, no. 91, 4527 - 4536

Mathematical Modelling of Wind Turbine

in a Wind Energy Conversion System:
Power Coefficient Analysis
A. W. Manyonge1 , R. M. Ochieng1 , F. N. Onyango 1

and J. M. Shichikha 2

1
Centre for Research on New and Renewable Energies
Maseno University, P. O. BOX 333, Maseno, Kenya

2
Chepkoilel University College
P.O. Box 1125, Eldoret, Kenya

[email protected], [email protected]
[email protected], [email protected]

Abstract
The world is increasingly going green in its energy use. Wind power
is a green renewable source of energy that can compete effectively with
fossil fuel as a generator of power in the electricity market. For this
effective competion, the production cost must be comparable to that
of fossil fuels or other sources of energy. The initial capital investment
in wind power goes to machine and the supporting infrastructure. Any
factors that lead to decrease in cost of energy such as turbine design,
construction and operation are key to making wind power competi-
tive as an alternative source of energy. A mathematical model of wind
turbine is essential in the understanding of the behaviour of the wind
turbine over its region of operation because it allows for the develop-
ment of comprehensive control algorithms that aid in optimal operation
of a wind turbine. Modelling enables control of wind turbine’s perfor-
mance. This paper attempts to address part or whole of these general
objectives of wind turbine modelling through examination of power co-
efficient parameter. Model results will be beneficial to designers and
researchers of new generation turbines who can utilize the information
to optimize the design of turbines and minimize generation costs leading
4528 A. W. Manyonge, R. M. Ochieng, F. N. Onyango and J. M. Shichikha

to decrease in cost of wind energy and hence, making it an economically

viable alternative source of energy.

Mathematics Subject Classification: 65C20

Keywords: Wind velocity, Turbine power, Power coefficient, Tip speed

ratio, Generator, Grid

1 Introduction
At this moment in time, the world is going the way of green energy(renewable
energies) in its energy consumption. Wind energy or wind power describe the
process by which wind is used to generate mechanical or electric power. Use
of wind energy for electricity generation purposes is becoming an increasingly
attractive energy source partly due to the increase in energy demand worldwide
and environmental concerns. Burning of fossil fuels emit gases such as carbon
dioxide into the atmosphere that lead to global warming. Wind energy does
not rely on fossil fuels for energy generation. A typical wind energy conversion
system consists of three major devices making up a wind turbine that convert
wind energy to electric energy. The first device is the rotor which consists of
two or three fibre glass blades joined to a hub that contains hydraulic motors
that change each blade according to prevailing wind conditions so that the
turbine can operate efficiently at varying wind speeds. The nacelle is a large
housing behind the rotor that houses the drive shaft, gearbox, transformer and
generator. Nacelle is usually mounted over a yaw gear which turns it and the
rotor so that the wind is normal to the rotor plane all the time for maximum
tapping of energy from the wind. The tower supports the rotor and the nacelle.
The kinetic energy in the wind is converted into mechanical energy by the
turbine by way of shaft and gearbox arrangement because of the different op-
erating speed ranges of the wind turbine rotor and generator. The generator
converts this mechanical energy into electrical energy. The mechanical power
obtained can be used to perform important tasks such as grinding of grain or
pumping of water. The electricity generated can be used in human daily activ-
ities. It can be used to power homes, schools, hospital, industries, businesses
etc.
The major wind energy system components that lend themselves to mod-
elling can be grouped as follows: (i) the wind model, (ii) the turbine model,
(iii) the shaft and gearbox model, (iv) the generator model and (v) the control
Mathematical modelling of wind turbine 4529

system model. In this paper we shall confine ourselves to the study of the
turbine model.

1.1 Turbine Model

A wind turbine consists of a rotor mounted to a nacelle and a tower with two
or more blades mechanically connected to an electric generator. The gearbox
in the mechanical assembly transforms slower rotational speeds of the wind
turbine to higher rotational speeds on the electric generator. The rotation of
the electric generator’s shaft generates electricity whose out put is maintained
by a control system. There are two types of design models for wind turbines.
The classification is made on the basis of their axis in which the turbines ro-
tate: Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine (HAWT) and Vertical Axis Wind Turbine
(VAWT). The VAWT is also called Darrieus rotor named after its inventor[6].
HAWT have the ability to collect maximum amount of wind energy for time
of day and season and their blades can be adjusted to avoid high wind storm.
Wind turbines operate in two modes namely constant or variable speed. For
a constant speed turbine, the rotor turns at constant angular speed regardless
of wind variations. One advantage of this mode is that it eliminates expensive
power electronics such as inverters and converters. Its disadvantage however,
is that it constrains rotor speed so that the turbine cannot operate at its peak
efficiency in all wind speeds. For this reason a constant wind speed turbine
produces less energy at low wind speeds than does a variable wind speed tur-
bine which is designed to operate at a rotor speed proportional to the wind
speed below its rated wind speed[1].
The output power or torque of a wind turbine is determined by several
factors. Among them are (i) turbine speed, (ii) rotor blade tilt, (iii) rotor
blade pitch angle (iv) size and shape of turbine, (v) area of turbine, (vi) ro-
tor geometry whether it is a HAWT or a VAWT, (vii) and wind speed. A
relationship between the output power and the various variables constitute
the mathematical model of the wind turbine. A mathematical model of wind
turbine is essential in the understanding of the behaviour of the wind turbine
over its region of operation and also modelling enables control of wind turbine’s
performance. This paper attempts to address part or whole of these general
objectives of wind turbine modelling.
4530 A. W. Manyonge, R. M. Ochieng, F. N. Onyango and J. M. Shichikha

1.2 Mathematical Formulation of Turbine Model

Under constant acceleration a, the kinetic energy E of an object having mass
m and velocity v is equal to the work done W in displacing that object from
rest to a distance s under a force F , i.e. E = W = F s. According to Newton’s
second law of motion

F = ma (1)

thus, the kinetic energy becomes

E = mas (2)

From kinematics of solid motion, v 2 = u2 + 2as where u is the initial velocity

2 −u2
of the object. This implies that a = v 2s . Assuming the initial velocity of
v2
the object is zero, we have that a = 2s . Hence from equation (2) we have that

1
E = mv 2 (3)
2
This kinetic energy formulation is based on the fact that the mass of the solid
is a constant. However, if we consider wind (air in motion) as a fluid, both
density and velocity can change and hence no constant mass. For this reason
Reccab et. al[5] formulate the kinetic energy law with a factor of 23 instead of 12 .
In this paper we shall assume that the density of air does not vary considerably
even with variation in altitude or temperature and use the kinetic energy law
in the form of equation (3). Hence the kinetic energy(in joules) in air of mass
m moving with velocity vw (wind) can be calculated from equation (3) above.
The power P in the wind is given by the rate of change of kinetic energy, i.e.
dE 1 dm 2
P = = v (4)
dt 2 dt w
But mass flow rate dm dt
is given by dm
dt
= ρAvw where A is the area through
which the wind in this case is flowing and ρ is the density of air. With this
expression, equation (4) becomes
1
P = ρAvw3 (5)
2
The actual mechanical power Pw extracted by the rotor blades in watts is the
difference between the upstream and the downstream wind powers[1], i.e.
1
Pw = ρAvw (vu2 − vd2 ) (6)
2
Mathematical modelling of wind turbine 4531

where vu is the upstream wind velocity at the entrance of the rotor blades in
m/s and vd is the downstream wind velocity at the exit of the rotor blades
in m/s. We shall see later that these two velocities give rise to the blade tip
speed ratio. Now from the mass flow rate, we may write

ρA(vu + vd )
ρAvw = (7)
2
vw being the average of the velocities at the entry and exit of rotor blades of
turbine. With this expression, equation(6) becomes Pw = 12 ρA(vu2 − vd2 ) (vu +v
2
d)

which may be simplified as follows:

1   vu 2 vd 
Pw = ρA (vu − vd2 ) + (vu2 − vd2 )
2 2 2
  3 
1 vu vu vd2 vd vu2 vd3
= ρA − + −
2 2 2 2 2

 vd 2 vd 3

1 1 − ( ) + ( vd
) − ( )
= ρAvu3 vu vu vu
2 2
or
1
Pw = ρAVu3 Cp (8)
2
v v v
1−( v d )2 +( vd )−( v d )3
where Cp = u
2
u u
or

(1 + vd
vu
)(1 − ( vvud )2 )
Cp = (9)
2
The expression for Cp in equation (9) is the fraction of upstream wind power
captured by the rotor blades. Cp is often called the Betz limit after the Ger-
many physicist Albert Betz who worked it out in 1919. Other names for this
quantity are the power coefficient of the rotor or rotor efficiency. The power
coefficient is not a static value. It varies with tip speed ratio of the wind tur-
bine. Let λ represent the ratio of wind speed vd downstream to wind speed vu
upstream of the turbine, i.e.
vd
λ= (10)
vu
or
blade tip speed
λ= (11)
wind speed
4532 A. W. Manyonge, R. M. Ochieng, F. N. Onyango and J. M. Shichikha

λ is called the tip speed ratio of the wind turbine. The blade tip speed in
metres per second can be calculated from the rotational speed of the turbine
and the length of the blades used in the turbine, i.e.
angular speed of turbine(ω) × R
blade tip speed = (12)
wind speed
where R is the radius of the turbine and ω is measured in radian per second.
Substitution of equation (10) into equation (9) leads to

(1 + λ)(1 − λ2 )
Cp = (13)
2
Differentiate Cp with respect to λ and equate to zero to find value of λ
2 ).1
that makes Cp a maximum, i.e. dC dλ
p
= (1+λ).(−2λ)+(1−λ
2
= 0 yielding λ =
1 1
−1 or λ = 3 . Now λ = 3 makes the value of Cp a maximum. This maxi-
mum value is 16 27
. Thus the Betz limit says that no wind turbine can convert
16
more than 27 (59.3%) of the kinetic energy of the wind into mechanical energy
turning a rotor, i.e Cpmax = 0.59. Wind turbines cannot operate at this maxi-
mum limit though. The real world is well below the Betz limit with values of
0.35 − 0.45 common even in best designed wind turbines.
If the rotor of a wind turbine turns too slowly most of the wind will pass
through the openings between blades with little power extraction. If on the
other hand the rotor turns too fast, the rotating blades act as a solid wall
obstructing the wind flow again reducing the power extraction. The turbines
must be designed to operate at their optimal wind tip speed ratio λ in order
to extract as much power as possible from the wind stream. Theoretically
the higher the λ the better in terms of efficient operation of the generator.
There are disadvantages however. High λ causes erosion of leading edges of
the blades due to impact of dust or sand particles found in the air. This would
require use of special erosion resistant coating material that may increase the
cost of energy. Higher λ also leads to noise generation, vibration, reduced
rotor efficiency due to drag and tip losses and excessive rotor speeds can lead
to turbine failure.
Other factors that impede complete energy conversion in a complete turbine
system are things such as gearbox, bearings, number and shape of blades etc.
Only 10 − 30% of the power of the wind is ever actually converted into usable
electricity.
Air density ρ is another flow input quantity at the rotor system. ρ is a
function of both air pressure and temperature. When air pressure increases ρ
increases. When air temperature decreases ρ increases. This is in accordance
Mathematical modelling of wind turbine 4533

with the equation of state

P = ρRT (14)

where R is the gas constant. Both temperature and pressure decrease with
increasing elevation. Hence site location is important as elevation has ma-
jor effect on power generated as a result of air density variation. At atmo-
spheric pressure, Patm = 14.7psi, temperature is T = 600 F and density is
ρ = 1.225kg/m3 . Temperature and pressure both vary with elevation. This
affects the air density. [6] propose the following relation
0.297
ρ = ρ0 e− 3048 Hm (15)

where Hm is site elevation in metres. At high elevations the air density cor-
rections can be important.

1.3 Power Coefficient Analysis

Equation (8) relates the parameters that are required in power production by
a wind turbine. The power coefficient Cp is the most important parameter
in the case of power regulation[4]. It is a non-linear function whose value is
unique to each turbine type and is a function of wind speed that the turbine
is operating in. Each turbine manufacturer provides look up tables for Cp for
operation purposes. Other than look up tables from turbine manufactures,
models for power coefficient have been developed. For example [3] models Cp
as a function of the tip speed ratio and the blade pitch angle θ in degrees as
1 1
Cp (λ, θ) = C1 (C2 − C3 βθ − C4 θx − C5 )e−C6 β (16)
β
where the values of the coefficients C1 − C6 and x depend on turbine type. θ is
defined as the angle between the plane of rotation and the blade cross section
chord. For a particular turbine type C1 = 0.5, C2 = 116, C3 = 0.4, C4 =
0, C5 = 5, C6 = 21 and β is defined by
1 1 0.035
= − (17)
β λ + 0.08θ 1 + θ3
Anderson and Bose [3] suggested the following empirical relation for Cp
1
Cp = (λ − 0.022θ 2 − 5.6)e−0.17λ (18)
2
where θ is the pitch angle of the blade in degrees, λ is the tip speed ratio of
(mph)
the turbine defined by λ = ωvbw(rads−1 ) where ωb is the turbine angular speed.
4534 A. W. Manyonge, R. M. Ochieng, F. N. Onyango and J. M. Shichikha

1.4 Modelling and Control of the Power Output

The power output of a turbine as we have mentioned is determined by the area
of the rotor blades, wind speed and the power coefficient. The output power
of the turbine can be varied by changing the area and flow conditions at the
rotor system and this forms the basis of the control system. Cp is achieved at
a particular λ which is specific to the design of the turbine.
Hence the model turbine consists of equations (5), power in the wind, equation
(8), power captured by the turbine, equation(10), he tip speed ratio of the
turbine and the power coefficient equation (16). Control of out put of wind
energy lies in a number of parameters. The rotor area and flow conditions at
the rotor system(vw , ρ, Cp ), the rotor torque and pitch angle control. Fixed
speed stall-regulated turbines have no options for control input. However,
variable speed wind turbines use generator torque to control and optimize
power output. They also use pitch control to control the output power above
their rated wind speed. Next we use MATLAB to simulate and perform an
analysis of the variation of Cp against λ. With varying θ we obtain curves
called performance curves for a given ’best’ turbine and simulate its ’best’
operation range. For our simulated turbine, we use the constants suggested
1 1
in [3] with variation in the term 1+.08θ becoming 1+.08θ+.0001 . This additional
reasonable constant avoids infinity values when λ = 0. The Cp is plotted for
values of θ = 00 , θ = 30 ,θ = 60 , θ = 100 , θ = 150 and θ = 240 . This is depicted
in figure 1 below. From the figure, it is clear that pitching the blades of the
turbine reduces Cp from about 40% when the pitch angle is 0 to about 10%
when the pitch angle increases to 30 . This factor is good because it controls
power output of a variables wind speed turbine (like the one we are considering)
when the wind speed is above the rated one. Another turbine design model
has the constant C4 = −0.5. This increases the value of the efficiency Cp and
the range of the tip speed ratio, however, at first pitching of 30 , the efficiency
of the turbine drastically reduces to about 10% as shown in figure 2.
In conclusion we have modelled a variable speed turbine with a particular
consideration of some the design parameters. The turbine operation exhibits
a reasonable range of tip speed ratio and high efficiency.
Mathematical modelling of wind turbine 4535

θ=0
θ=3
0.4 θ=6
θ=10
θ=15
0.3 θ=24

p
Power Coefficient C
0.2

0.1

−0.1
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Tip Speed Ratio λ

Figure 1: Simulated Power Coefficient

θ=0
θ=3
0.4 θ=6
θ=10
θ=15
0.3 θ=24
p
Power Coefficient C

0.2

0.1

−0.1
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Tip Speed Ratio λ

Figure 2: Simulated Power Coefficient(with variation of constant C4 )

References
[1] K. E. Johnson, Adaptive Torque Control of Variable Speed Wind Tur-
bines, NREL/TP-500-36265, August 2004.
 4536 A. W. Manyonge, R. M. Ochieng, F. N. Onyango and J. M. Shichikha

[2] L. Dodson, K. Busawon and M. Jovanovic, Proceedings of the 44 IEEE

Conference on Decision and Control and the European Control Confer-
ence, Seville, Spain, December 12-15 2005.

[3] P. M. Anderson and B. Anjan, Stability Simulation of Wind Turbine

Systems. IEEE Transactions on Power Oprators and Systems. Vol. PAS-
102, No. 12(1983), pp. 3791-3795.

[4] R. Alejandro, L. Álvaro, G. Vázquez, D. Aguilar and G. Azevedo, Mod-

eling of a Variable Wind Speed Turbine with a Permanent Magnet Syn-
chronous Generator. IEEE Inter. Symposium on Industrial Electronics
(ISIE), Seoul, Korea July 5-8, 2009.

[5] R. M. Ochieng, F. N. Onyango and A. O. Oduor, Physical Formulation of

the Expression of Wind Power, Internaltion Journal of Energy Environ-
ment and Economics, 18(2010), 1-7.

[6] R. P. Mukund, Wind and Solar Power Systems, CRC Press, London, 1999.

Received: April, 2012

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