AGR 204 Farming System and Sustainable Agriculture (1+1)

Chapter 1. Cropping system: Definition, Principles and basic concepts

Bourgeoning human population on one hand and progressively shrinking

agriclutural land availability per capita on the other warrants temporal and spatial
intensification on cropping. Agriculture system today becomes manipulations of
ecosystems for human gains. The yield and profit maximization approach has led
to serious environmental, ecological, economic and social problems in today’s
agriculture. The human society today is dominated by rapid technological and
political innovations, summed by terms like globalization or information
technology.
The disseminated information is making more conscious on the quality of food
and environmental consequences. Integrated information on crop, soil, climate, vis-
à-vis socio-economic condition could be generated to evolve new cropping
systems or to modify the traditional once to meet the challenge of time. Temporal
and spatial intensification of cropping constitutes the basic ingredients of national
food production strategy for its stabilization. A cropping systems adopted on a
farm has more obvious and detectable social, ecological, economic and
environmental implication. So, it is necessary to understand the principles and
concepts underlying the entire ecosystem to have profitable, resource efficient and
environmentally sound ecosystem.
Principles and Concepts

A system is set of elements which depend on each other and interacting

among themselves. Systems approach which is extensively employed in business
and industry is being introduced in crop production also with a view to use the
available resources effectively and to increase the returns to the farmer.
Accordingly crop production research has been reoriented as cropping system
research in the country. Agronomic research increase the resource use efficiency
for a given crop, cropping systems and cropping pattern as a variable with a view
to use the available resources more efficiently. Hence, the objective of any
cropping system is to increase the efficiency or utilization of resources – land,
water and solar radiation. The efficiency is measured by the quantity of produce
obtained per unit resource in a unit time.

The productive base of a cropping system is the crop growth and yield. Crop
yield (Y) can then be considered a function (f) of management factors (M) and
environment (E).
Y = f (M, E )

For the cropping systems researcher, management (M) includes the type and
arrangement of crops in time and space (cropping pattern), choice of variety,
methods of stand establishment, pest management and harvest. Environment (E) is
composed of such land and climate related variables as rainfall, irrigation, soil,
solar radiation and temperature and availability of such resources as power, labour
and cash. Economic factors such as cost of inputs, price of produce, interest rates,
etc., should be included in the environment components. Hence, it is evident that
the management term is treated as a variable and the environment term as
invariant. A cropping system researcher studies the interaction between M and E
and seeks to determine how he should vary his cropping pattern, M to optimize the
returns for different production environment. In this concept, E becomes a fixed
constraint and the interaction between E and M gets merged with M. On this basis,
cropping system can be defined as cropping pattern and its management to derive
benefits from a given resource base under specific environmental condition. The
term cropping systems can be applied to a farm or a region. Cropping system is
location specific and to develop an alternate cropping system for a location, the
prevailing environment of that location should be clearly understood. In suggesting
an alternative cropping system for a location, it is generally assumed that the
available physical resources are not fully exploited and hence by intensification of
cropping, this lacuna can be removed. The crop intensification techniques include
intercropping, relay cropping, sequential cropping and ratoon cropping.
Importance of Cropping System

The cropping system research to date has adequately demonstrated the

following potentials for adopting cropping system as a development strategy in
contrast to monoculture

• Improved stability of food supply throughout the year

• Increased total food production per land unit per year, generally
accompanied by an increase in total income for the farmer

• Sustaining the soil health

• Improved distribution of income throughout the year

• Increased total employment of labour throughout the year , and

• Improved nutrition for the farm family from crop diversification

• The use of cropping system as a strategy for increasing productivity and the
income of small farmers
 Questions:

1. Crop yield is the function________ and ________________

2. Write about the importance of importance of cropping system

3. Write about principle and concept of cropping system

Chapter 2 Classification of cropping system - Mono cropping, intensive

cropping, multiple cropping, mixed cropping

System

A system can be defined as arrangement of components which process input into

output. Each system consists of boundaries, components, interactions between
components, inputs and outputs.

Crop System

It is defined as arrangement of crop population that transfer solar energy,

nutrients, water and other inputs into useful biomass. Crop system is a sub system
of cropping system

Eg. Maize crop system, Rice crop system, Sugarcane crop system

Cropping System

The cropping patterns used on a farm and their interaction with farm resources,
other farm enterprises, available technology and environment (physical, biological
and socio economic) which determine their makeup.

Cropping Pattern :

The yearly sequence and spatial arrangement of crops or crops and fallow on
a given area
 Eg. Rice-Rice- Pulses
Groundnut- Maize- Fallow
Fingermillet- Cotton- Pulses/Fallow
Chillies- Maize- Green manure
Crop Rotation

The repetitive cultivation of an ordered succession of crops (or crops and

fallow) on the same land. One cycle may several years to complete

Eg. Rice- Rice-Pulse ( one year rotation)

Ground nut- Maize- Fallow- Green gram- Sunflower- Fallow (2 yr.
rotation)
Sugarcane- Sugarcane ratoon- Rice- Maize-Green manue ( 3 yr.
rotation)
Mono cropping

The repetitive growing of the same crop on the same land.

Eg. Growing rice after rice in the same field season after season

Multiple Cropping

The intensification of cropping in temporal and spatial dimension; growing

two or more crops on the same field in one year.

Double, Triple and Quadruple Cropping

Growing two, three and four crops, respectively, on the same land in a year
in sequence

Sole cropping - One crop variety grown alone in pure stand at normal density
Intercropping

Growing two or more crops simultaneously on the same field; crop

intensification is in both temporal and spatial dimensions; there is intercrop
competition during all or part o crop growth. Intercropping systems tend to be low
input, risk reducing under dry farming situations for cropdiversification and
fulfillment of subsistence objectives. At higher input levels it will be able to
necessary to reevaluate and recombine various activities.

Eg. Groundnut + Redgram + Castor

Cotton + Black gram/green gram
Sorghum + Redgram
Mixed Intercropping

Growing two or more crops simultaneously with no distinct row

arrangement. Also referred to as mixed cropping. The seeds of the crop varieties
are mixed in desired proposition, sown and incorporated.

Eg. Grass legume mixture; Mixing the seeds of sorghum and cowpea in 5:1
ratio and broad casted.

Row Intercropping

Growing two or more crops simultaneously where one or more crops are
planted in rows; often referred to as intercropping.

Eg. Sorghum in paired rows intercropped with one row of cowpea

Planting 1 row of red gram for every 10 rows of groundnut
Strip Intercropping

Growing two or more crops simultaneously in different strips wide enough

to permit independent cultivation but narrow enough for the crops to interact
agronomically. Normally followed in sloppy lands and in soils prone for erosion.

Eg. Wheat and Bengal gram in alternate strips of 5-10 m

Relay Cropping

Growing two or more crops simultaneously during the part of the life cycle
of each. A second crop is planted after the first crop has reached its reproductive
stage of growth but before it is ready for harvest.

Eg. Broad casting black gram or green gram in the standing rice crop about
7-10 days before its harvest

Sequential Cropping

It is defined as growing of two or more crops in sequence on the same field

in a year. The succeeding crop of the system is planted after the preceding crop has
been harvested. Here the crop intensification is only in the time dimension and
there is no intercrop competition. Sequential cropping systems are customarily
encountered where resource endowments, especially water availability. The
sequential cropping utilize higher inputs and income maximization is a more
important objective than in the case of intercropping.
Ratoon cropping

The cultivation of crop regrowth after harvest, although not necessarily for
grain. Eg. Sorghum ratoon, sugarcane ratoon, fodder grass ratoon

Farming System
 It is decision making unit comprising the farm household, cropping and
livestock systems that transform land, capital (external inputs) and labour
(including genetic resources and knowledge) into useful products that can be
consumed or sold. The farming systems comprises the cropping system(s), the
livestock system(s) and the farm household (Fresco and Westphal, 1988).

Agroforestry

It is a collective name for land use systems in which woody perennials

(trees, shrubs, etc.,) are grown in association with herbaceous plants (crops,
pastures) and/or livestock in a spatial arrangement, a rotation or both, and in which
there are both ecological and economic interactions between the tree and non-tree
components of the system.

Alley Cropping

It is an agroforestry system in which food crops are grown in alleys formed

by hedgerows of trees and shrubs, preferably, legumes. The hedgerows are cut
back at planting and periodically pruned during cropping to prevent shading and to
reduce competition with the associated food crops. The hedgerows are allowed to
grow freely to cover the land when there are no crops. When this concept is
extended to include livestock by using a portion of the hedgerow foliage for animal
feed, it is called alley farming (Kang et al.,1990).

Cropping index

The number of crops grown per annum on a given area of land multiplied by 100

Terminologies in cropping systems

Aboriculture: Cultivation of tree species for fruits, gums, mats, etc.

Agri-silviculture: It is the conscious and deliberate use of land for the concurrent
production of agricultural and forest crops.

Agricultural ecosystem or agro-ecosystem: It is composed of the total complex

of the crops and animals in an area together with overall environment and as
modified by management practices.

Agro-forestry: It is a self-sustaining land management system which combines

production of agricultural crops with that of tree crops as also with that of the
livestock simultaneously or sequentially, on the same unit of land.

Agri-silvi-pastoral system: A system in which land is managed for the concurrent

production of agricultural and forest crops and for the rearing of domesticated
animals. This system is, in fact a combination of agri-silviculture and the silvi-
pastoral system.

Agro – ecology: The study of the relationship of agricultural crops and

environment.

Agrostology: A branch of science which deals with the study of grasses, their
classification management and utilization.

Alley cropping: A farming system in which arable crops are grown in alleys
formed by tress or shrubs, established mainly to hasten soil fertility.

Annidation: Complementary use of environmental resources by intercrop

components.

Arboriculture: Cultivation of woody plants, particularly those used for decoration

and shade.
Blind cultivation: Cultivating with a harrow weeder, rotary weeder or there
implements to kill weeds before a seeded or planted crop has come up.

Bush-fallow system: Farming systems in which the natural regeneration of self-

propagated plants in successional community is the restorative agent in respect of
nutrients, organic matter, water conservation and microclimate. Crop plants are
grown on patches cleared by felling of trees and/or burning of grasses and herbs,
fallow succession dominated by woody shrubs and grasses.

Co-operative better farming: A type of co-operative farming where the land is

not pooled and the cultivation is carried on by each farmer separately. A member is
free to form his own way of farming except in respect of the purpose for which he
has joined the society e.g. for irrigation, purchase of seed or marketing of produce
etc.

Co-operative collective farming: A type of co-operative farming where in the

land is owned by the society and cultivation is carried out jointly. The members
work on the land under the direction of a managing committee. The profits are paid
to the members in proportion to the work and capital contributed by each member.
The right or share of individual member in the land is not recognized.

Co-operative farming: Co-operative farming means a system under which all

agricultural operations or part of them are carried out jointly by the farmers on a
voluntary basis, each farmer retaining right in his own land. The farmers pool their
land, labour and capital. The land is treated as one unit and cultivated jointly under
the direction of on elected management person. Apart of profit is distributed by
each farmer and the rest of the profit is distributed in proportion to the wages
earned by each farmer.
Co-operative joint farming: In this type of farming, the land of members is
pooled for joint cultivation. The ownership of each member over his own land is
recognized by payment of a dividend in proportion to the value of his land. The
members work under the direction of the managing committee and each member
receives for his daily labour.

Co-operative tenant farming: A type of co-operative farming wherein the land is

held by the society and not by the members independently. The land is then
divided into plots which are leased out to members. The society arranges for
agricultural requirements e.g. credit, seeds, manures, marketing of the produce etc.
Each member is responsible to the society for payment of the rent of his joint plots.
He is at liberty to dispose off his produce in such a manner as he likes.

Commercial farming: The type of farming where capital input is high and the
production is marked and profit oriented.

Conservation cropping: A way of farming that aims to maximise the protection

against erosion that can be achieved through soil and crop management for
sustained farm productivity.

Contingency cropping: Contingency cropping is growing of crops in aberrant

situations like drought and floods. It aims at partial mitigation of misery by
producing some food, feed and fodder to encounter emergency conditions.

Contour farming: A method of cultivation wherein operations including sowing

are carried out along the contour. It reduces run-off, conserves more moisture and
increases crop yield.
Contour strip cropping: The cultivation practice involving growing of a soil
exposing and erosion permitting crop in strips of suitable width alternating with
strip of soil protecting and erosion-resisting crops, along with the contours.

Crop ecology: The branch of ‘plant ecology’ which deals specifically with the
study of the interrelation amongst crop plants and environment including
management practices.

Crop ecosystems: Cropping systems ranging between monoculture and multi-

species culture of field and garden crops, single or combination and their relation
to environment conditions and management practices.

Cropping scheme: The plan according to which crops are raised on individual
plots of a farm with an object of getting the maximum returns from each crop
without impairing fertility of the soil.

Cropping system: Pattern of crops taken up for a given piece of land, or order in
which the crops are cultivated on a piece of land over a fixed period and their
interaction with farm resources and other farm enterprises and available
technology which determine their make up.

Diversified farm: A farm on which no single product or source of income equals

as much as 50% of the total receipt and no such farm the farmer depends on
several sources of income.

Dry farming or dry land farming: The practice of crop production entirely with
rain water received during the crop season or on conserved soil moisture in low
rainfall (< 800 mm) areas of arid and semi-arid climate and the crops may faced
mild to very severe stress during their life cycle.
Energy farming: A concept involving the farming of fast-growing plants or trees
for the purpose of providing biomass that can be used directly as fuel or converted
into other forms of fuel or energy products.

Farm management: The branch of agricultural economics which deals with the
business principles and practices of farming with an abject of obtaining the
maximum possible return from the farm as a unit under a sound farming
programme.

Farm planning: A process involving many decisions to be taken in respect of

kinds of crops to grow, rotations, mixtures, soil and water conservation practices to
be followed and building bullocks, machinery purchase etc.

Farming systems: Farming systems represent an appropriate combination of farm

enterprises, viz. cropping systems, livestock, fisheries, forestry, poultry, and the
means available to the farmer to raise them for profitability. It interacts adequately
with the environment without dislocating the ecological and socio-economic
balance on one hand, and attempts to meet the national goals on the other.

Farming system research: It is highly location-specific research which is multi-

and interdisciplinary in nature and uses whole farm approach for improved
technologies to enhance and stabilize agricultural production. The research strategy
includes base data analysis, on-centre research and on-farm research. This is the
final evaluation of system in the real world situation of the farmer.

Jhum cultivation: The slash-and-burn type of shifting cultivation in the hill tracts
of Bangaladesh and Assam.

Ley farming: A rotation of arable crops requiring annual cultivation and artificial
pastures occupying field for two years or longer.
Mechanized farming: It is the farming in which machine-drawn implements are
used for the reduction of labour requirement or elimination of manual work,
timeliness of operations and improved quality of husbandry, resulting in higher
output and better quality of produce for increased profit.

Natural farming: It is a system of alternative agriculture in which the plants are

grown as natural entities without manipulation of soil. It is a system of farming
which uses no machines, no prepared fertilizers and no chemical but yields normal
harvests.

Opportunity cropping: The practice of placing primary emphasis on the use of

stored soil moisture while determining whether or not to establish a crop.

Organic farming (biological husbandry): It is a agricultural production system

which avoids or largely excludes the use of synthetically compounded fertilizers,
pesticides, growth regulators and livestock feed additives. To the maximum extent
feasible organic farming systems rely upon crop rotations, crop residues, animal
manures, legumes, green manures, mineral bearing rocks and aspects of biological
pest control to maintain soil productivity and tilth to supply plant nutrients and to
control insects, weeds and other pest

Outer crop or guard crop or border crop: The crops which are grown around
the field boundaries in narrow strips with twin objectives of protecting the main
crop from stray cattle and producing livestock feed and/pr seed are called outer or
guard crops, e.g. Sesbania or Leucaena on boundaries of field/plantation crops and
castor around spring-planted sugarcane.

Paira crop (utera): It is a crop sown broadcast in the standing crop of lowland
rice before its harvest where the residual moisture is used for the establishment of
utera crop, e.g. lathyrus, gram, lentil, green gram, etc. in standing crop of rice.
Pitcher farming: A practice in dry farming where crop is irrigated through small
holes made in the bottom of earthen pitcher. The practice is generally used for
wider spaced plants.

Rainfed farming: Growing of field crops entirely with rain water received during
crop season (rainfall usually > 800 mm) under humid and sub-humid climates and
the crops may face little or no moisture stress during their life-cycle

Recession farming (diara land farming): It is a system in which crops are

planted in flooded areas as the rainy season ends and water recedes. This system
takes advantage of thoroughly saturated soil profile and also has the advantage of
silt and nutrients left behind by flood water.

Shifting cultivation: The practice of cultivating clearings scattered in the reservoir

or natural vegetation (forest or grass woodland )and of abandoning them as soon as
the soil is exhausted, and this includes the practice of shifting homesteads in order
to follow the cultivator’s search for new fertile land.

Subsistence farming: It is farming enterprise which provides food and

commodities just sufficient for the farming family, and there is no surplus to sell.

Sustainable agriculture: Sustainable agriculture should involve the successful

management of resources for agriculture to satisfy changing human needs while
maintaining or enhancing the quality of the environment and conserving natural
resources.

Questions

1. In intercropping crop intensification is in both______ and __________

2. Growing two or more crops simultaneously with no distinct row

arrangement is called __________
3. Define alley cropping

4. What is contingency cropping?

5. Define sustainable agriculture

 Chapter 3 Major cropping systems prevailing in India and Tamil Nadu for
different agro eco-systems

INDIA
Promising rice-based cropping systems in India
Promising rice-based cropping systems with high productivity and intensive
land use for diverse-climatic situations of India have been identified in
multi-locational experiments under Cropping Systems Research Project
Promising rice based cropping systems in India.

Systems Region

Rice – Indian mustard Kashmir valley

Rice – wheat – sorghum (Fodder) Jammu region
Rice – wheat- green gram Punjab, Haryana, U.P
Rice – Mustard North Konkan
Rice – field bean South Gujarat
Rice – groundnut South Karnataka
Rice – black gram/sesame/cotton Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu
(Old Cauvery delta)
Rice – groundnut Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu
(New Cauvery delta)
Rice – mustard Assam
Rice – wheat – jute West Bengal
Rice – groundnut Coastal Andhra Pradesh and Orissa
Rice – green gran Eastern Madhya Pradesh
Crop sequences under irrigated upland conditions
Under irrigated uplands (garden lands) depending upon the water availability
or irrigation potential, more than two crops can be grown in a year, Crop sequences
and their production potential have been tested under different agro climatic
conditions. At Delhi, four crop sequence of green gram – maize – potato – wheat
gave the highest production of 13.6 t/ha. However, three crop sequence of green
gram – maize – wheat was found to be the most ideal for the small and marginal
farmers.
Crop sequences and their production potential, New Delhi, India.
Crop sequences Total production (q/ha)
Two crops Maize –wheat 90.1
Three crops Green gram – maize – wheat 97.7
Green gram – pigeon pea – wheat 68.8
Green gram –pearl millet – wheat 92.9
Four crops Green gram – maize – potato – 135.9
wheat 112.8
Green gram – maize – toria –
wheat

Duration Yield (q/ha)

Crop sequences Grain
State (days) Fodder Vegetable
Himachal Pradesh
Soybean – wheat 323 77 - -
Soybean –potato 283 34 - 72
Maize –wheat 299 65 - -
Haryana
Pearl millet 323 83 63 -
 Wheat – cowpea (f)
Maize –wheat 323 82 103 -
Cluster bean (f)
Pearl millet 232 81 126 -
Wheat –maize
Uttar Pradesh
Maize –wheat 301 108 316 -
Pearl –millet (f)
Sorghum –wheat 306 63 - -
green gram
Sorghum –wheat 313 59 - -
Rajasthan Cowpea

Pearl millet 339 35 - -

Wheat – green gram
Green gram 295 22 - -
Wheat – green gram
Madhya Pradesh
Maize – wheat 323 70 -
Cowpea
Maize – wheat 325 70 -
green gram f-fodder

In multi – location experiments, under Cropping Systems Research Project,

promising cropping systems with high productivity as well as intensive land use for
diverse agro climatic situations have been identified

Potential cropping systems for different agro climatic situations

Region System
Western Haryana Cotton – wheat
Rajasthan Groundnut – wheat
Madhya Pradesh Soybean – wheat
North Gujarat Pearl millet – mustard
Sourashtra region – Gujarat Cotton – groundnut
Western Maharashtra Sorghum – wheat
Western Maharashtra Groundnut - wheat
Marathwada region of Vidarba region Cotton – groundnut
North Karnataka Sorghum – bengalgram
South Karnataka Cotton - groundnut

Cropping systems in dry lands

Normally only one crop is grown under dryland condition and cultivation is
restricted during the rainy season. However, the intensity of cropping can be
increased through sequential or intercropping, depending on the rainfall and
moisture storage capacity of the soil.
Cropping pattern with varying rainfall and soil moisture storage capacity

Rainfall (mm) Storage Cropping pattern

capacity of soil
(mm)
350 – 625 100 Single crop in kharif
650 -750 100 Intercropping can be attempted
780 -900 150 Sequential cropping is possible
900 - above 200 Sequential cropping is possible
Choice of crops: Selection of a suitable crop and genotype is important to get
higher yield in dry farming conditions. Deep rotted crops extract moisture from the
deeper layers and they also have slow rate of transpiration. Leguminous crops are
very well adopted for rainfed conditions because their root systems. Among the
cereal, barley ability to harvest moisture from deeper layers than wheat. Moisture
loss from the plant surface is less in barley. Similarly linseed has greater ability to
trap soil moisture under water scarce situation.
Cropping systems for dry lands
 Important factors such as total rainfall, soil type and water availability have
to be considered while practicing a particular cropping pattern in a place/region.
Cropping system for different regions as suggested from the results of AICARP
are given in the following table.

Cropping systems for different region of India under dry lands

Regions/soil type Crops

Kharif Rabi
Northern Region
Samba (Jammu) Maize Wheat
Green gram Barley
Cowpea Wheat
Sunflower Wheat/barley
Groundnut Barley
Pearl millet Bengal gram
Punjab Sorghum Wheat
Maize Wheata /Potato / Barley
Hisar (Haryana) Pear millet Cluster bean /Chickpea
Arid soils (Mono cropping is the
(Sierozemic soils) rule)

Central Region
Dehra Dun Wheat
(Uttar Pradesh) Maize Wheat/ Bengal gram
Rice (upland)
Agra (Uttar Pradesh) Mustard
Entisols (Alluvial soils) Gram Chickpea/Barley
Varanasi Pearl millet Chickpea/Mustard
(Uttar Pradesh) Sesame
Entisols (Alluvial soils) Barley/Mustard
Bengal gram Chickpea / Mustard
Rice Chickpea / Mustard
Pearl millet
Eastern Region
Ranchi (Bihar) Rice Chickpea /
Alfisols and related red Maize Linseed/Barley
soils Rice Rapeseed / Bengal gram
Bhubaneswar (Orissa) Finger millet Linseed / Mustard
Alfisols and related red Maize Horse gram
soils Rice Horse gram
Sorghum Chickpea / Lentil
Rewa region (M.P) Green gram Bengal gram / wheat
Vertisols and black soils Sorghum Wheat /Chickpea
Jhansi region (M.P) Pearl millet Bengal gram
Vertisols and related Black gram Bengal gram
black soils Sesame Safflower / Chickpea
Maize Bengal gram
Soybean Chickpea
Indore (M.P) Soybean Safflower
Vertisols and related Wheat
black soils
Western Region Green gram
Udaipur (Rajasthan) Sorghum Safflower
(Vertisols and related Pearl millet Bengal gram
black soils) Maize Bengal gram
Black gram Wheat
Sunflower Wheat
Pearl millet -
Anand (Gujarat) Pigeon pea Wheat
Castor -
Sunflower -
Akola (Maharashtra) Green gram Safflower
Vertisols and related Sorghum Safflower
black soils
Sholapur / Maharashtra Green gram Safflower
Vertisols Pearl millet Bengal gram
Black gram Sorghum
Southern regions
Anantapur (AP) Sorghum Safflower / Horse gram
Pearl millet Cowpea / Black gram
Black gram Sorghum
Green gram Pearl millet
Mono-cropping is Cowpea Pearl millet / Sorghum
generally adopted
Hyderabad
Alfisol Pearl millet Cowpea
Bijapur Sorghum Horse gram
Vertisols Sorghum Green gram / Black gram
Bangalore (Karnataka) Green gram Sorghum / Safflower
Alfisols Cowpea Finger millet
Mysore (Karnataka) Cowpea Chilli
Groundnut Sorghum
Setaria Safflower
Pearl millet Cotton
Bellary (Karnataka)
Cotton Sorghum
Black gram Bengal gram
Kovilpatti (TN) – rainfed Safflower
vertisols - Cotton + black gram ,
Sorghum, Pearl millet,
Cowpea, Horse Gram,
Chilli
Cropping System for Tamil Nadu

Districts Garden land Wet land Dry land

Kancheepuram Rice-Veg Rice-cumbu Rice
(Aug-Jan) (Jan-Sep) (Sep-Jan)(May- (Sep-Dec)
July)
Thiruvallur Vegetables Semi dry rice Ground nut+red
(Feb-May) (Sep-Jan) gram
(Sep-Jan)
Vellore Cane-ratoon Ground nut – rice Ground nut+red
(Dec-Jan) 2 yr -rice gram
rotation (Jan-Sep)(June- (June-Oct)
 Banana-banana Sep)(Oct-Jan)
2 yr rotation
Thiruvannamalai Rice- Ground nut- Rice- Ground nut Groundnut-pulses
cumbu (Aug-Jan)(Jan- (June-Sep)(Oct-Nov)
(Aug-Jan)(Jan-Apr) Apr)
(May-July)
Cuddalore Rice-Rice Rice-Rice-Pulses Cumbu-
(June-Sep)(Dec- (June-Sep)(Oct- Groundnut/pulses
May) Jan)(Jan-May) (June-Sep)(Oct-Jan)
Tapioca+ Ground Rice-Pulses
nut (Aug-Feb)(Feb-
(Oct-Aug) May)
Villupuram Rice-Rice Rice-Pulses Groundnut-pulses
(Aug-Jan)(Jan-May) (Aug-Jan)(Feb- (June-Oct)(Nov-Feb)
Rice-Rice- May)
fallow/Pulses
(Aug-Jan)(Jan-May)
(June-Aug)
Tanjore Rice/Groundnut- Rice-Rice- Groundnut/pulses
Pulses Pulses/sesame (Oct-Nov)
(June-Sep)(Oct- (June-Sep)(Sep-
Nov) Jan) (Jan-May)

Nagapattinam Coconut groove Rice-Rice-Pulses Groundnut/pulses

(June-Sep)(Sep- (Oct-Nov)
Feb) (Feb-May)
Thiruvarur Coconut groove Rice-Rice-Pulses Groundnut/pulses
(June-Sep)(Sep- (Oct-Nov)
Feb) (Feb-May)
Rice-Pulses
(Sep-Jan)(Jan-
May)
Trichy Rice - Groundnut / Rice-Rice- Red gram+
sorghum Pulses/sesame Groundnut
(Aug-Dec)(Dec- (June-Sep)(Oct- (Aug-Dec)
Mar) Jan)(Feb-Apr) Cotton/Chilli
Rice- (Aug-Dec)
Banana-Rice Pulses/sesame Millet-Horse gram
2 yr rotation (Aug-Jan)(Feb- (Oct-Jan)
Apr)

Karur Rice/Chillies- Groundnut- Rice- Sorghum/Groundnut

Millets/Oil Millets +
Seeds (June-Sep)(Sep- Red gram
(Aug-Jan)(Feb- Jan)(Feb-May) (June-Sep)
May) Rice-Rice-Pulses
(June-Sep)(Oct-
Feb)(Feb-Apr)
Perambalur Cotton + Onion- Rice- Cotton Sorghum/ Cotton/
Sorghum (Aug-Jan)(Feb- Pulses
(Oct-Jan)(Feb-Apr) May) (Oct-Jan)
Pudhukottai Banana-Banana Rice- Sal ragi-Varagu
(July-June) 2 yr Pulses/sesame (July-Dec)(Sep-Jan)
rotation (Aug-Jan)(Feb-
Sugarcane+Soybean Apr)
-Ratoon
(Dec-Jan) 2 yr
rotation
Madurai Cotton - Sesame / Rice-Rice- Cotton/Groundnut
Chilli / Pulses Pulses/sesame +Pulses
(Feb-June)(July- (June-Sep)(Oct- (Oct-Feb)
Jan) Jan)(Jan-May)
Rice-Banana Rice-
2 yr rotation Sugarcane/Banan
(Aug-Jan)(Feb-Nov) a
(Aug-Jan)
rotation
Theni Sugarcane-Ratoon Rice-Rice-Pulses Sorghum + Red
(Dec-Jan) 2 yr (June-Sep)(Oct- gram
rotation Jan)(Feb-Apr) Maize/ Sorghum
Cotton-Maize Green manure- (Oct-Feb)
(Oct-Feb)(Mar- Rice-Rice
May) (Feb-Apr) (June-
Sep)(Oct-Jan)
Dindigul Rice- Cotton-pulses Rice-Pulses Sorghum/Cumbu
(Aug-Jan)(Feb- (Aug-Jan)(Sep- (Oct-Jan)
June)(July-Aug) May) Hill banana
 Sugarcane-Ratoon
2 yr rotation
Ramanathapura Rice- Cotton/pulses Rice-Pulses Rice / Chilli / Pulses
m (Sep-Jan)(Feb-Apr) (Sep-Feb)(Feb- / Groundnut
Sugarcane-Ratoon May) (Sep-Jan)
2 yr rotation
Sivagangai Sugarcane-Ratoon Rice-Pulses Groundnut + Red
2 yr rotation (Aug-Jan)(Feb- gram
Groundnut- Rice- May) (Oct-Jan)
Pulses
(June-Sep)(Sep-
Jan)(Feb-Apr)
Vridhunagar Chilli-Cotton Rice-Rice-Pulses Groundnut -
(Sep-Feb)(Feb-Aug) (June-Sep)(Oct- Coriander
Feb)(Mar-May) (Oct-Jan)(Jan-Mar)
Cotton- Cumbu
(Feb-Aug)(Sep-Jan)
Thirunelveli Rice-Pulses Rice-Rice- Sorghum /Groundnut
(Oct-Feb)(Mar- Pulses/fallow /
May) (June-Sep)(Oct- sesame
Sugarcane/ Banana Jan)(Feb-May) (Oct-Nov)
2 yr rotation
Thoothukudi Cotton-Groundnut Rice-Rice- Cotton+Black gram
(Sep-Mar)(Apr- Pulses/sesame (Oct-Feb)
June) (June-Sep)(Oct- Coriander/Sunflower
Chilli-Cotton Jan)(Feb-Apr) /
 (Sep-Feb)(Feb-Aug) Banana-Rice- Fodder sorghum
Pulses/sesame (Nov-Jan)
(June-May)(Jan-
Sep)(Oct-Jan)
2 yr rotation
Salem Tapioca+ Rice- Groundnut Groundnut +
Groundnut (Oct-Jan)(Feb- Redgram /
(May-Feb) May) castor
Cotton- Sorghum (July-Jan)
(Aug-Feb)(Feb-Apr)
Namakkal Tapioca+ Rice- Groundnut Groundnut +
Groundnut (Oct-Jan)(Feb- Redgram /
(May-Feb) May) castor
Cotton- Sorghum (July-Jan)
(Aug-Feb)(Feb-Apr)
Dharmapuri Rice-Ragi/Tomato/ Rice/Groundnut- Groundnut/Ragi -
Groundnut Rice- Ragi Horse gram
(June-Oct)(Nov- (June-Oct)(Nov- (June-Oct)(Nov-Jan)
Apr) Mar)(Apr-June)
Veg-Veg-Veg
(June-Oct)(Nov-Jan)
(Feb-May)
Coimbatore Sorghum+Cowpea – Maize- Rice- Sorghum
Ragi - Cotton fallow /RainfedTomato/
(June-Sep)(Oct- Bengal gram
(Mar-May)(June- Jan) (Oct-Jan)
 Aug) Rice-Rice
(Aug-Oct) (Apr-Aug)(Oct- Groundnut/Fodder
Feb) sorghum
Cane-Cane (Apr-June)(Sep-Dec)
(June-Mar)(Apr-
Sep)

Erode Cane-Ratoon 2 Rice-Rice- Rice Sorghum/Groundnut

years /fallow / Pulses
Turmeric-Rice (June-Sep)(Oct- (June-Sep)
(May-Nov)(Nov- Jan)(Feb-May)
May) Rice- Cotton
(Aug-Jan)(Feb-
May)
The Nilgris Veg-Veg-Veg - RainfedPotato/Tea/
(June-Sep)(Oct- Fruit trees
Dec)(Jan-Mar)
Kanyakumari Tapioca+Banana Rice-Rice Groundnut+ Pulses
(June-May) (June-Sep)(Sep- (June-Sep)(Oct-Jan)
Mar)
Turmeric -1 year
rotation

Questions

1. The cropping system followed by old Cauvery delta Rice – black

gram/sesame/cotton
2. Intercropping can be adopted if rainfall amount is 650 -750mm
3. If the rainfall is 780 -900 mm and storage capacity of the soil is 150 mm
which cropping system is possible? Sequential.
4. Write short notes on cropping systems for dry lands?
5. Write any three rice based cropping system?
 Chapter 4 Complementary and competitive interaction in different cropping
system – light, nutrient, water and weed

Allelopathy
The interactions between the crops may also occur through other means. i.e.
competitive or non-competitive. The competitive interaction between the crop
species in intercropping and sequential cropping through the release of chemical
substances or toxins is called allelopathy. Such chemical substances or toxins,
generally exuded by the roots or produced by decomposition of the residues of one
crop species have direct or indirect harmful effect on the other crop species. It
affects germination, establishment and growth of the associated crops. Such crops
are unsuitable for intercropping or sequential cropping. Sunflower, Sorghum,
Walnut, Cucumber, Peach and Eucalyptus are the examples of such crops which
are known for allelopathic effect. Sunflower affects the associated crop through the
release of allelopathic chemicals in the soil by the roots. It inhibits the germination
process of subsequent crops. Sunflower residues also produce allelo chemicals
during decomposition. Therefore a sufficient time period of 15-20 days is allowed
to lapse between the harvest of sunflower and sowing of the subsequent crop. It
results into benefiting the subsequent crop in two ways-
1. Subsequent crop escapes from the allelopathy effect.
2. The rapid decomposition of sunflower residues causes mineralization of soil
nitrogen.
Types of Allelopathy
(a) True allelopathy (b) Functional allelopathy

(a) True allelopathy: The direct or indirect harmful effect on the other crops
through the release of toxic substance as such from the plant.
(b) Functional allelopathy: When precursor is released which is converted into
active substances by some micro organisms is categorized under functional
allelopathy.
Allelopathy is observed in two ways
(a) Allo-inhibition: The chemical substances released by one species may inhibit
species of plants other than one releasing it.
(b) Auto-inhibition: The toxins may inhibit more strongly plants of the producer
species itself.

Allelo-chemicals
Such types of chemicals, released by plants which show allelopathy are
known as allelo-chemicals. The genetic make-up of the plant and the surrounding
environment may affect the type and quantity of allelochemicals. Some of the
organic substances exudated by the roots may inhibit the growth of the
neighbouring species. The known examples are walnut, cucumber and peach
whose living roots exudates allelochemicals and inhibits the growth of the plants
growing near them. Some of the allelochemicals may be produced by the aerial
portions of the plant. These allelo chemicals may reach the ground through
raindrops, falling leaves or insects or animal activities. The leaves of Eucalyptus
globules exudates some all chemicals which drastically reduce the germination of
mustard seed when sown underneath. The crop residues of sunflower may
adversely affects the germination, establishment and growth of the subsequent
crop. When sunflower stalks are applied as such, it inhibits the establishment and
growth of sorghum in a untilled plot.
Legume Effect
 The beneficial effects of the legumes in any crop rotation and intensive
cropping system is termed as legume effect. Inclusion of legumes in the cropping
systems is beneficial in many ways:
1. Legumes fix atmospheric nitrogen in root nodules and thus improve the
nitrogen status of the soil.
2. It saves up to 25% of recommended level of nitrogen application to the
associated cereals when grown as intercrop.
3. The crop residues and root nodules of legumes release nitrogen during
decomposition for the use of the succeeding crop.
4. Legumes absorb soil phosphorus more efficiently and part of this mobilized
phosphorus in organic form is available to the succeeding crop. It means
legumes covert inorganic phosphorus into organic form of phosphorus and thus
is able to extract insoluble forms of soil phosphorus.
5. Many of legumes can tolerate some amount of shading and drought.
Sorghum Effect
The nutrient status of soil is exhausted by any fast growing cereal. The crop
residue of such cereal having wide C: N ratio takes a long time to decompose.
During the process of decomposition, soil nitrogen is temporarily immobilized
affecting the succeeding crop. Such effect is more pronounced in sorghum in low
fertile soil causing to temporary deficiency of nitrogen in the soil for the
succeeding crop. To reduce sorghum effect, 25% more nitrogen is applied as the
time of first fertilizer dose of the succeeding crop. It hastens the process of
decomposition and overcomes the immobilized nitrogen.
Cotton Effect
Cotton feeds in the deeper layers of the soil, and removes comparatively
smaller quantities of nutrients. The succeeding crop having the shallow root system
is to tap on the unused pool of nutrients in the surface layers of the soil. This effect
may be termed as cotton effect.
Annidation
The complimentary interactions between intercrops in the intercropping
system, is known as annidation. When plants are grown as components of
intercropping system, interactions between the component species occur. Such
interactions are essentially the response of one crop species to the environment as
modified by the presence of another species. One component species helps the
other. Annidation occurs both in space and time.
Spatial Annidation (Annidation in Space)
Here the complimentary interactions between the intercrops occur with
regards to spatial position (space/place). This principle is used in multistorey
cropping. The component species occupy different vertical layers by spreading out
their canopies or roots either in air or in soil. As far as aerial annidation is
concerned the taller intercrops occupy higher vertical layers and shorter intercrops
the lower layers. Such taller component species are comparatively tolerant to
strong light and high evaporative demand than shorter one. On the other hand,
shorter component species are relatively shade-loving and acclimatised to high
relative humidity. The principle of spatial annidation may also occur in soil, where
rooting patterns and its systems of component species exploit nutrients from
different soil layers. Therefore for efficient utilisation of soil resources, intercrops
of different root system viz. deep rooted species + shallow rotted species are
grown.

Temporal Annidation (Annidation in Time)

The complimentary interaction between the intercrops in the time aspect is
called temporal annidation. Such intercrops have different natural habit and zero
competition. Both the component species have widely varying duration and
different peak demands for light and nutrients. Thus competition between the
intercrops is reduced. In maize + black gram intercropping the peak nutrient
demand for maize is 50 days after sowing (DAS) whereas around 30-35 DAS for
black gram. Other intercropping utilising this principle are groundnut + red gram
and sorghum + red gram.
Competition
Three broad categories of competition can be recognized.
• Mutual inhibition: The actual yield of each species is less than expected under
sole crop conditions.
• Mutual co-operation: The yield of each species is greater than expected.
• Compensation: One species yields less and the other more than expected.
Mutual inhibition is rare, mutual co-operation can be found in some cases,
but compensation is the most common situation.
1. Competion for nutrient:
crop plants require nutrient immediately after germination and emergence. Among
the plant nutrients nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium are limiting ones and
among them nitrogen is the first nutrient to become limiting due to crop-weed
competition. Nitrogen depletion zones are likely wider and similar to those for
water. Since rooting depth and root area of plant determine their ability to obtain
resources, relative competitiveness for nitrogen is largely determined by the soil
volume occupied by the roots of competing species. Competition foe P and K most
likely occur after the plants are mature and have extensive overlapping roots. Even
applying fertilizers to increase crop yield will fail to provide maximum benefit
unless weeds are adequately managed. Main competitor in crop field is weeds.
Allowing weeds to compete with sorghum for 4 weeks when N was applied
resulted in a 23% yield loss compared to keeping the crop weed free all through the
season. However, if N applied, this period of competition caused a 69% yield loss.
Some species show greater preference to certain nutrients. For example,
Amaranthus viridis accumulates 3.16% N apart from containing very high level of
K2O (4.51%) in their dry matter and is thus a nitrophilus weed, whereas
Achyranthus aspera and Digitaria sanguinalis are P-accumulators with P2O5
content of 1.6% and 3.36%, respectively. Chinopodium album and Portulacea
quadrifida,on the contrary are K-lover with 4.34% and 4.57% K2O content,
respectively in their dry matter. It is apparent that weeds absorbs considerable
amount of nutrients sometimes higher than the crop associated. This is mainly due
to fact that crops are broadcasted or sown in rows with required density determined
by seed rate, while weeds grow around the crop plants and there is no limit
population.
2. Competition for water: Water is the primary environmental factor limiting
crop production and is probably the most critical of all plant growth requirement
(King, 1966). Weeds compete for water, reduce water availability and contribute to
water stress. They demand for equal or more water than crop and are often more
successful in acquiring it. Plant competition foe water occurs along with other
forms of competition. It varies from season to season, year to year, site to site and
even species to species if irrigation is not available. Weed removed moisture
evenly from up to 90cm soil depth, while the major uptake of moisture by heat was
limited to top 15cm of soil. In general, for producing equal dry matter, weeds
transpire more water than do most of our crop plants. C4 plants having higher
water use efficiency are better competitor with crop plants than C3 plants. Stomata
in some plants are less sensitive to declining leaf water potential than those of
crops with which they compete. When this is combined with a larger root system
or better drought tolerance, plants are formidable competitor for water. Water
competition is more in rainfed areas compare to humid or well irrigated areas. If
there is very high density of plants than there is higher competition for limited
water. A plant have good root development and deeper rooting habit is more
competitor than one which have shallower root system.
3. Competition for light: Light constitute a key external variable of the
photosynthesis process of plants. It varies in duration, intensity and quality and
regulates many aspects of plant growth and development. The sites for light
competition are leaves. The leaves that first intercept light may reflect it, absorb it,
convert it into photosynthetic products and heat or transmit it. If transmitted, the
light is gradually filtered and when it reaches to the lowermost leaves, it is dimmer
and spectrally altered. Competition for light is not immediately the competition
between species nor even between plants, it is competition between leaves. Once a
leaf is shaded by another leaf , there starts competition for light. Neighbourer plant
reduces light supply by direct interception and shading. Plant architecture,
especially height, location of branches and height of maximum leaf area determine
competition foe light and influence crop yield. Competition for light may even
begin at the very early stage of crop if there is a shading/smothering effect by
dense and crowd growth of weeds. It may become more severe, if moisture and
nutrient in soil are plentiful and weeds have an edge over crop plants in respect of
height. Plant height and vertical leaf area distribution define effective components
of the competitive struggle for light. Tall and dwarf cultivars of rice and wheat
vary widely in their competitive abilities for light. Tall cultivars because of their
greater height are normally superior to dwarf cultivars in competition against
weeds. Broad-leaved plants, on the contrary, being normally short stature than
other plants, weaker competitor of light. There is varietal difference in response to
competition for light. Straw yield is primarily influenced by root competition,
whereas grain yield is most affected by light.
Questions:
1. The chemical substances released by one species may inhibit species of
plants other than one releasing it is called_________
2. The direct or indirect harmful effect on the other crops through the release of
toxic substance as such from the plant is called_______
3. Sorghum effect is due to higher ___________
4. Write about legume effect
5. What is annidation?
 Chapter 5 Cropping system management : agronomic requirement for crops
and cropping system – selection of crops and varieties, tillage and land
shaping, plant population and crop geometry

1. Selection of Crops and Varieties

I. Selection of crops and varieties for sequential cropping

i) Selection of crops

a. Irrigation water availability : If supplemental irrigation facilities are

available in rice fallows crops like cotton, groundnut and gingelly can be
grown. If it is not available only rice fallow pulse like blackgram can be raised
with residual moisture.

Similarly, in garden lands, if adequate irrigation facilities available during

summer, a three crop sequence of ragi-cotton-sorghum, accommodating
sorghum during summer can be followed. If water is not adequate only double
crop sequence of ragi-cotton-fallow is adopted.

b. Soil type : In lowlands, to increase the cropping intensity, rice fallow

cropping is recommended. The type of crop to be included is decided by the
soil type also. In old delta area with heavy clay soil, cotton/ pulse is suitable
but not groundnut. Whereas, in new delta area where the soil is sandy with
light texture, crops like groundnut and gingelly can be grown.

c. Total returns : Depending upon the price and marketability as well as

proximity to the town, the selection of crops will vary. In farms nearer to
town, high intensity cropping is possible by including short duration
vegetables, greens and fodder crops which are quickly perishable.

d. Multiple requirements of farm and farmer : Farmer’s family / livestock

requirements like cereals, millets, pulses, cash crops of longer and shorter
duration and also fodder crops. An ideal cropping scheme in a farm must have
about 60-70% area under commercial crops 30% food crops and 10% with
fodder crops.
e. Maintaining soil fertility : The nature of crops selected in the intensive
cropping should help to maintain the soil fertility and not exhausting it
completely. There should be at least one legume crop in the cropping to
maintain the fertility of soil.

f. Time of sowing of second crop also influence the choice of crops

If the second crop is sown in the standing first crop, the seeds will
germinate before the harvest of first crop and may suffer some damage
during the first crop harvest. Under such situation the crops which can with
stand such damages in seeding stage must be selected. Eg. Rice fallow
pulse.

g. Crops which may serve as alternate hosts

For certain pests and diseases alternate host crops must be avoided as
succeeding crops. Eg. Bhendi after cotton

h. Crops which make the best use of solar radiation

Crops which make the best use of solar radiation must be included to
the extent possible. Eg. C4 plants like maize, sugarcane, etc must be
included, which are having rapid canopy development in summer when the
solar radiation is high.

i. Short duration crops

Short duration crops like vegetables, cereals, pulses fodder crops are
to be preferred to increase the intensity of cropping.

ii. Selection of varieties

For higher productivity- selection of varieties must be done with

reference to their yield, sensitiveness to photoperiod and duration – short
and medium duration varieties which are photo insensitive to be selected.

a. Duration: Rice fallow season: In pulses, blackgram T9 or CO5.

Cotton MUC 9, SVPR 1 (135 days duration) can be selected. If
 the rice fallow crops are longer duration, it will interfere in the
operations of first season rice.

b. Photo sensitiveness: GEB 24 Photosensitive variety and season

round one comes to comes to flowering only during Oct-Nov
months. But now all are photo insensitive varieties.

c. Yield: Short and medium duration varieties which are photo

insensitive and can be recommended for all seasons and yield
higher productivity.

II. Selection of crops and varieties for intercropping

i) Selection of crops

The factors that have to be considered for selection of crops and varieties for
intercropping are as follows
a. Main crop yield does not suffer much

b. Competition between crop species is minimum

c. Complementary effects will be more

d. Pests, diseases or weed incidence is not unduly increased

e. Allelopathic effects

f. Similarly the immobilization of N immediately after sorghum stalk

incorporated is another instance demanding proper residue
management

a. Competition fogr solar radiation in intercropping

In Intercropping situations, competition for solar radiation might arise

due to difference in height, leaf area, leaf orientation and growth duration.

i. Height: In intercropping systems, taller components are usually able

to intercept more light and shorter components are affected by shading
and low light intensities. If the intercrops are shorter they do not pose
any competition for light with the main crop.
 Eg., In studies on sorghum based intercropping systems short growing
crops like cowpea, soybean and greengram did not compete with
sorghum for light and light interception by intercropped sorghum was
more or less equal to sole sorghum. But when tall growing sunflower
was intercropped in sorghum rows, light interception by sorghum was
reduced by 50%.

ii. Leaf area: In a combination of tall and short crops, the amount of solar
radiation available to short crops is very much reduced by shading of
tall crops. If the shorter components have greater leaf area, leaf area /
leaf weight ratio and adaptation to low light intensities, than they will
survive better in such intercropping systems and the intercepted light
will be of greater use.

iii. Leaf inclination: It refers to leaf orientation based on ideotype of

plants. Regarding leaf inclination of component crops for
intercropping, an ideal situation would be to have taller components
with more erect leaves and the shorter components with more
horizontal leaves. So, sufficient light falls on shorter components
favouring maximum utilization. Such mixture would intercept and use
more light and the competition effect would be minimal.

iv. Growth duration: When component crops have different growth

duration, the peak demand for light would occur at different times. In
maize + green gram system, peak light demand for maize occurs at
about 60 days after sowing, by the time the green gram is ready for
harvest. Greengram is able to make use of light available in early
stages of maize growth, when shade is less.

Similarly in sorghum + redgram system, redgram grows very slowly

in the early stages. At the time of sorghum harvest, redgram reaches its peak
light demand period and at that stage shading by sorghum is less / nil.

b. Competition for nutrients in intercropping

 Competition for various nutrients between component crops depends
on root distribution pattern, growth stages of peak demand period, types of
nutrients required more by each component crop

i. Root distribution pattern: When root system of component

crops overlap in the same zone, competition for nutrients would
occur and the crop with more aggressive growth would
suppress the nutrient uptake by the less dominant crop and
affecting its growth. So, there must be variation in rooting
pattern of component crops.

ii. Peak demand period: Similarly, if the peak nutrient demands

periods of the component crops occur at the same time then the
competitio will be high for the available nutrients. Such
competition for nutrients can be minimized by selecting crops
of different root distribution pattern. For instance, when a
shallow surface rooting millet is intercropped with a deep
rooted redgram then the roots of these two crops forage in
different soil layers, thus avoiding competition.

iii. Crop duration: Similarly, if the inter crop has either less or
more duration than the main crop, then the peak nutrient
requirement periods of these two crops would occur at different
times and thus competition at any particular time is less. The
problem of nutrient competition can further be minimized by
selecting crops which require more quantities of different
nutrients. Eg. Legumes require phosphorus and millets demand
nitrogen. The duration of the crops might decide the nature of
intercrops. Eg. Sorghum + redgram from South West monsoon
to North East Monsoon periods. Whereas, sorghum + cowpea
for South West monsoon or North East Monsoon periods under
rainfed lands.

c. Complementary effects of intercropping

 i. Certain crops require less light intensity and high relative humidity.
Altered micro climate is provided when such crops are grown in
between tall growing components in an intercropping system.

Eg. Turmeric / Ginger / Black pepper in coconut gardens.

ii. Similarly when legumes are intercropped with non-legumes of a

lolnger duration, N-fixed by legumes would benefit the non - legumes

iii. Presence of rhizosphere microflora and mycorrhiza associated with

one of the crops may lead to mobilization and availability of nutrients
which may benefit the associated crop also.

iv. Similarly provision of physical support by a tall crop to a climbing

type of intercrop is another example of complementary effect.

Eg. Coconut + pepper, sorghum + lablab, maize + climbing beans

v. Tall components may provide protection against wind for the short
component crop

d. Allelopathic effects

Some crops may be unsuitable as intercrops because they secrete

toxins into the soil which will adversely affect the associated crops. Roots of
cucumber, leaves of Eucalyptus globulus, decomposing residues of
sunflower are known to produce allelo chemicals, affecting the growth of
other crops. Such crops must be avoided.

e. Pests, diseases and weeds infestation

There are instances where certain species of crops when grown

together result in more in a dense of particular pest / disease / weeds
affecting the other crops. Such combinations must be avoided.
Ultimately the final aim in selection of crops for intercropping must
be

a. To ensure normal yields of main crop and additional yield from

intercrop (or)
 b. To produce a higher total yield from both crops than what either of
them would have produced as pure crops

ii. Selection of varieties for intercropping

Even within a combination of two particular crops, selection of varieties of

each crop suitable for inter cropping may become necessary. Genotypes suitable
for sole cropping may not be suitable for intercropping situations and may be based
on the following criteria.

a) differences in duration

b) differences in distribution of leaves on the stem

c) differences in rooting pattern

d) differences in growth habit

Eg. In sorghum + cowpea intercropping system, a sorghum variety of 100-120

days duration mixed with cowpea genotypes of 75-90 days duration and erect
compact canopy without tendrils having deep root systems than sorghum would
produce better results.

iii. Selection of crops for multi-tier cropping

Besides the criteria mentioned for intercropping other points to be considered

are,

• Differences in canopy height to make use of solar radiation available at

different heights from the ground level.

• Crops maturing in different periods so as to provide income at short and regular

intervals in a perennial plantation

• Crops of different rooting pattern to avoid overlapping and to facilitate

exploitation of larger and deep soil layers

• Crops which need shade and low temperature and increased humidity.

iv. Selection of crop for border/bund cropping

• Should not require extra care

• Should withstand damage due to passage of human and cattle

• Mature earlier or along with the main crop

• Should not create any border effects due to shade or root effect on the main
crop

Tillage and Land Shaping

In sequential cropping, the main aspects to be considered are

a. When cropping intensity is increased i.e. more crops are raised in one year,
the time interval between any two crops is very much reduced and this
would affect the intensity of tillage and tillage operations are not carried out
thoroughly.

b. Preparatory cultivation for second crop(s) is to be carried out and completed

very quickly to enable sowing of the succeeding crops in time. Delayed
planting of one crops would not only reduce its yield but also delay the
sowing of the next crop and as a result the total productivity would also
suffer.

In double crop rotation,

Eg. Sorghum – (March –June): 110 days 275 days

Cotton – (August – January):165 days

Here during summer after pulling out of cotton stalks, field can be ploughed
leisurely for sowing sorghum crop and similarly there is one mouth gap after
sorghum harvest for preparatory cultivation to the subsequent cotton crop.

For Triple crop rotation, i.e.

Sorghum (Feb – Mau) – 100 days

Ragi (May – August) -90 days 360 days

 Cotton (Auguest – January) -170 days

Very little time is left for land preparation for ragi and cotton. If land
preparation after sorghum is delayed, ragi seedlings would become aged and
yield will be reduced. If ragi is planted late, it would delay the cotton sowing
or affects its yield.

c. In some instances, to avoid delay in planting desired land shaping of the

succeeding crop may not be possible before sowing and may have to be done
late.

Eg. Rice-fallow pulse/cotton

Pulses have to be sown before moisture is last after the harvest of rice. Any
normal preparatory cultivation like ploughing, forming beds would lead to
soil drying and affect the germination and establishment of pulses. In rice
fallow cotton thorough preparation of field for cotton including ploughing,
forming ridges would invariably delay the sowing of cotton and result in
delayed harvest of cotton affecting planting of first crop rice in the next
season.

d. Increase in cost of cultivation due to increase in land shaping in the

sequential cropping systems.

Management of tillage operations and land shaping can be done by the

following means

a. To overcome the shortage of time between crops, use of implements and

machinery which will reduce the time required for field preparation and land
shaping can be resorted. Eg. Use of tractor drawn plough harrows,
cultivators, cage wheel ect.

b. Animal / tractor drawn bed former, furrow opener, seed drills etc.

c. Two to three operations at a time (once over tillage) can be covered with
certain implements. Animal drawn or tractor drawn seed drill – opens the
soil, places the seeds, places the fertilizer and covers the seeds and
fertilizers.
 d. To check the increase in cost of operations use of labour saving implements
may be followed. Eg. Bund former, Ridge plough, seed drill.

e. Minimal tillage to reduce the number of ploughings to the maximum

possible.

f. Zero tillage – sowing crops without any preparatory cultivation

g. Chemical tillage and mulching

h. Off-season tillage

i. Land shaping after crop establishment

j. Relay cropping

k. Semi-permanent land shaping

l. Measures to reduce main field duration

a. Minimun tillage

It refers to restricting the number of tillage operations to the minimum

possible required level to facilitate germination and establishment and also to
restrict the tillage operations to the seeding zone only within the field.

For eg. Instead of 3-4 ploughings which is normally given, if reasonable tilth
can be obtained within 1-2 ploughings, to that extent preparation can be
completed early.

In most of the crops, the seeding zone has been defined as the area around
the growing young plant about 20cm deep and 10cm diameter for widely spaced
crops. For closely planted crops the seed zone would be 10cm wide along the crop
row. In the minimal tillage, only the seed zone is tilled intensively and the inter
space is not ploughed or ploughed once. This would reduce the time required for
tillage.

Many advantages are attributed to the minimal tillage

a) Cost reduction, b) Time saving, c) Reduced run off and erosion, d)

Reduced evaporation, e) Reduced soil temperature.
 However, in heavy poor drained soil, minimal tillage may not be
effective.

b. Zero tillage

Soil is not disturbed mechanically and not opened up. For placing the
seeds alone the soil is opened. Succeeding crop is sown, without any
preparatory cultivation in the stubbles of the previous crop. Advantages are
i)cost reduction, ii)time saving, iii)Reduced run off and erosion, iv)reduced
evaporation, v)reduced soil temperature, vi)soil structure is improved.

For eg. Cotton is sown in ragi stubbles or paddy stubbles. Presence of

fibrous roots and stubbles of ragi is believed to reduce surface encrustation
and enable easy emergence of cotton seedlings, especially in heavy soils.
Fallow cotton in paddy avoids delay due to field preparation and cotton
growth can be completed before the next paddy season commences.

However, the zero tillage is not popular in India as in western

countries where the labour is costly and not available, climate is temperate
and there when organic matter is placed in the soil , decay is very slow an
not rapid. There will be severe weed menace which can be controlled by
wide range of herbicides. Under Coimbatore condition with three crop
rotations, ragi-cotton-sorghum under zero tillage with chemical weed
control, Cynodon dactylon became a major problem after the second year
and was difficult tocontrol. However, the ragi stubbles are soft with less
cellulose fibre when subjected to decomposition and mineralization,
encrustation of soil is prevented thereby improving the emergence of cotton
seedlings.

c. Chemical tillage and mulching

In both minimal and zero tillage, the main problem is weed infestation
and regrowth of crop stubbles, in the absence of through preparatory
cultivation .This can be tackled by the use of suitable chemicals to control
the weed growth and regrowth of stubbles of previous crop, which is termed
as chemical tillage.
 Eg. Application of paraquat in rice stubbles would reduce the
seedlings regrowth from the stubbles and weed growth and dried residues
will act as mulch. Sililarly, preemergence herbicide for zero tillage plots.
Mulching with crop residuces in minimal/zero tillage plots helps to control
weed growth.

d. Off season tillage

Tillage during non-cropping season in heavy soils, deep and intensive

cultivation with tractor drawn disc plough or mould board plough during off
season/dry season (summer ploughing) would help to break the hard pan and
control perennial weeds like red hairy caterpillar of groundnut (pupal
exposure). Minimal tillage during the cropping season would be enough and
timely seed be preparation is possible during cropping period favouring
timely sowing of crops.

e. Land shaping after crop establishment

This is to overcome narrow time interval and not to miss the correct
season of sowing. In some crops sown with minimal or no tillage, suitable
land shaping can be done after the crop establishment.

Eg. Cotton sown in ragi sutbbles, ridges and earthing up operations

are carried out at the time of first top dressing of nitrogen at 30-35 DAS.

Similarly, forming ridges and furrows for rainfed cotton at 30-40 days
after sowing to avoid delay in sowing season.

f. Relay cropping

There is a very quick succession of crops to avoid delay between

crops, sowing the succeeding crops in the standing previous crop may be
practiced without any land preparation. It saves time and reduces the cost for
land preparation.

Eg. Rice fallow blackgram, 10-15 days before the harvest of paddy, pulse is
sown.
 Relay sowing of horse gram in standing crop of ragi under rainfed
conditions of Salem and Dharmapuri and Pudukottai districts of Tamil Nadu.

Salkepai: dropping the ragi seedlings behind the country plough in furrows
during South West Monsoon periods and horsegram sowing in North
Western Zone of Tamil Nadu.

g. Semi permanent land shaping

Land is shaped not temporaty but for a period of few years. In

drylands, where double cropping is practiced i)to ensure timely sowing of
second crop and ii)to overcome the problem of heavy rainfall, making it
difficult for land preparation during the interval between two crops, seed beds
may be formed on a permanent basis.

Eg. Broad Bed Furrow system (BBF) is a classic example of this practice.
These are formed during off season and can be maintained for 3 to 4 seasons
with light harrowing of seed beds only at intervals to kill the weeds, to close the
kracks on the surface for sowing the succeeding crops.BBF system is a semi
permanent structure. 120cm bed width,30cm deep furrow, suitable for vertisols
or black cotton soils, where double cropping is possible under rainfed
conditions.

The land is thrown in to beds and furrows with a mild gradient of slope (0.4
to 0.8%) with the receipt of heavy rains, there will be water stagnation in black
clay soils as it has heavy clay content (> 52 per cent). So, the soil can not be
brought for early sowing of both first and second season crops, which may be
delayed leading to crop failure. So, if the land is brought into beds and furrows
with gentle gradient, the excess water is trained through many small channels,
thereby preventing soil erosion. In addition soil will be friable which is required
for early sowing.

In our state it is having limited applicability because of lesser black soil

areas with heavy rains. But, highly suitable for MP and Maharashtra where
sorghum-safflower/ sunflower/Bengalgram/mustard is being practiced.

Measures to reduce main field duration

 • Short duration varieties

• Raising nursery and transplanting

• Hastening the maturity of crops

• Paraquat spray in cotton-boll bursting

• NaCl in rice-maturity is rapid

• Ripeners (Mont 8000) in surgarcane

• Harvesting at physiological maturity

i.e. Seeds or grains will be having maximum vigour and viability but has
more moisture than when the seeds are collected during normal harvest
time. Similarly, in millets if harvested earlier, the fodder will be greenish.

• Relay sowing will reduce the main field duration of both crops in the
sequence

• Ratooning

• Avoiding delay in maturity due to excessive vegetative growth. Eg.

Crops Plant/sown crop duration Ratoon crop duration

(days) (days)

Sorghum 105-110 75-80

Paddy 110-115 80-95

Surgarcane 360 300

Plant population, crop geometry, in cropping system management

The yield advantage in an intensive cropping system depends to a larger

extent on the establishment of a good crop stand in which the component crops
enjoy a favourable environment to perform well and increase the benefits of crop
associations. Besides routine aspects like good seeds, correct and ideal seed bed
preparation, optimum moisture in soil and removal of weeds, the establishment of
a good crop stand also depends on optimum population of component crops, proper
crop geometry, suitable method and time of sowing. The significance of these
management aspects are relatively more important in intercropping than in
sequential cropping since in the intercropping competition occurs both in space and
time dimensions, affecting stand establishment. Therefore, there should be
optimum population of both the component crops.

a. The planting pattern should be modified to avoid competition.

b. The time and method of sowing also should be altered to minimize
competition.

i) Optimum population of component crops

In the intercropping when two or more crops are raised together, the total
population of plants per unit area is normally more than that of the sole crops on
base crops. The proportional population of each component must be carefully fixed
in order to avoid competition leading the poor growth of either or both the crops
and total yield advantage of intercropping system would be reduced.

Depending upon the objective and competition the population of the

component crops will vary.

a. When a near full yield of the base crop is defined, the main crop population
must be equal to that when it is raised as sole crop and intercrop population
has to be lesser than under its pure crop. It may vary 30 - 50 % of pure crop
population. This is true especially when intercropping is also equally
competitive.
 b. In intercropping, if one of the crops is more dominant and competitive, the
other crop is likely to suffer and its individual plant performance would be
lower than when it is raised as pure crops. In order to maintain yield
advantaged and to make up the loss in individual plant performance, the
intercrop population may be increased even upto 100% of sole crop,
provided the main crop is not affected.
c. In other situations, where a particular combination of crops is likely to result
in only a total yield advantage or increase, but the performances either of the
crops is likely to be less than under sole crops, the proportionate population
of component crops must be fixed so as to get the highest yield advantage.

ii) Crop geometry in intercropping system

After fixing the plant population, if sown as such then there will be a
competition. Even in wide spaced crops, when intercrops are raised, suitable
alternations in row arrangement should be made.

Distribution of plants over the ground area is called as crop geometry. It also
refers to the shape of the land area available to the individual plants. The shape is
altered by changing the row arrangement.

Sowing crops in the normally recommended uniform row spacing of pure

crops would afford little or no opportunity for accommodating a companion
cropping. On the other hand a modification of the plating pattern of the base crop
would make intercropping feasible and often remunerative. This is made possible
by keeping the plant population density per unit area constant, altering the
orientation of rows within certain limits, which does not result in any deviation in
yield of the crops. Possible changes in crop geometry for the base crop in an
intercropping system from that of pure crop would be

i.Wider inter row spacing and reduced intra row spacing

eg. 60 x 30 cm - redgram
90 x 20 cm
ii. Paired rows of main crop or base crop
eg. Sorghum 45 x 15 cm (or) 60/30 x 15 cm
iii. Uniform row planting with a replacement of main crop rows by
intercrop
rows.
eg. Sorghum + Blackgram at 2:1 ratio.

Examples

i. In sorghum, 45 cm inter row spacing is too close for raising an intercrop.

If the row spacing is increased to 60 cm and plant spacing is reduced to
10 cm from 15 cm, the sorghum population would not be reduced much,
and the inter space of 60 cm is sufficient for raising one row of inter crop.
ii. Paired row plating of main crop provides adequate inter space for sowing
intercrops
45 x 15 cm 60 / 30 x 15 cm
60 x 30 cm 90 / 30 x 30 cm
iii. In many intercropping system to accommodate intercrop one or more
rows of main crops are replaced by intercrops.
eg. Groundnut + Redgram - 6:1
Sorghum + Redgram - 8:1

Questions:
1. Which tillage is used to reduce the number of ploughings to the maximum
possible.

2. Sowing the succeeding crops in the standing previous crop may be practiced
without any land preparation is called

3. Broad Bed Furrow system (BBF) suitable for which soil

4. Distribution of plant over the land is called__________

4. Write short notes on allelopathic effects?

5.Write short notes on zero tillage ?

Chapter 6 Cropping system management: agronomic requirement for crops

and cropping system – soil fertility management, water management and
plant protection

SOIL FERTILITY MANAGEMENT

Determining fertilizer schedule for sole crops itself is a complex problem

because many factors affecting availability, fixation and loss of applied nutrients
and the difficulty in estimating the soil contribution. The problem becomes more
complex in intensive cropping with the additional factors like residual effect of
nutrients applied to the previous crop, possible effect of legumes in the system,
complementary and competitive interference from the component crops and the
influence of crop residues left in the soil. Hence, soil management is different for
multiple cropping from that for single cropping. It is well known that soils tend to
decline in productivity when they are continuously cropped without adopting
satisfactory restorative practices.

Designing nutrient management practices for cropping systems

Three interrelated concepts in designing fertilization practices for multiple

cropping systems.

• Selection of species combinations,

• fertility response of a particular species’ in multiple cropping relative to

monoculture and

• Objectives of the multiple cropping systems.

(These considerations overlap, interact and may converge to help define the
most appropriate way to manage fertility inputs in a given situation). The most
common approach in developing the fertilizer schedule for an intensive CS

• An understanding of the fertility response of the component crops/their

nutrient uptake pattern

• Soil contribution and

• Differential response of crops to nutrients.

Nutrient Requirement of Component Crops

In sugarcane –based sequential cropping systems 3-4 crops/2 years removed

about 50, 46 and 31 per cent more N, P2O5 and K2O/ha respectively. In
conventional sugarcane system (one plant + one ratoon in 2 years) which removed
213, 132 and 571 kg N, P2O5 and K2O/ha respectively. The most productive and
profitable cropping systems viz., short duration sugarcane/ratoon/finger
millet/cotton removed the highest amount of nutrients (357kg N, 214kg P2O5 and
807kg K2O per ha). One tonne of sugarcane removed 1.05kg N, 0.65kg P2O5 and
2.84kg K2O from the soil.

Nutrient competition can be minimized in intercropping systems by

• Selecting species with different rooting patterns,

• Different nutrient requirement,

• Different times of peak demand for nutrients and

• Plant spacing.

Pattern of Nutrient Uptake

In cereal-legume intercropping, the legume component is capable of fixing

atmospheric N under favourable conditions and this is believed to reduce
competition for N with the cereal and intercrop legume compete for available soil
N. (In a maize+ cowpea intercropping system, the peak period of N requirement
for cowpea occurs at 45 days and for maize 55 -60 days).

Phosphorus is major nutrient that determines the production potential of

most grain legumes usually intercropped with cereals. Legumes are poorer
competitors for P when intercropped with grasses or cereals, this being attributed
to differences in root morphology. In a maize and cowpea intercropping system, in
the absence of applied P, maize was more competitive than cowpea in the initial
stages. However, at high rates of applied P, P uptake of intercrop maize was
reduced by 30 per cent, indicating competition for P from cowpea.

Response to Nutrient Application

 All crops included in a cropping system are not equally responsive to
application of all the major nutrients. Based on the response data of individual
crops, they can be classified as non-responsive, moderately responsive or highly
responsive to specific plant nutrients. It would be appropriate to apply fertilizer to
those crops which respond to it and little or none to the none-responding crops.

Little information is available on fertility response equations developed

specifically for multiple cropping situations. However, regression response
equations were developed for sorghum, maize and sugarcane based intercropping
systems. Such regression equations could be extended to prediction and
optimization of total energy production, protein production, economic yield or
whatever the multiple cropping objectives may be. However, this approach is
empirical and appropriate for specific areas and data sets. Fertility management in
a cropping system becomes sustainable of it would make the least demand on soil.
In this context the nutrient balance sheet approach is used.

Legume Effect

N fixed by the intercrop of legume may be available to the associated cereal

in the current growing season or as a residual N for the benefit of a succeeding
cereal crop. Both forms of N transfer are considered to be important and could
improve the N economy of various legume-based intercropping systems Hence
both current and residual N benefits should be evaluated in intercrop systems in
which legumes are a component.

Soil Contribution

Once the nutrient requirement of a cropping system is known, the next step is to
find out how much the soil can contribute to meet the requirement before deciding
on the quantum of fertilizer application. The most common method of estimating
soil contribution is routine soil analysis.

Rates of Fertilizer Application

After ascertaining the soil contribution, the amounts of nutrients to be applied to

the cropping system through fertilizers can be arrived at. It is essential to calculate
the nutrient balances to assess the amounts of fertilizers needed to attain the
desired level of production and to ensure that the soil fertility is maintained and
preferably improved.

Cropping Systems - Water Management

Water management has to be studied with reference to

i. Total water requirement

ii. Scheduling of irrigation

i. Total water requirement

Knowledge of anticipated total water requirement of different types of

intensive cropping systems would help us to select or choose the one that would
suit to water availability situation. In an irrigated condition, total water
requirement would include the water lost through ET by various component
crops, water needed for land preparation, water lost during conveyance. In rainfed
land, total water requirement is the water lost through ET by component crops.
Let us examine the total water requirement in some intensive cropping on water
management.

a. Intercropping

i. Rainfed
 Pure pearlmillet 159mm
Pure groundnut 196mm
Pearlmillet + groundnut 228mm
Increase due to intercropping 32-69mm
ii. Irrigated

System SW monsoon Summer

Groundnut pure 562 mm 698 mm

Groundnut + Greengram 612 mm 745 mm

Increase due to 50 mm 47 mm
intercropping

Sorghum 419 mm 424 mm

Sorghum + cowpea 490 mm 523 mm

Increase due to 74 mm 99mm

intercropping

It is evident that introduction of a component crop I between the rows of

main cop, naturally increases the total population and consequently increases the
total water requirement. But this increase is very minimal. Comparing the minimal
increase in total water requirement and the high total yield, the water use efficiency
of intercropping is more i.e. the production per hectare cm of water is high.

b. Sequential cropping

When the number of crop raised in a field in one year increases the total water
requirement of the cropping system also increases.

Eg. Wetlands Rice-Rice-Rice = 3500 mm

 Rice-Rice-Pulses =2300 mm

Rice-Rice-Ragi =2750 mm

Garden lands Cotton – Sunflower – Finger millet = 1925 mm

Cotton – Sorghum - Finger millet = 1975 mm

Cotton – Maize – Ragi = 1985 mm

Such information in total water requirement of different cropping system

would be useful for choosing the suitable crop sequence based on water
availability.

ii. Scheduling irrigation

Scheduling irrigation refers to method of irrigation and frequency of irrigation.

It depends on total quantity of water required by crops.

a. Intercropping

Intercropping system, the total water requirement varies and critical stages of
water requirement of component crops may not coincide. If one crop is irrigated
based on its requirement, then the other crop may suffer due to excess or stress.

Eg. Cotton + blackgram, cotton needs dry spell in the first 20-25 days but this
may affect blackgram. More number of irrigations may be necessary in
intercropping than in pure crop, because of increased total water requirement.
When the intercrop is sensitive to excess water it may be raised in bed furrow
system.

Eg. Surgarcane + soybean

Plant protection measures

 Intensive cropping systems like intercropping and sequential cropping may
increase / decrease the incidence of certain pest and diseases by increase in
vegetative cover and by alteration in micro-climate.

Examples

• Sorghum + pulses reduce the early shoot borer incidence

• Sterility mosaic increases in Redgram + sorghum than in pure redgram due
to micro climate changes.
• Leaf miner in groundnut reduced when intercropped with cowpea. Castor as
trap crop in cotton field.
• Presence of physical barrier affecting the movement of insects. Eg.)
Sorghum + sesame, less damage of web worm to sesame
The pest and disease management strategy include

• Choice of resistant varieties

• Careful combination of crops in intercrop
• Careful combination of crops in sequential crop
• Destruction of crop residues
• Cultural operation for pest and disease control
• Optimum time of sowing
• Judicious use of selective pesticide
Question:
1. Which major Phosphorus nutrient that determines the production potential of
most grain legumes usually intercropped with cereals
2. Which intercropping system reduce the early shoot borer incidence ( Sorghum +
pulses)
3. Water requirement of pearlmillet crop under rainfed condition 159mm
4. Write short notes on Legume Effect ?
5. Write any two wetland cropping system with water requirement?
 Chapter 7 Indices for evaluation of cropping system – land use, yield
advantage and economics

Evaluation and productivity of multiple CS or of component crops should be

done on quantitative terms. It is relatively easy to compare the productivity of
crops and agrl. systems that produce similar produces and use similar resources. A
number of efficiencies in resource use becomes operative when two or more crops
are present in the same field during the same year and these can be most complex
when crops are grown simultaneously. Information about these biological
efficiencies can lead to management options that differ from those in monoculture.
Several indices have been proposed to compare the efficiencies of multiple
cropping systems in terms of:

 Land use systems

 Biological potentials

 Economic viability and

 Energetic approach

I. Indices Based on Land Use Systems

1. Multiple Cropping Index (MCI) (Dalrymple, 1971)

2. Cropping Intensity Index (CII) (Menegay et. al. 1978)

3. Cropping intensity / Intensity of cropping (CI)

4. Rotational Intensity (RI)

5. Specific Crop Intensity Index (SCII) (Menegay et. al. 1978)

6. Relative Cropping Intensity Index (RCII)

7. Cultivated Land Utilization Index (CLUI) (Chuang 1973)

8. Area time equivalent ratio (AFTER)

9. Staple land equivalent ratio(SLER)

1. Multiple Cropping Index (MCI): Dalrymple (1971)

It measures the sum of areas planted and harvested to different crops in a

single year divided by total cultivated area times 100.

n
∑ ai
i=1
MCI = -------- x 100
A
Where,

n = Total no. of crops

ai = area occupied by ith crop

A = total land area

2. Cropping intensity / Intensity of cropping (CI)

Total cropped area

(Gross cropped area)
CI = x 100
Net cultivated area

Area under kharif + rabi + summer crops

CI = Area under actual cultivation x 100

3. Rotational Intensity (RI)

 No. of crops grown in a field

RI = Years of rotation X 100

e.g., 1. Maize – potato – onion : 1 year

RI = 1 X =300%
100

2. Maize – sugarcane – onion : 2 years

RI = 2 x 100 = 150

4. Cropping Intensity Index (CII): (Menegay et. al. (1978)

It assesses a farmer’s actual land use in area and time relationships for each
crop or group of crops compared to the total available land area and time, including
land temporarily available for production. Efficient cropping zone is judged by CII
and LER

Nc
∑ ai ti
i=1
CII = ----------------
M
∑ Aj Tj
j=1
Where,

Nc = Total no. of crops grown during time period T

Ai = area occupied by ith crop

ti = duration occupied by ith crop (months that crop occupied ai)

T = time period (usually one year)

Ao = Total cultivated land area available for use during T

M = Total no. of fields temporarily available during T

Aj = land area of jth field

Tj = Time period when Aj is available

5. Specific Crop Intensity Index (SCII): (Menegay et. al. 1978)

It is the derivative of CII and determines the amount of area-time denoted to

each crop or group of crops compared to the total time available

𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁

�
𝑘𝑘=𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙

𝑀𝑀
SCII =
� 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴
𝑗𝑗=1

Nk = Total no. of crops during T

ak = area occupied by Kth crop

tk = duration of Kth crop

6. Relative Cropping Intensity Index (RCII)

It is the modification of CII and determines the amount of area-time allotted

to one crop or group of crops relative to the area-time actually used in the
production of all the crops in a farm.

𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁

� 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡
𝑘𝑘=1

𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁
RCII =
� 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡
𝑗𝑗=1
It is used for classifying farmers viz., when relative vegetable Intensity Index is
more than 50% then farmers will be called vegetable grower.
7. Cultivated Land Utilization Index (CLUI): Chuang (1973)

It is calculated by summing the products of land area planted to each crop,

multiplied by the actual duration of that crop and divided by the total cultivated
land area times 365 days.

𝑛𝑛

� 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑖𝑖=1

CLUI A X 365
=

i = 1, 2, 3 crops 1…..n.

n = Total no. of crops

a = Area occupied by ith crop.

d = Days that ith crop occupied ai.

A = Total cultivated land area available during 365 days period.

8. Area time equivalent ratio (ATER)

It takes into account the duration of crops and permits an evaluation of crops
on yield per day basis. It is a modification of LER.

(LA x DA) + (LB x DB)

ATER = -----------------------------
T
Where, LA and LB are relative yield or partial LER of component crops. A
and B, DA and DB are duration of crops. A and B, and T are the total duration of
the intercropping system.

9. Staple land equivalent ratio(SLER)

 In situations, where the primary objective is to produce fixed yield of one
component (staple) and some yield of other crop, the concept of SLER is proposed.
 MDA MB

SLER = SA + P SB

Where, MDA is derived yield of A in mixture yield and P the proportion of

land devoted for intercropping. The two crop yields in the intercrop mixture are
MA and MB and the yield of crops grown as sole crop are SA and SB.

Indices Based on Biological Potential

Crop Equivalent Yield

Crop Equivalent yield: The equivalent yield should preferably be calculated

in terms of kharif crop (say paddy in rice based cropping system) using the
following formula.

Yi x Pi
CEY = ---------
-
Pb

CEY = Crop equivalent yield

Yi = Yield of individual crop

Pi = Price of individual crop

Pb = Price of base crops

Example: Yield and cotton equivalent yield of crops in different sequential
cropping systems

Cotton equivalent yield

Grain yield (kg/ha)
(kg/ha)
Crop sequence
Tota
K R S Total K R S
l

Cotton -Finger millet- 190 246 190 334

2833 7196 708 738
Sorghum 3 0 3 9

Beetroot - Green gram - 993 562 1659 248 103 196 548
1035
Maize 7 6 8 4 5 9 8

Cowpea - Gingelly - Maize 524 152 183 384

962 762 6970 481
6 4 6 1

Cotton – S.culeate - 165 1205 163 1534 165 138 334

301
Sunflower 6 4 3 3 6 8 5

Produce market Prices (Rs./kg)

Cotton : Rs. 20 Finger millet : Rs. 5 Sorghum : Rs. 6 Beetroot :

Rs. 5

Green gram :Rs. 20 Maize : Rs. 7 Cowpea : Rs. 10

Gingelly : Rs.40

S.aculeate : Rs. 0.50 Sunflower : Rs. 17

One other form of single measurement comparison which is exactly

equivalent to the financial value index, is the crop equivalent. In calculating a crop
equivalent, yield of one crop is converted into yield equivalent of the other crop by
using the ratio of prices of the two crops. Indices based on Biological potential are
categorized into production efficiency index and Interference indices.

I. Production Efficiency Index

1. LER (Land Equivalent Ratio)

LER is the relative land areas under sole crop required to produce the same
yield as obtained under a mixed or inter cropping system at the same level of
management.

It is the ratio of land required by pure crop to produce the same yield as that of
intercrop.
𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌 𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌
LER = 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆
+
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆

Where,

Ya & Yb = Yield of individual crops ‘a’ and ‘b’ respectively in mixture.

Sa & Sb = Yields of individual crops ‘a’ and ‘b’ respectively in pure stand.

Thus, it gives a better picture of the competitive abilities of the component

crops. It also gives actual yield advantage of intercropping. In another words LER
is the unit to measure the production efficiency of different intercropping system
by converting the production in terms of land acreage. LER gives an accurate
assessment of the biological efficiency of intercropping.

When LER > 1, intercropping is beneficial

2. Relative Yield Total and Land Equivalent Ratio

The most important index of biological advantage is the relative yield total
(RYT) introduced by De Wit and Van Den Bergh (1965) or land equivalent ratio
(LER) reviewed by Willey (1979). The mixture yield of a component crop
expressed as a portion of its yield as a sole crop from the same replacement series
is the relative yield of the crop and the sum of the relative yields of component
crops is called relative yield total (RYT). The total land area required under sole
cropping to give the same yields obtained in the intercropping mixture is called
land equivalent ratio (LER). Both the expressions (RYT and LER) are similar.

Example
 Yield of groundnut and pigeon pea as sole crops were 1000 and 500 kg ha-1.
Corresponding yield in intercropping was 700 and 400 kg ha-1. Price of pigeon pea
is Rs.12 kg –I and that of groundnut Rs.12 kg-1 . Calculate LER.

Solution
700 400
LER = 1000
+
500

= 1.5

There are two different objectives for which such indices have been
proposed.

The first is the assessment of the benefit or overall advantage of intercropping and
the second is the assessment of the relative performance of the two crops, the
concept of dominance or competitiveness.

It is important not to confuse these two objectives, which should be quite separate
conceptually. The RYT or LER is the main index of advantage currently used.

II. Interference Efficiency

1. Relative Crowding Coefficient (RCC): Proposed by De Wit (1960)

It is used in replacement series of intercropping.

It indicates whether a species or a crop, when grown in mixed population,

has produced more or less yield than expected in pure stand.

In 50 : 50 mixture
𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑎𝑎
Kab (RCC) = 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑎𝑎−𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑎𝑎

𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌
= 𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌−𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌

Yab = mixture yield of crop ‘a’ grown with ‘b’

Yba = mixture yield of crop ‘b’ grown with ‘a’

Yaa = Yield in pure stand of crop ‘a’

Ybb = Yield in pure stand of crop ‘b’

 Zab = proportion of sown species ‘a’ in mixture with ‘b’

Zba = proportion of sown species ‘b’ in mixture with ‘a’

For all mixture

𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌 𝑥𝑥 𝑍𝑍𝑍𝑍𝑍𝑍
Kab = (𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌−𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌)𝑍𝑍𝑍𝑍

K>1 Means yield advantage (more yield than expected)

K= 1 No difference

K< 1 Yield disadvantage (less yield than expected)

Crowding coefficient and LER give the yield advantage but only LER given
the magnitude of advantage. Therefore LER is preferred to assess the competition
effects and yield advantage in intercropping situations.

2. Aggressivity

Proposed by Mc Gihrist (1965). It is the mixture of how much the relative

yield increase in component ‘a’ is greater than that for component ‘b’.
𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑎𝑎 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑏𝑏
Kab = 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑙𝑙𝑑𝑑 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑎𝑎 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑏𝑏

𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌 𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌
Aab = 𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌 𝑥𝑥 𝑍𝑍𝑍𝑍𝑍𝑍
−
𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌 𝑥𝑥 𝑍𝑍𝑍𝑍𝑍𝑍

Aab = 0 means component crops are equally competitive

Aab = negative means dominated

Aab = bigger value either positive or negative means bigger difference in

competitive
abilities.

3. Competition Index (CI) : Donald (1963).

It is a measure to find out the yield of various crops when grown together as
well as separately. It indicates the yield per plant of different crops in mixture and
their respective pure stand on an unit area basis.
 If the yield of any crop, grown together is less than its respective yield in
pure stand then it is harmful association but on increased yield means positive
benefit.

(𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌−𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌) 𝑥𝑥 (𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌−𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌)
CI = 𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌 𝑥𝑥 𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌

4. Competition Ratio (CR): Willey and Rao (1980)

𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌 𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌
Cra = 𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑎𝑎 𝑥𝑥 𝑍𝑍𝑍𝑍𝑍𝑍 + 𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌 𝑥𝑥 𝑍𝑍𝑍𝑍𝑍𝑍

Cra =

It is simply the ratio of individual LERs of the two component crops, but
correcting for the proportion in which they were initially sown.

5. Competition Coefficient (CC)

Ratio of the Relative crowding coefficient (RCC) of any given species in the
mixture.
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
CC = 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

It is used to find out the relative crowding from which maximum yield can
be obtained without any adverse effect on any of the species.

Evaluation of CS - Indices Based on Economic Viability

1. Gross return:

The total monetary returns of the economic produce such as grain, tuber,
bulb, fruit, etc and by products viz., straw, fodder, fuel, etc obtained from the
crops included in the system are calculated based on the local market prices. The
total return is expresses in terms of unit area, usually one hectare.
2. Net return or net profit:

Worked out by subtracting the total cost of cultivation from the gross
returns. This value gives the actual profit obtained by the farmer. In this type of
calculation only the variable costs are considered

3. Returns / rupee invested:

Also called as benefit cost ratio or input output ratio.

Gross returns
Return per rupee invested = Cost of cultivation

4. Per day return:

Also called as income per day and can be obtained by dividing the net
returns by number of cropping period (days)

Net returns
Per day return = Cropping period (days)

5. Deversity Index (DI): Strout and Wang and Yu (1975)

It measures the multiplicity of crops or farm products which are planted in a
year by computing the reciprocal of sum of squares of the share of gross revenue
received from each individual farm enterprise in a single year. In the following
farms, which farm is mostly specialized.

Crops Income (Rs.) From Different Farms

A B C
Sugarcane 30,000 - 10,000
Cotton 10,000 20,000 20,000
Wheat 40,000 29,000 10,000
Jowar 20,000 10,000 40,000
Potato - 50,000 -
Total 100,000 100,000 80,000
Solution

Crops Shares of individual crops in different Farmer Participatory research

on Integrated Farming System in Low External Input Sustainable
Environment
Farm A Farm B Farm C
Share Square of Share Square of Share Square of
its share its share its share
Sugarcane 0.3 0.09 - - 0.125 0.0156
Cotton 0.1 0.01 0.2 0.04 0.25 0.625
Wheat 0.4 0.16 0.2 0.04 0.125 0.0156
Jowar 0.2 0.04 0.1 0.01 0.50 0.2500
Potato - - 0.5 0.25 - -
Total 1.0 0.30 1.00 0.34 1.00 0.3437
Diversity Index

1.00
Farm A = 0.30
= 3.33
1.00
Farm B = 0.34 = 2.94
1.00
Farm = 0.3437 = 2.91

Therefore, Farm ‘A’, is more diversified and Farm C is more specialized

Lower is the diversity Index, higher is the specialization.

1
HDI = ∑𝑛𝑛 𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 ∑𝑛𝑛
𝑖𝑖=1 𝑖𝑖=1 𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦

Where, yi = gross value of the i th crop planted and harvested within a year.

Questions:

1. Cropping Intensity Index (CII) proposed by Menegay et. al. 1978

2. Which indices to gives an accurate assessment of the biological efficiency of

intercropping LER

3. Who proposed the Competition Index (CI) Donald (1963).

 Contents
Lecture Title Page
No.
1 Cropping system: Definition, Principles and basic concepts
2 Classification of cropping system - Mono cropping, intensive cropping,
multiple cropping, mixed cropping
3 Major cropping systems prevailing in India and Tamil Nadu for different
agro eco-systems
4 Complementary and competitive interaction in different cropping system –
light, nutrient, water and weed
5 Cropping system management : agronomic requirement for crops and
cropping system – selection of crops and varieties, tillage and land shaping,
plant population and crop geometry
6 Cropping system management: agronomic requirement for crops and
cropping system – soil fertility management, water management and plant
protection
7 Indices for evaluation of cropping system – land use, yield advantage and
economics
8 Farming system: definition, principles and concepts and factors influencing
choice and size of enterprises
9 MID SEMESTER EXAMINATION
10 Scope and advantages of integrated farming system
11 Allied enterprises for wetland, irrigated upland and dryland – selection and
management and their interaction
12 Resource recycling in integrated farming system
13 Integrated Farming System evaluation indicators
14 Integrated farming system – models for wetland, irrigated upland and dryland
eco-system
15 LEIA & HEIA- concepts and principles and labour management in integrated
farming system.
16 Conservation agriculture and environmental impact of integrated farming
system
17 Cost reduction technologies and non monetary inputs in integrated farming
system

1
 Lecture 8. Farming system: definition, principles and concepts and
factors influencing choice and size of enterprises

A farming system is a collection of distinct functional units such as crop, livestock,

processing, investments and marketing activities which interact because of the joint use of inputs
they receive from the environment which have the common objective of satisfying the farmers’
(decision makers) aims. The definition of the borders of the options depends on circumstances;
often it includes not only the farm (economic enterprise) but also the household (farm –
household system)” - Ruthenberg (1971)
A farming system is not simply a collection of crops and animals to which one can apply
his input or expect immediate result. Rather, it is a complicated interwoven mesh of soils, plants,
animals, implements, workers, other inputs and environmental influences with the strands
without link help and manipulated by a person called farmer, who given his preferences and
aspirations, attempts to produce output from the input with the technology available to him. It is
the farmer’s unique understanding of his immediate environment, both national and socio
economic that results in a “Farming system”. Thus, Farming system (farm system or whole farm
system) is the production and consumption activities used by a person called a farmer to derive
benefits from land and other inputs through crop growth and the use of technologies available to
him under specific environmental conditions. - Zandstra et al. (1981)
Farming is the process of harnessing solar energy in the form of economic plant and
animal products, and ‘System’ implies a set of inter related practices/processes organized into a
functional entity, i.e . an arrangement of components or parts that interact according to some
process and transforms inputs into outputs. Faming system is a decision making units comprising
farm household, cropping an d livestock systems that transform land, capital and labour into
products for consumption and sale. - Fresco and Westphal (1988)
Farming system is a set of agro-economic activities that are inter-related and interact
among themselves in particular agrarian settings. Farming system is the mix of farm enterprises
to which farm families allocate its resources in order to efficiently utilize the existing enterprises
for increasing the productivity and profitability of the farm. These farm enterprises are crop,
livestock, aquaculture, agro-forestry and agri-horticulture. (Sharma, et al. (1991))

2
 Integrated farming system is one where more than one agricultural activity is practiced in
the same farm unit, the activities being interrelated and competes for the same set of available
resources in the farm.
Need
The population in most tropical countries is increasing leaps and bounds, warranting
more production of food from limited cultivated lands. Many challenges are faced in our quest to
achieve sustainable food security with shrinking land resources for agriculture to produce
additional food grains to meet the requirement of the prognosticated population in our country.
Furthermore, as agriculture becomes more intensive, soil and waste degradation threaten the
sustainable agricultural production.
India would need to produce additional food grains of 100 and 160 million tonnes by
2030 and 2050 AD, respectively, to feed its projected population. India’s population as on date is
about 1003 million and is expected to reach 1370 and 1600 million in 2030 and 2050 AD,
respectively. Food grain production in India reached an all time high of 218 million tonnes
during 2000 -01 and 289 and 349 million tonnes are needed to meet the demand of the projected
population in 2030 and 2050 AD, respectively.
The current net cultivable area of 142.8 million ha is likely to dwindle further by virtue
of diversion of some of the cultivable area to buildings and industrial purposes. It is anticipated
that the land area available for cultivation in 2050 would be 137 million ha. Thus, our production
of food grains per unit area almost has to double from what we are obtaining today. This could
be made possible by putting the land, both irrigated and rainfed under intensive cultivation.
Fortunately, most of our states lie in tropics and so are blessed with abundant solar energy thus
making cropping possible round the year. The only way to increase agricultural production is to
increase the productivity per unit area per unit time.
In the scientific era of agriculture, cropping systems, genotypes, geometry of planting and
management practices are designed to increase the productivity per unit area per unit time,
simultaneously making efficient use of available resources and stabilizing yields.
The average holding of a farm in India has been declining and as indicated earlier over
80% of operational holdings are below the size of 1.00 hectare (Mahapatra and Bapat, 1992).
There is no scope for increasing the farm size, because of steady increase in population with
shrinkage of cultivated land as a result of industrialization and urbanization. Only vertical

3
expansion is possible by integrating appropriate farming components requiring lesser space and
time ensuring periodic income to the farmer. The integrated farming systems, therefore, assumes
greater importance for sound management of farm resources to enhance the farm productivity,
reduce the environmental degradation, improve the quality of life of resource poor farmers and to
maintain the sustainability. Hence, the sustainable farming systems, economically viable and
ecologically compatible encompassed with higher productivity to meet the present and future
needs without jeopardizing the potential, are to be optimized for specific agricultural domain.
Principle
 To identify the constraints in increasing farm productivity
 To provide technological intervention options for improving farming systems at a given
resource base through farmer participatory research
 To conduct farmers participatory research in refining technologies of farming systems
and provide feed back of farm problems to on-station researcher
 To monitor the impact of component or system related technology on sustainability of
farming systems to meet the growing needs of population with emphasis on equity and
gender issue
Concepts:

 Integration of all units

 Effective resource utilization and efficient recycling of wastes
 Labour utilization and employment generation
 Livelihood of the farmer
 Sustainability of farming
 Environment friendly

Farming system includes not only crop but also other allied enterprises. The different
enterprises have their own characteristics, behaviour within themselves and also have differential
behaviour with other enterprises.
FACTORS INFLUENCING CHOICE AND SIZE OF ENTERPRISES
1. Environment Natural

Social

4
 Political

Economical

2. Resources availability within the farm

out side the farm

3. Farmers Objectives

Attitude

Knowledge

Skills

Constraints

4. Technology Availability

Innovation

Institutional Support.

Environmental Factors
Natural

Climatic factors. Based on the climatic factors, choice of crops size and allied enterprises
can be determined. In heavy rainfall area rice + fish or rice + homestead gardens can be
associated.

In moderate rainfall area, where supplementary irrigation is essential, cotton, millets, oil
seeds, pulses + dairy or cotton, millets, pulses + Poultry can be integrated.

In dry lands , Cotton + dry land horticulture + goat (or) Cotton + forage crops + dairy
can be integrated

5
 Size of allied enterprises will be based mainly on soil fertility status, soil moisture storage
(dry land only), area of crop component etc. If the fertility status is good productivity of fodder
can be increased per unit area and more number of poultry/dairy can be accommodated.

(eg) If the production of CN grass is around 300 t /ha / year in well fertile soil, 2 milch animals
can be accomadated per 16 cents area instead of one, so that 6 animals can be maintained instead
3 animals normally suggested for IFS for garden land 16 cents area will produce 19 t green
fodder per year. 1 milch cow may require 25-30 kg/green fodder per day. Therefore for one year
the animal may require 9 t. Thus we can maintain 2 milch animals instead of one prescribed even
if we assume that the full ration is given even during non lactation period.

In dry land if soil moisture storage is good forage grasses viz., cenchrus glaucus,
Dinanath grass and forage millets can be grown (co 8 Bajra, K10 sorghum) and green fodder can
be harvested and dairy unit can be maintained.

Similarly if the area under paddy is large, mushroom enterprises area can be increased.

Dry land dominated by wasteland should have enterprises like sheep. In degraded soils,
agroforestry should be a component system.

Social factor
Size and nature of enterprises is based on the traditional belief in the society, food habits,
community decision, social acceptability and inheritance law on farm size.

(eg) Whenever people are fond of native poultry egg, allied enterprises of poultry comprising of
exotic poultry breed will not be successful.

Similarly in areas where beef is not taken in the diet growing piggery will be failure.

Similarly any new venture should be socially acceptable (eg) starting of Japanese quail
farm was not successful.

Economical
Price of input, output, price support policies affects the profitability of an enterprise and
therefore, their choice and size in IFS.

6
Political
Political decision taken on agricultural policies international policies etc, affect the choice
of enterprises in a farming system.

(eg) Prawn farming was encouraged previously but now there are some restriction imposed due
to the environmental hazards.

Resources
Within the boundary set by the environment, resources are the inputs required into the
system from within or outside for the functioning of various component activities.

Available Resources

Resources Within the Farm Outside the farm

Land and Water Area, water from well Water from tanks and
canals

Labour and animal Family labour, bullock Hired human and bullock
labour labour

Implement Farm implements sickle for

harvest ridger, plough

The quantity and quality of these resources and their sufficiency / deficiency or non
availability have considerable influence on the choice of enterprises and relative size in a
farming system.

Farmer
Within the same environment with similar resource availability, choice and size
enterprises in farming system may vary from farm to farm based on the knowledge of the
farmers about the allied enterprise, skill required for successful implementation of enterprise and
his objective attitude to farming system.

7
Effect of technology
Introduction and successful implementation of a component entirely depends on the
availability of technology about the component, strength of transfer of technology, innovations
and new concepts which affect the choice and activity of the component.

Questions Questions

1. The current net cultivable area 142.8 million ha

2. Define farming system ?

3. Concept of farming system ?

4. Principle of farming system ?

5. Listout the factors influencing the choice of enterprises?

6. How the rainfall influencing the choice of enterprises?

7. Write about different available resources?

8
 Lecture. 10 Scope and advantages of integrated farming system

System
A system is an assembly of objects or things that are interrelated and interdependent on
each other for proper functioning to achieve a common objective.

Sub system
“Is part of system that are worth considering separately because their separate functions
is relevant to their role in the whole system”.

Eg. Different parts of the body i.e. legs, arms.

Distinguish between system and non system

System Non system

1 Collection of groups or assembly of Collection of groups or assembly of components
components which are related. which are not related
2 Inter dependent Not inter dependent
3 Property of system vary with change Property is not changed eg. A bag of marble is not a
system. If a marble is added or substracted a bag of
marble remains the same
4 Behaviour as a whole in any part No such behaviour is response to a stimuli in
observed

Objective of farm
The objective of any farm will be

 to get higher income from the farms

 to produce enough food for the family

 to make the best use of all available resources like soil, water etc.

 to minimize the cost of farming.

9
FARMING SYSTEM
Farm is a system, why?

Fodder
Animal
Crop Manure, draft power

Labour,
Labour, capital
capital

Ford, cash Food, cash

Farm family

A farm comprises many activities viz., crop production, animal maintenance, farm family
maintenance etc. The requirements of one activity influence the functioning of the other activity.
The failure of any one also adversely affects the other activity. Thus in a farm the crops supply
food and cash to the farm family. The animals also provide food and cash income to the farmers.
Crops supply fodder to the animals, which in turn provide manure to the crops and draft power
required for carrying out the cultivation operations. The farmer is responsible for the
maintenance of crops and animals and furnishes the capital for this purpose. All these activities
are thus interrelated and depend on each other.

FARMING SYSTEM: Farming system can be defined as a system which comprises a set of
agricultural activities involving interdependent functional units (farming enterprises) to
profitably harvest solar energy while preserving land productivity, environmental quality and
maintaining desirable stability. The final objective should be to achieve sustainable production.

(or)

10
 Farming system represent an appropriate combination of farm enterprises viz., cropping
systems, livestock, fisheries, forestry, poultry and the means available to the farmer to raise them
for profitability. It interacts adequately with the environment without dislocating the ecological
and socio – economic balance on one hand and attempts to meet the national goals on the other

SCOPE AND NEED FOR FAMING SYSTEM APPROACH

Agricultural development has undergone profound changes during the last two centuries.
In western countries, machine power replaced animal power, fertilizers replaced organic
manners. Dominance of fertilization, herbigation were noticed. Similarly in India, during the past
4 decades, crop improvement, improved production technologies, crop protection technologies
were introduced. However, all these development activities were confined to agriculturally
intensive 44 districts out of 453 districts of this country buy many problems have been caused.

 High cost of inputs

 Flucturation in market price of farm produce which does not commensurate with high
cost of cultivation

 Environmental pollution: Nitrate accumulation in Indus river.

 Soil degradation due to depletion of major secondary and micro nutrients

 Low level of government support by way of giving subsidy to the farming community.

Technologies developed for individual crop became economically not viable and
sustainable. Hence the farmer has to link two or more allied enterprises to enhance or improve
his income. In this context farming system play a vital role.

 Due to uncertain rainfall the yield and income from the crop is uncertain

 The farm labourers are underemployed as the crop season is confined to four months only

 Natural resource degradation i.e. soil and nutrient loss due to water and wind erosion.

 Socio economic constraints.

11
 Under such situations the farming system approach forms the only solution to the poor
marginal and small farmers of India

Development of farming system for an area should be

 Technically feasible
 Economically viable
 Socially acceptable
 Sustainable in long range
 Eco friendly without affecting the ecology of that area.
BASIC FEATURES / CHARACTERISTICS OF A FARMING SYSTEM

Any system has the following basic features

• Objectives
• Environment
• Resources
• Constraints
• Components
• Interaction
These features apply to the farm also and can be considered for farming system

Environment
The environment in which a farm is located decides the nature, aim and even the
objectives of the farming system. In irrigated farms commercial crop production will be a major
objective, whereas in the rainfed regions stability in food production to sustain the farmers
family is the major objective and any cash income is only incidental.

The size of the farm is also decided by environment.

Socio economic compulsions like hereditary rights, government legislation, input prices,
marketing of outputs, infrastructure cost and availability which are influenced by political
decision also have a say in deciding the enterprises in farming system.

12
Resources
Resources in a farming system can be classified as natural and material resources. Natural
resources are soil, water, light, temperature which cannot be easily manipulated by the farmers.
Material resources are inputs like seed, fertilizer, pesticide, herbicides, etc. The material
resources are either generated inside or outside the system. These resources have a great
influence on the farming system with reference to the component activities and proper
functioning of various activities.

Constraints

Constraints are the problems caused by the limitation in the availability of resources.
Limitations imposed by the harsh climate, poor soil, reduced availability of water or poor quality
of water, erratic rainfall, poor availability of capital, labour and other inputs severely limit the
successful operation of a farm.

Components
Components are the various constituent activities that are practiced in the system like
crop production, dairy, poultry, fisheries etc.

Interactions
The relationship between the various farm activities among themselves and with outside
forces decides the success of farming system. The various activities are inter related and inter
dependent. Besides complementary interactions (positive), competitive interaction between
various activities for various resources may also arise.

Piggery maintenance may require more water and this may affect irrigation to crops

Maintenance of more animals than crops may affect the capital and labour share and other inputs
share to crops.

Hence for a successful farming system the competitive interactions must be minimised
and complementary interactions maximised. This must be the major thrust in the farming system
management.

13
Advantages of IFS:

1). Productivity: IFS provides an opportunity to increase economic yield per unit area per unit
time by virtue of intensification of crop and allied enterprises.
2) Profitability: Use waste material of one component at the least cost. Thus reduction of cost of
production and form the linkage of utilization of waste material, elimination of middleman
interference in most input used. Working out net profit B/ C ratio is increased.
3) Potentiality or Sustainability: Organic supplementation through effective utilization of by
products of linked component is done thus providing an opportunity to sustain the potentiality of
production base for much longer periods.
4) Balanced Food: We link components of varied nature enabling to produce different sources
of nutrition.
5) Environmental Safety: In IFFS waste materials are effectively recycled by linking
appropriate components, thus minimize environment pollution.
6) Recycling: Effective recycling of waste material in IFFS.
7) Income Rounds the year: Due to interaction of enterprises with crops, eggs, milk,
mushroom, honey, cocoons silkworm. Provides flow of money to the farmer round the year.
8) Adoption of New Technology: Resources farmer ( big farmer) fully utilize technology. IFS
farmers, linkage of dairy / mushroom / sericulture / vegetable. Money flow round the year gives
an inducement to the small/ original farmers to go for the adoption technologies.
9) Saving Energy: To identify an alternative source to reduce our dependence on fossil energy
source within short time. Effective recycling technique the organic wastes available in the system
can be utilized to generate biogas. Energy crisis can be postponed to the later period.
10) Meeting Fodder crisis: Every piece of land area is effectively utilized. Plantation of
perennial legume fodder trees on field borders and also fixing the atmospheric nitrogen. These
practices will greatly relieve the problem of non – availability of quality fodder to the animal
component linked.
11) Solving Fuel and Timber Crisis: Linking agro- forestry appropriately the production level
of fuel and industrial wood can be enhanced without determining effect on crop. This will also
greatly reduce deforestation, preserving our natural ecosystem.

14
12) Employment Generation: Combing crop with livestock enterprises would increase the
labour requirement significantly and would help in reducing the problems of under employment
to a great extent IFS provide enough scope to employ family labour round the year.
13) Agro – industries: When one of produce linked in IFS are increased to commercial level
there is surplus value adoption leading to development of allied agro – industries.
14) Increasing Input Efficiency: IFS provide good scope to use inputs in different component
greater efficiency and benefit cost ratio.
Questions:
1. A successful farming system the competitive interactions must be minimised and
complementary interactions maximised
2. Define farming system
3. Distinguish between system and non system
4. Listout the characteristics of a farming system
5. Listout the benefits of IFS

15
Lecture 11. Allied enterprises for wetland, irrigated upland and
dryland – selection and management and their interaction

Farming system is having different components for different situation. However, some basic
components exist in any farming system maintained under varied conditions. They are,
1. Crop components and related cropping system in intensive cropped area
2. Crop residue management
3. Allied enterprises. The enterprises may be animal / Alternate land use system /
Sericulture / fish farming
4. Recycling of the wastes of allied enterprises.
The crop and other allied enterprises can be classified based on water availability as
wet land farming system, garden land farming system and dry land farming system.

Wet land It involves paddy as crop component. Poultry, fish culture duck, mushroom
cultivation can be integrated with crop production.
Garden land Dairy, bio gas + cropping system with irrigated dry crops
Dry land Dairy, goat, agroforesty and alternate land use system can be integrated with dry
land crop.
CROPS AND CROPPING SYSTEM
• Mixed cropping and crop rotations were followed in subsistence Agriculture mainly for
yield stability and minimizing risks.
• But in recent years the objectives were modified and re-oriented to intensification of
cropping with simultaneous achievement of yield stability.
• For success of the multiple cropping programme, proper choice of crops and varieties is a
pre-requisite.
The choice of crop, cropping system, should be done in such a way that Allelopathic effect,
temporary immobilization of nutrients and exhausion from the same layer of the soil do not
occur. On the contrary crops which add large quantities of easily decomposable residues which
benefit the succeeding crop should be included.

• Legumes can be included in any cropping system because of their limited demand for
resources like water, nutrients, light, their adaptability to varying environment conditions
and capacity to fix atmospheric N in root nodules. Vegetables deserve their due place in

16
 intensive cropping system because they have high cash and nutritional values. Most
vegetables can be raised as seedlings and planted thus reducing duration and competition
with the associated crop. They can be grown in inter spaces in orchard and plantation, as
inter or relay cropped and planted as bund crop in wet land (eg) bhendi in the field bunds.
• Choice of component crops based on response to light will be an important factor in
cropping system. For example, growing of C3 in cropping system growing of C3 and C4

plants is more appropriate. C4 plant like sorghum, maize can be grown as base crops and
C3 plants like pulses can be grown as inter crops. Choice of component crops based on

response to light will be an important factor in cropping system.

(eg) Maize -Peak demand for photosynthetic efficiency-65 days.
Green gram- Peak demand - 35-45 days.
 Choice of crops with variation in root depth spread and volume is preferable in cropping
system which in turn will efficiently utilize all the nutrients from different layers.
Eg: In Cotton + Black gram cropping system deep rooted cotton and shallow
rooted blackgram will remove the nutrients efficiency from different layers.
 Recently released legume varieties viz black gram, (VBN1, K1, APK1) green gram (K1)

are erect, compact, photoinsenstive / shade tolerant varieties ideally suitable for inter
cropping situation.
 Similarly the recent varieties in major crops are amenable for higher population
performance provided additional inputs are supplied over and above optimum level so as
to maximize yield in these crops.
(eg)
Hybrid rice CORH1, CORH2, ADTRH1

Maize COH3

Sunflower TCSH1

FISH CULTURE
An area of 0.04 ha can be allotted for fish pond.
15 days old finger lings belonging to the following species can be stocked.

1. Silver carp Hyprothalmichthya

17
 (surface feeder) molitrix 60
2. Catla (surface feeder) Catla catla 60
3. Rohu (column feeder) Labeorohite spp 60
4. Mirghal (bottom feeder) Cirrninus mirgola 45
5. Common carp Cyperimus carpio 45
6. Grass carp Cierophargynogodusn
idello 30
Total 300

According to stocking density, it works out to 7500 per hectare of ponded water.
 No artificial feeding is needed to the finger lings.

 The fishes can be harvested from 10th month and completed at the end of the year.
POULTRY

• A poultry shed having a plinth area of 2.2 m2 could be erected on the fish pond in one
corner.
• Bottom of the poultry shed should be provided with wire mesh (3 x 3m) to facilitate free
falling of poultry dropping into the pond.
• Twenty number of 18 days old bapcock chicks for this area can be provided.
• The feeds like rice bran, maize flour, groundnut cake, alfalfa meal and illfilled grains of
paddy can be used at critical stages.
• The produce from the crop component of IFS can be used for the preparation of poultry
feed from second year onwards.
• The alfalfa meals suited for poultry feed can be raised around the fishpond.

• The birds start laying eggs around 22nd week and can be culled at the age of 72nd week,
when the egg production becomes uneconomical.
MUSHROOM CULTURE
• A mushroom shed with dimension of 5 x 3 m should be constructed with locally available
material to take up the desired production level of 1.5-2.0 kg mush room per day.
• Oyster mushroom (Pleurotus sp) could be produced by utilizing paddy straw from crop
components as base.

18
 • Paddy straw mushroom and European mushroom are other types of mushroom.
• MDU1, MDU2, APK1, APK2 are some of the latest released improved mushroom types.

DAIRY
 3-4 dairy animals can be maintained in a hectare of land in such a way that two give milk
throughout the year.
 In dry lands. Jersy cross animals can be reared. In garden land situation, Jersy or any
improved stock can be maintained.
 An irrigated area of 0.2 ha is required for raising cumbu napier grass to meet out the
fodder requirement of the animal.
SERICULTURE
 The farmers who are having uplands with irrigation potential can go for sericulture.
 The silkworms rearing can be completed is about 25-30 days and for this mulberry is to
be cultivated in 0.2 ha. Silkworms can be reared 5 to 6 times in a year.
APIARY
• Apiary will be successful where crops of diversified nature are grown (eg) Sunflower,
Agathi, Cotton, Red gream etc.
• For every 5 acres one beehive can be kept at appropriate place. Each box may cost
around Rs. 150 to 200.
• During the second year of installation honey can be taken for six months and twice every
month.
GOAT REARING
• Tellicherry goats are ideally suited for dry land farming system. These goats are medium
size with an average weight of 23-25 kg and capable of yielding 1.5 li milk per day. It
yield more meat and exhibit grazing habit similar to sheep. They thrive on several types
of grain and leaves and fairly resistant to disease.
• Initially five female (eves) and one male goat ( buck) can be maintained and in due
course they multiply to 20+1 in an area of one hectare land.
• This breed is best for rearing under deep litter system and for stall feeding. Stall area will

be 60 m2.

19
RABBIT FARMING
• This is a good parttime and pastime work and will also give additional income to the
farmer.
• The meat is relatively free from colestrol and recommended even for persons ailing with
heart problems.
• Rabbit has got very high productivity. A pair of rabbits can produced off spring during its
first six month period and thereafter at every 20 days they can produce 5-8 kids. Thus in a
period of five years, 322000 young ones can be produced yielding about 322 tonnes of
meat. Rabbit skin is also used for preparation of fur, winter clothing, hand bags etc.
• A unit consists of 5 female and one male.
• Meat purpose : New Zealand white, California white. Fur purpose : Ankola, Russian
brown type
SHEEP ENTERPRISES (DORSETTE BREED)
• Even though no research evidences are available in sheep enterprises, it is a good
component for farms having waste lands. Local breeds like Ramnad white or keelakarisal
are of inferior quality giving low meat; the improved stock of British breed. Dorsette type
gives more meat.
• The improved breed will have shorter legs, lengthy body which facilitate more
accumulation of fat there by increasing the meat quantity.
• A minimum of 20 sheep with one male is sufficient for sheep rearing. After six months,
sheep will produce one to two offspring and slowly and periodically the stock number
will increase.
• The important problem in sheep maintenance is the regular occurrence of blue tongue
disease. If this disease occures, the entire flock will be affected. The disease is very
predominant in winter season. Sufficient preventive measures have to be taken up.
AGRO FORESTRY (FRUIT TREES, TREE SPP FOR FUEL, FODDER, TIMBER)
Agroforestry is an integrated self sustained land management system which involves
deliberate introduction / retention of woody components (trees, shrubs, bamboos, etc) with
agricultural crops including pasture, live stock simultaneously or sequentially on the same unit of
land meeting the ecological and socio – economic needs of the people.

20
It is classified as

 Agroforestry (Silvi agri)

 Agrisilvipasture

 Silvipasture

 Agrohorticulture

 Agrohortisilvipasture

 Homestead agroforestry

According to land capability classification class I, II lands can be allowed for intensive
cropping while fruit trees can be successfully grown in III group. Tree spps like MPTS can be
grown in III, IV class.

Lard capability Alternate land use system

classification

I Crop production, Intensive cultivation

II&III Moderately intensive cultivations

Alley cropping, Agri-horti, Agri-sivli

IV Restricted cultivations, ley farming

V,VI Horti/silvi pasture system

VII Low density long duration tree

Interaction between enterprises and cropping – crop + dairy - crop + poultry – crop +
fishery - crop + goat - crop + mushroom – crop + sericulture

Crop + live stock farming system is a broad system involving farming system that are
suitable for different eco system. Crop + dairy will be an important system for garden land area.

21
While crop + poultry is ideal for wet land system and crop + goat, crop + sheep ideal for dry land
system. Various interaction (both competitive and complementary) are discussed here.
Crop + live stock (dairy)
Dairy forms an important component in farming system especially under garden land
conditions.
Complementary interaction:
 Cows produce milk which gives most sustainable income among the income generated
from allied enterprises
 Cow dung forms a rich resource of organic manure and can be recycled in the field.
Approximately 1.2 tonnes of dry cow dung from each animal can be recycled into the
field.
 Crop by products are used as feed to cattle Paddy straw is used to meet the roughage
requirement. Pulses and ground nut haulms are also used as cattle feed. In garden land
conditions wherever sorghum/maize is raised straw/stover can be used immediately after
harvest of crops as green fodder.
 Maintenance of three milch animals can generate enough cow dung and cow dung treated
in anerobic decomposition, bio gas will be released. The bio gas is a mixture of methane,
carbon-di-oxide, traces of nitrogen, hydrogen, sulphide, oxygen and ammonia. Methane
constitute

 Nearly 60% of volume. The calorific value of bio gas in 3600 k cal M2. Bio gas can be
used for cooking, lighting and as a substitute for diesel. Digested slurry from the bio gas
plant is a superior organic manure as it has narrow C:N ratio, low per cent of weed seed
and colour less
Bio gas plant size is decided based on number of animals and quantity of dung.
Size of bio gas plant
No of cattle Dung (kg/day) Family size Size of bio

gas plant (m3)

3-4 40-50 4-6 2
4-6 60-75 7-8 3
6-8 80-100 10-12 4
10-12 120-150 16-18 6

22
Competitive interaction
 Investment in crop management and dairy management are equally high. The investment
in crops is on the cost of tillage, input purchase, labour charges for planting, weeding and
harvesting, processing. etc., while the investment of dairy involves purchase of feed
material like concentrate, labour charges in maintenance, medicine etc.
 Capital on fixed cost is also equally high in both enterprises. In crop enterprise digging
open /bore well, energisation of pumps, construction of pre-fabricated channel, thrashing
floor etc. In case of live stock, construction of live stock shed, feeding trough is costly
but compared to crop production it is significantly less. However purchase of cows is
very costly Rs 10000 Rs 15000 may be required to purchase of cows.
 Area for green fodder will pose competition to the crop area and for irrigation water (0.2
ha).
 Similarly in labour scarcity area / period there is competition for labour in both
enterprises.
CROP + POULTRY
100 bird unit will be most economical viable unit compared to an unit with 5-6 layers.
Even though large scale maintenance is economical it requires capital, health care and marketing
facilities for egg or broilers.
Complimentary interaction
 Poultry will reduce the insect population by eating the larvae, destroying egg masses,
there by pest damage can be reduced.
 Poultry dropping if collected properly can be used as organic manure (poultry manure)
and it increases the yield of the crops.
 Reports are available indicating low or sparse weed population in the fields supplied with
poultry manure.
 Poultry dropping becomes useful feeding material for fish grown in fish pond.
CROP AND FISH
Aquaculture is terminology used in South East Asian countries for fish farming. Fish
culture is done in larger scale in Thailand, Indonesia. Fish culture is common in West Bengal in
India.
Complementary interaction

23
 • Rice + fish can be raised on the same field either simultaneously or rotationally.
• In this case decomposing of rice stubble helps the multiplication of plankton for fish, fish
guana enrich the rice field.
Competitive interaction
• There will be intense competition for water by both fishes and rice during summer / dry
monsoon period. Hence arrangements should be made to provide water supply or recycle
water to fish pond during this period or select a suitable ID crop for cultivation with less
water.
CROP + MUSHROOM / CROP + APIARY / CROP + RABBIT
• These are the allied enterprises that have more complementary interaction and very less
or insignificant competitive interaction.
CROP + MUSHROOM
Complementary interaction
 It gives additional income to the farmers
 Daily 1.5 – 2.0 kg of mushroom can be produced in a mushroom shed with dimension of
5 x 3 m. This may give an income of Rs. 40-60 per day.
Competitive interaction
Negligible initial cost involved in shed construction is about Rs. 1500.
CROP + APIARY
Complementary interaction
 It gives additional income
 Due to the increased activity of bees, cross pollination of crops and better seed setting are
achieved eg. Sun flower.
Competitive interaction - Nil
CROP + RABBIT
Complementary interaction
• Gives additional income to the farmers.
Competitive interaction
• Fabrication of rabbit shed. 1500

24
CROP + SERICULTURE
Crop + sericulture will be successful only in upland conditions with irrigation potential.
More family labour and skilled labour are needed for successful rearing of silk worm.
Complementary interaction
 Additional income to the farmers
 Dried mulberry leaves can be used as manure. Larval waste and rejects of leaves obtained
after silk worm feeding can be used as manure.
Competitive interaction
 Competition for land is high. At least 0.2 ha land is needed for cultivation of mulberry.
 There is competition for water, manures between mulberry and other food crops.
AGRO FORESTRY
Complementary interaction
Protective interaction
 It reduces water erosion considerably by proper planting of tree spp. Wind erosion as
well as run off can be checked and erosion can be reduced.
 Protection from adverse climate
 Controlling desertification and stabilizing sand dunes
 Reducing crop loss in Arid and SAT by increasing RH, reducing temperature.
Productive interaction
 It supplies fodder, food, to the village
 It increases nutrient status in the soil. (eg) Growing legume tree (Raintree) increases N
content while casuarina enhance N and P content in soil.
 Increased organic matter in the soil
 Nutrient addition through leaf litter and recycling of nutrients.
(eg) Eucalyptus gives 1800 kg of leaf litter per year which on decomposition add
14:10:18 kg of N, P and K to the soil.
 Some species give quality timber which can be used for house building
 Some species supply raw materials to industries eg. Ailanthus excelsa
 Appropriate agro forestry does not reduce the yield of agricultural crops
 Eg. Neem + Sorghum / Tamarind + Sorghum
 Neem + Black gram , Neem+ Sorghum

25
  Casuarina + ground nut (red soil)
 Overall income of the farmers increased after 5 years.
Competitive interaction
An ideal agro forestry system should not create competitive interaction. However, under
field condition competitive interaction is inevitable if improperly managed.
The following competitive interactions are very common.
1. Wrong choice of agroforestry system may severely hamper the growth of annual crops as the
tree spp will compete for space, light, moisture, nutrient and vice versa.
a. (eg) casuarina + Blackgram /sorghum is a bad choice in deep vertisol as the yield of
annual crop is reduced significantly.
b. Ailanthius excelsa + sorghum is having a depressive effect on sorghum yield.
c. Ailanthis excelsa + Dinanath grass component reduces the growth of tree component.
2. There is chance of occurrence and development of polyphagus insect that may affect both
tree and agricultural crops. Eg. Hairy caterpillar in Ailanthus may affect crops.
3. Allelopathic effect caused by tree spp may affect the crop growth (eg) Eucalyptus effect on
annual crops.
4. Mutual shading effect at very early stage of tree spp hampers the annual crop growth.
Criteria for selection of tree spp.
 Multipurpose and wider adaptability
 Amenable for wider spacing and no toxic effect
 High branching, quick growing
 With stand pruning
 Deeper root system
 Suitable for less care in management
 With good copping ability.
Competitive interaction
• If bigger units of poultry are maintained there will be competition for capital. Otherwise
there is not much competition for capital.

26
CROP + GOAT
• Crops and goat association is restricted to dry lands. Hence we must plan the enterprises
in such a way that higher rate of complementary interaction is achieved. The competitive
interaction should be kept under minimum level.
• For dry land Tellichery breed is preferable.
Complementary interaction
 Milk from goat is very nutritious and can be used for human consumption.
 By regular sale of young ones (one or two goat) a regular monthly income of Rs. 400 –
600 can be achieved from one unit goat enterprise (5+1).
 Goat litter can be used as organic manure and can be recycled into the field.
Competitive interaction
Very slight competitive interaction for area is observed between goat and crops enterprises.
 Goat may require feed @ 1.5 – 2.0 kg green fodder and 100 g of concentrate for day per
animal. For obtaining green fodder/ dry fodder at least 0.20 ha is required. This much area has to
be allocated for raising fodder crops / fodder trees and this area can not be used for raising any
other dry land crops.
Competition for capital – Resource crunch farmers of dry land s has to share atleast 50%
of his economic resource for the purchase of Tellicherry goat, construction of shed etc. hence
sufficient financial support is needed. Each goat may cost Rs. 500-600 and put together 6 goats
may cost Rs. 3000. Cost of construction of shed – Rs. 3000. Total cost is around Rs. 6000
Questions:

1. Crop production and intensive cultivation are suitable for Class_____

2. For dry land Tellichery breed is preferable
3. What are all the basic components exist in farming system?
4. Write about the allied enterprises for wetland ecosystem?
5. Write about the allied enterprises for rainfed ecosystem?
6. Write about complementary and competitive interaction exist between livestock and
crop?
7. Write about complementary and competitive interaction between crop and sericulture?
8. What area all the selection criteria for tree crops in agroforestry system?

27
 Lecture 12 Resource recycling in integrated farming system

One of the main objectives in the Integrated Farming System is recycling of

produces/wastes among the components involved. The end product of such recycled materials is
used as organic manures for crop plants. Some of the products are improved in their quality on
recycling and thus it provides double benefit to the farmer. A judicious mix of one or more
enterprises with cropping, complements each enterprise through effective recycling of
waste/residues.
Crop and animal waste utilization
The productivity of livestock mainly depends on the availability of quality feed and
fodders in requisite quantity. It is observed that most of the livestock population in the country is
underfed. The residues of different agricultural crops constitute the major source of fodder for
livestock. In India, till late 1980’s the main source of livestock feed consisted of conventional
agricultural residues like rice straw, wheat, sorghum and maize stalks, sugarcane trash and
remains from pulses. Based on the grain: straw ratio, approximately 321.4 million tonnes of
agricultural crop residues are available in India.
The area under green fodder is not increasing to meet the increased demand. The area
under green fodder in the country is estimated to be approximately 4% of the total cultivated
area. Since the farmers feel that animal power is one of the costliest inputs, they switched over to
mechanical power for most of the operations.
Moreover, the animals meant for milk and meat is replaced by cross- bred and improved
varieties, which need to be supplemented with quality concentrated feeds. Thus, the estimated
total production of crop residues in 2020 AD to the tune of 447.0 million tonnes is to be
effectively utilized otherwise. The details of the crop residues in India as given by FAO (1985)
projected to 2020 AD are furnished in Table.1.
In addition to crop residues, there is a possibility for collecting the following quantities of animal
voids in India (FAO.1985).
Cow dung 750 m.t.
Buffalo dung 250 m.t.
Voids of small ruminants 130 m.t.
Total 1130 m.t.

28
 At present the voids are being utilized for fuel and as FYM/compost. When recycled
through biogas unit, there is good possibility to improve the organic source of nutrients apart
from generation of fuel energy where tapping of fossil fuel is getting depleted. Apart from the
major nutrients there is good amount of enhancement in the availability of secondary and trace
elements. By virtue of adoption of one of the modern agricultural technology viz.,Integrated
Farming System (IFS) in the farm activity, there is a possibility of improving untapped potential
of each and every produce by recycling with dual benefits.

Lowland Farming
In the lowland IFS, cropping, poultry, fishery and mushroom enterprises are involved
with a view to recycle the residue and byproducts of one component over the other. A trial was
conducted for a period of five years (1987- 1982) in an area of 0.4 ha (1.0 acre) considering the
average holding size of marginal and small category farmers. In one acre farm, 90 cents were
assigned for crop activity and the remaining 10 cents allotted to fish pond. Twenty fowls
sheltered over 10 cents of fish pond to feed 400 polyculture fingerlings gave about 700 kg
poultry droppings in a cropping year. This could yield about 33.7, 21.4, 10.1 kg of N, P2O5 and
K2O respectively. In IFS, at the end of one year after the harvest of grown up fish, about 4500 kg
of silt was obtained from the pond with a nutrient content of 3.52, 1.38 and 1.06 per cent N,
P2O5 and K2O respectively. The total nutrient content thus worked out to about 158.4, 62.1 and
47.7 kg of Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Potassium. This could relieved the burden of applying
equal quantity of inorganic fertilizer to the crop component of the IFS. Even after accounting the

29
nutrient value of the voids of fowls as manure, additional benefit of 124.7 kg, 40.7 kg and 37.6
kg of NPK respectively, can be achieved by recycling (Table 2).

30
31
32
Lecture 13. Integrated Farming System evaluation indicators

33
34
Energy efficiency
Energy input and output were worked out for individual components based on the input
and output energies and energy efficiency suggested

OUTCOME OF IFS APPROACH

• Improvement of socio economic and rural committees

• Productivity
• Profitability
• Food and nutritional security
• Environmental safety
• Water harvest and efficient use of water.
• Recycling
• Diversification
• Distribution of income
• Reduction in use of non-renewable energy
Questions:

1. List out the different indices to evaluate the farming system research

2. What are all the goals of the farming system research?

3. Write the objectives of farming system research?

35
 Lecture 14. Integrated farming system - models for wetland, irrigated
upland and dryland eco-system
Wetlad:
Integrated farming systems experiments were conducted at wetlands from 1987-92, 1993-
95 and 1998 - 2001 of Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore involving different
components viz., poultry, pigeon, goat, fishery and mushroom. Coimbatore receives the normal
total rainfall of 678.2 mm in 46.4 rainy days. The soil of the experimental is moderately drained
clay loam. Water requirement of the components in the farming systems and irrigation water
requirements of the experimental plots was met from the borewell situated near the experimental
field.
Cropping + poultry + fish culture + mushroom
Integrated farming systems involving poultry, fish culture and mushroom cultivation
were taken from 1987-1992. In wetland, the normal cropping programme followed is Rice - Rice
- Green manure / Pulse. But in the integrated approach, a modification was made in the existing
cropping pattern by including crops like maize, groundnut and gingelly. Cropping was
undertaken in 0.36 ha and 0.04 ha was allotted for fish pond and the poultry shed was placed
above the pond. The polyculture fingerlings are preferred for this system as the growth rate of
fish within a year is found more economical than monoculture. The fingerlings were released in
the pond as per the recommended stocking density of 10000 numbers per hectare of ponded
water. Accordingly, 400 fingerlingss were released in the pond of 0.04 hectare area. No separate
feed was applied to the pond; instead, the poultry droppings from the poultry shed placed well
above the farm pond formed the feeding material. Twenty Bapkok chicks were used in the
proposed programme to meet the feed requirement of fingerlings released in the 10 cent pond.
In this integrated system, the waste products of rice formed 33 % of the poultry feed and
the feed cost could be reduced by 57.5 per cent by substituting rice grain, maize, oil cakes of
crop component and the lucerne grown around the fish pond. In commercial poultry farm, cost
of production per egg will be around 42 paise. By way of reducing the feed cost, the cost of
production per egg under the integrated farming system was reduced to 19 paise only. The
poultry unit of 20 chicks yielded 4531 eggs with 29 kg of culled birds valued Rs. 2520. The
gross income from the integrated farming system was Rs.70619 ha-1 year-1 and that of the

36
conventional cropping system was Rs.33446 ha-1 year-1 (Table 2 and Model 1 & 2). Of the
income from integrated farming system 59.3 per cent was from cropping, 8.7 per cent from
poultry, 7.4 per cent from fish culture and 24.6 per cent from mushroom. The additional net
income realized from the integrated farming system was Rs.18360 ha-1 year-1 .
Table 2. Economics and employment generation in Integrated Farming System

Gross Expenditure Net Employment

System income (Rs./ha) income (man days/ ha./year)
(Rs./ha) (Rs./ha)
Crop + Poultry + fish
70619 34673 35946 1383
+ mushroom
Crop cultivation alone 33446 15860 17586 930
Additional benefit 37173 18813 18360 453
(Rangasamy, 1995)
Crop + poultry/ pigeon + fish + mushroom
In this system, the component of integrated farming system involved were crop + fish +
mushroom, crop + poultry + fish + mushroom and crop + pigeon + fish + mushroom and was taken
from 1993 - 1995. The efficiency of the component linkages was evaluated predominantly on the basis
of productivity, its income and employment generation with the possibility of utilizing recycled organic
wastes as nutrient to enrich the soil fertility.
Experimental results on enterprise linkage for low land farming systems revealed that rice
- soybean - sunflower and rice - gingelly - maize cropping systems each in 0.18 ha with pigeon
(40 pairs), fish (400 polyculture fingerlings in 0.04 ha of ponded water) and mushroom (2
kg/day) was best in obtaining higher productivity in the system as a whole than the conventional
cropping system being popular with rice-green gram-maize (0.20 ha) and rice - sunnhemp -
maize (0.20 ha) cropping systems (Model 3). Cropping + pigeon + fish + mushroom integration
earned the highest gross and net returns with better per day returns and benefit cost ratio (Plate
1). Integration of cropping with pigeon + fish + mushroom generated the highest employment of
798 man days ha-1 year-1 with 1.16 man days from the allied enterprises linked with equi-
distribution throughout the year. Integration of poultry + fish + mushroom + cropping applied
with recycled poultry manure sustained the productivity of soil through the additions of bio
resource residue with better NPK nutrients supply potential (Model 4).

37
 The growth of fish cultures included was comparable among artificial feeding and the
treatments with poultry and pigeon droppings feeding. Fish production was higher with artificial
feeding than with other two methods (Model 5). However, the net returns and benefit cost ratio
were higher in the fish fed with poultry dropping followed by pigeon dropping (Jayanthi, 1995).
To enhance and sustain the productivity, economic returns, employment generation for
the family labour round the year and soil fertility with environmental protection, integration of
rice-gingelly-maize and rice- soybean -sunflower cropping each in 0.45 ha with recycled poultry
manure as fish pond silt to rice and 75 per cent of the recommended NPK to each crop in the
system + poultry (50 layers) + fish (1000 polyculture fingerlings in 0.10 ha of ponded water)
comprising catla (20 per cent), silver carp (20 per cent), rohu (20 per cent), mrigal (15 per cent),
common carp (15 per cent) and grass carp (10 per cent) fed with poultry dropping + oyster
mushroom (5kg/day) for the lowland farmers having one hectare farm (Jayanthi,1995).
Cropping + poultry / pigeon / goat + fishery
During 1998-2001, the study involved cropping, poultry, pigeon, goat and fishery
enterprises in all possible combinations, with a view to recycle the residue and by- products of
one component over the other (Plate 2 &3). In one hectare farm, an area of 0.75 ha was assigned
for crop activity, 0.10 ha for growing fodder grass to feed the goat unit (20+1), 0.03 ha allotted to
goat shed and the remaining 0.12 ha allotted to 3 fish ponds. Three integrated farming systems
viz., crop + fish + poultry (20 Bapkok layer birds), crop + fish + pigeon (40 pairs) and crop + fish
+ goat (Tellicherry breed of 20 female and 1 male maintained in 0.03 ha deep litter system) were
tried for three years. Polyculture fingerlings of 400 numbers (catla, rohu, mirgal/ common carp
and grass carp) in the ratio of 40:20:30:10, respectively, reared in 3 ponds of size 0.04 ha (depth
of 1.5 m) each.
Fishes were fed with poultry, pigeon (700 kg poultry/pigeon droppings obtained from 20
Bapkok layers/40 productive pairs of pigeon) sheltered over two fish ponds and goat droppings
(3 animals - 800 kg droppings) to assess the feasibility of rearing fish by using different manures
as feed. Under Integrated Farming System, cropping sequence includes (i) sugarcane (Planted) -
sugarcane (Ratoon) - banana (3 years) (ii) banana - turmeric - rice - banana (3 years) and (iii)
maize - rice - sesame - sunnhemp (annual) each in 0.25 ha and bajra - napier grass + desmanthus
(perennial) in 0.10ha.

38
 Conventional cropping system comprising (i) rice -rice - black gram (ii) maize - rice -
black gram (iii) maize - rice - sunnhemp and (iv) rice - rice - sunnhemp each in 0.25 ha, as
practised by the farmers was taken up for comparison. To sustain the productivity of soil through
integrated nutrient supply, recycled poultry, pigeon and goat manures and composted crop
residue (banana waste and sugarcane trash) as vermicompost each @ 6.25 t/ha were tested along
with 100,80 and 60% of the recommended fertilizer for the sequences of cropping.
Integrated farming system provides an opportunity to increase economic yield per unit
area per unit time by virtue of intensification of crop and allied enterprises. Research results on
integrated farming system for three years revealed that integration of crop with fish, poultry,
pigeon and goat resulted in higher productivity than cropping alone under lowland. Crop + fish
+ goat integration recorded higher rice grain equivalent yield of 39610 kg/ha (mean over three
years) than other systems (Table 3). Similarly, as an individual animal component, the goat unit
(20 + 1) gave the highest productivity of 8818 kg (mean over three years). This could also
provide 11.0 t of valuable manure apart from supplementing the feed requirement of 400
numbers of fish. While assessing the feasibility of rearing fish by using poultry, pigeon and goat
droppings as feed, the fish fed with poultry droppings resulted in higher fish yield (825 kg / 0.04
ha ponded water) than the other two sources of feed (Plate 4).
Table 3. Productivity of integrated farming system and its linked components

*Component Productivity (kg) System Per cent

Farming product increased over
systems Crop Poultry Pigeon Fish Goat ivity (kg/ CCS
ha)
FS1 - 12995 - - - - 12995 -
Cropping
alone
FS2 - Crop + 26352 1205 - 2052 - 29609 128
Fish + Poultry (89.0) (4.1) (6.9)
FS3 - Crop + 24854 - 2545 1774 - 29173 124
Fish + Pigeon (85.2) (8.7) (6.1)
FS4 - Crop + 25725 - - 1975 9979 37679 190
Fish + Goat (68.3) (5.2) (26.5)
(Jayanthi, 2002)
* Productivity is expressed in rice grain equivalents yields. Figures in the parenthesis indicate
per cent contribution of each component

39
 The highest net return of Rs.131118 and per day return of Rs.511 ha-1 were obtained by
integrating goat + fish + cropping applied with recycled fish pond silt enriched with goat
droppings (Table 4). Higher net return of Rs.3.36 for every rupee invested was obtained by
integration of pigeon + fish + cropping applied with recycled fish pond silt enriched with pigeon
droppings.
The employment opportunity was also increased to 576 man days ha-1 year-1 by
integrating fish + goat in the cropping as against cropping alone (369 man days ha-1 year-1)
(Table 5). Combining cropping with other allied enterprises would increase labour requirement
and thus provide scope to employ family labour round the year.
Integration of crop with fish and poultry resulted in higher fish productivity under lowlands. The
poultry, pigeon and goat droppings were utilized as feed initially and at the end of a year after
the fish harvest, about 4500 kg of settled silt from each pond were collected. The pond silt was
utilized as organic sources to supply sufficient quantity of nutrients to the crops.
Table 5. Employment generation in Integrated Farming Systems

Employment generation (mandays)

Farming systems
Crop Poultry Pigeon Fish Goat Total
1998-1999
Cropping alone 369 - - - - 369
Crop + Fish + Poultry 415 61 - 34 - 510
Crop + Fish +Pigeon 415 - 61 34 - 510
Crop + Fish + Goat 415 - - 34 122 571
1999- 2000
Cropping alone 369 61 - - - 369
Crop + Fish + Poultry 424 - - 34 - 519
Crop + Fish +Pigeon 424 - 61 34 - 519
Crop + Fish + Goat 424 - - 34 122 580
2000-2001
Cropping alone 369 - - - - 369
Crop + Fish +Poultry 420 61 61 34 - 515
Crop + Fish + Pigeon 420 - - 34 - 515
Crop + Fish +Goat 420 - - 34 122 576

40
Mean over three years (1998-2001)

Particulars 1998-1999 1999-2000 2000-2001 Mean

Cropping alone 369 369 369 369

Crop + Fish +Poultry 510 519 515 515

Crop + Fish + Pigeon 510 519 515 515

Crop + Fish +Goat 571 580 576 576

(Jayanthi, 2002)
Twenty fowls in the poultry unit and 40 productive pairs in the pigeon unit voided 700 kg
of droppings with the nutrient potential of 22.5, 17.5 and 7.4 kg and 12.7, 3.9 and 6.9 kg of N,
P2O5 and K2O, respectively, but when recycled through fish pond, nutrient contents were
enhanced by three folds. Similarly, three goats produced 810 kg of voiding contributing 11.3,
6.9 and 5.7 kg of N, P2O5 and K2O nutrients, which were further enhanced by three folds through
recycling. The additional nutrients gained by recycling were the highest with poultry manure
with 65.7, 28.4 and 25.0 kg N, P2O5, and K2O, respectively than with goat/pigeon manure
(Jayanthi, 2001).
The system as a whole provided an opportunity to make use of produce/waste materials
of one component as input on another at the least cost/no cost at farm level. To enhance the
productivity, sustain the income and employment generation for family labour, integration of
crop with fish + goat/pigeon/poultry could be adopted than cultivating the crop alone under
lowland farms.
Table 6. Nutrient value of recycled poultry/ pigeon/ goat manure

Particulars Poultry Pigeon Goat

Birds /animals used to satisfy the feed

20 layers 40 pairs 3 animals
requirement of 400 fingerlings

Quantum of dropping received in an year 700 kg 700 kg 810 kg

Silt cleared after one year from 0.04 ha

4.5 t 4.5 t 4.5 t
pond

41
 Raw poultry dropping Pond manure
Nutrient Additional nutrient gained (kg)
% kg/ 700kg % Kg/ 4500 kg
3.22 22.5 1.96 88.2 65.7
N
P2O5 2.50 17.5 1.02 45.9 28.4

K2O 1.05 7.4 0.72 32.4 25.0

Raw Pigeon dropping Pond manure

Nutrient Additional nutrient gained (kg)
% kg/ 700kg % kg/ 4500 kg
1.82 12.7 0.84 37.8 25.1
N
P2O5 0.56 3.9 0.30 13.5 9.6

K2O 0.98 6.9 0.56 25.2 18.3

Raw Goat dropping Pond manure

Additional nutrient gained (kg)
Nutrient % kg/ 810kg % kg/ 4500 kg

1.40 11.3 0.70 31.5 20.2

N
P2O5 0.85 6.9 0.62 27.9 21.0

K2O 0.70 5.7 0.48 21.6 15.9

(Jayanthi, 2001)
Rice + Fish + Azolla + Calotropis Farming
A field study was conducted at low-lying wetlands of Lower Bhavani Project Area,
Agricultural Research Station, Bhavanisagar from 1992 - 1994 with a view to evaluate the
feasibility and economics of rice-fish-azolla farming with calotropis as green leaf manure.
Experiment was conducted with two rice crop seasons (kharif and rabi) planted with rice
varieties ADT 36 and ADT 38 with a total duration of eight months with one fish crop. Azolla
microphylla was applied at the rate of 2.0 t/ha as fish feed cum N fixer, five days after
transplanting. Calotropis was incorporated (12.5 t/ha) as green leaf manure, 10 days before
transplanting. Fertilizer was applied at the recommended level (100:50:50 kg NPK/ha).

42
Irrigation was scheduled to maintain 5 cm depth of water throughout the crop growth period.
Need based plant protection measures were taken with 5% neem seed kernel extract.
Fingerlings of catla, roghu and mrigal were stocked in equal ratio with a total of 3000
numbers/ha, 15 days after transplanting. Banana pseudostems with cow dung (1:1) mixture and
rice bran were fed at the rate of 5% of the fish body weight. Field trenches were provided with
1.0 m depth and 1.0 m width occupying 10% of the rice area to shelter the fish.
Table 7. Yield and economics of different farming system (Two years mean)

Paddy grain Fish yield Net return Additional income

System
yield (kg/ha) (kg/ha) (Rs./ha) (Rs./ha)

Rice- Rice 10099 - 15299 -

Rice-Rice-
9870 163 16531 1232
azolla+fish

Rice-Rice-azolla
10125 173 17488 2189
Calotropis+fish

(Balusamy and Shanmugasundaram, 1994)

The data presented in Table 7 revealed that in lowlying wetlands, the most profitable
farming system was rice - rice - azolla - calotropis + fish farming. There was slight decline in
rice yield under rice-rice-fish farming due to the presence of fish trenches occupying 10% of the
area. However, the yield reduction can be made to normal or even higher when azolla and
calotropis were introduced.
The soil fertility status indicated that in general there was an increase in the available
nutrient after completion of cycle (Table 8). Even after heavy depletion, through crop removal,
the nutrients status could be replenished by the addition of organic residues. This might be due
to degradation of azolla, fish manure and fish feed under these systems (Balusamy and
Shanmugasundaram, 1994).

43
Table 8. Nitrogen budget in rice-fish-azolla farming system

Crop
Initial N N added Available Net gain or
System removal
(kg/ha) (kg//ha) (N kg/ha) loss kg/ha
(kg/ha)
Rice-Rice 227 100 82 219 -8
Rice-Rice-azolla+ fish 227 129 89 245 +18
Rice-Rice-azolla+
221 190 93 251 +24
Calotropis+ fish
(Balusamy and Shanmugasundaram, 1994)
RICE + FISH + VEGETABLE FARMING
For effective restoration and recycling of organic wastes, an experiment was taken to
integrate rice-vegetable and fish culture in wetlands at Agricultural Research Station,
Bhavanisagar. The objective is to maximize the return per unit area and also efficient recycling
of crop residue along with fish culture.
The experiment consisted of rice alone, rice - rice + fish, rice - rice -vegetable + fish
farming systems. The experiment was continued for two seasons with a total duration of eight
months. The study area was 0.25 ha/system. Field trenches (1 m deep x 1 m wide) were
provided for fish shelter. Catla, rohu and mrigal were stocked 15 days after transplanting at an
equal ratio of 3000 fingerlings/ha. Vegetables crops viz., bitter gourd, ribbed gourd, beans, etc.,
were raised along the raised bund of fish trenches. The results (Table 9) indicated that the rice -
rice - vegetable + fish culture was more remunerative and it was possible to get two rice crop,
one vegetable crop and one fish crop within eight months in rice field under two season paddy
area (Balusamy and Shanmugasundaram, 1994).
Table 9. Productivity and economic contribution of components in rice-rice-vegetable +
fish culture farming systems

Rice yield Fish yield Vegetable Net income

System kg/ha kg/ha yield kg/ha Rs./ha
I II I II I II I II
Rice - Rice 10108 10285 - - - - 15328 15840
Rice - Rice+ Fish 9834 10040 - - 105 124 16224 17504
Rice- Rice + Fish
9904 10094 450 407 108 132 17888 19496
+Vegetable
I : First year (1992- 93) II : Second year (1993 - 94)
(Balusamy and Shanmugasundaram, 1994)

44
Upland with supplemental Irrigation
Crop + Dairy +Biogas + Silviculture
Integrated farming system experiments were conducted at irrigated uplands of Tamil
Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore from 1987-92 and 1999 - 2001. The soil type of the
experimental field was clay loam with low in available N, medium in available P and high in
available K. The major source of water was met from deep bore well. The major cropping
system followed under irrigated uplands are Sorghum - cotton - maize, Ragi - cotton - maize and
Ragi - cotton - sorghum. The various components integrated were dairy, biogas, spawn and
mushroom production, apiary, homestead garden, fish rearing and silviculture.
Integrated farming system involving crop, dairy, biogas and silviculture was taken from 1987-92.
The normal cropping pattern followed in Coimbatore is ragi-cotton-sorghum. In the integrated
approach, the same cropping pattern was slightly modified by inclusion of intercropping such as
greengram in cotton, cowpea in sorghum and sunflower as border crop in ragi (0.75 ha). The
perennial grass fodder (0.15 ha) and legume fodder lucerne (0.05 ha) were also raised in the
holding.
Three Jersey cross bred milch cows with 2 calves were included under dairy component.
For effective recycling of farm and animal waste, a bio-gas unit
of 2 m3 capacity was installed for the production of fuel, light and enriched manure (Plate 6).
Sixty kg of cowdung expected out of 5 animals is sufficient enough to produce 2 m3 of gas
everyday which is equivalent to 1.5 litres kerosene. Two hundred numbers of subabul tress were
planted all along the boundary of the field for fodder and timber production. The results of the
study revealed that the entire system produced a net income of Rs.20702 ha-1 year-1 (Models 9
and 10). This system also facilitated effective recycling of farm and animal waste, improved
farm employment opportunities and continuous flow of income to farm throughout the year.
By this recycling, some of the weed seeds present in the raw cow dung also get killed
during digestion process, thus improving the quality of the slurry over its raw material used viz.,
cow dung. The quality improvement by way of recycling the cow dung through biogas chamber
was studied by analyzing the NPK content of slurry and FYM prepared utilizing the cow dung
from the system.

45
 Recycling of cow dung lead to the production of 730 m3 of biogas with the possibility of
enhancing the nutrient value of NPK to the tune of 44.5 kg, 65.9 kg and 28 kg respectively, in a
year. Trace elements like Fe, Mn, Zn and Cu are also present in an enhanced level over FYM
(Rangasamy, 2000).
Nutrient enhancement through biogas slurry and FYM

Major element (%) Trace element (ppm)

Particulars
N P K Fe Mn Zn Cu

Biogas slurry 1.43 1.21 1.01 4200 550 150 52

Farm yard manure 0.94 0.56 0.72 4000 490 100 45

Nutrient gain by recycling (kg)

Particulars N P K Fe Mn Zn Cu

Nutrient in biogas
slurry (11.0 t on dry 157.3 133.1 144.4 46.2 6.05 1.65 0.57
weight basis)

Nutrients in FYM
112.8 67.2 86.4 44.0 5.39 1.10 0.49
(11.6 t) in an year

Nutrients gained by
44.5 65.9 28.0 2.2 0.66 0.55 0.08
way of recycling

(Rangasamy, 2000)
Opportunity for 1.28 family members to be employed round the year (Table 17)
(Sivamurugan, 2001).
Rainfed land
The meteorological data of different agroclimatic regions of Tamil Nadu have clearly indicated
that the seasonal rainfall in rainfed areas is very low and the distribution is also highly erratic. It
is evident that if the required moisture and nutrient at the critical growth phase of the short
duration field crops are not satisfied, the yield of the crop will be affected drastically. Most of
the years, the farmer experiences complete failure of the crop due to non-availability of moisture

46
at the critical stage. This is the reason why conventional rainfed agriculture is said to be out and
out a gamble.
To overcome complete failure in the rainfed areas through traditional crop activity being
practiced, integrating different enterprises and utilising the biomass built up have been identified
as a successful venture to give regular income to the rainfed farmers. There is a good scope for
getting required biomass even with the available erratic seasonal rainfall, to the allied enterprises
likely to be integrated viz., goat, buffalo, pigeon, rabbit, etc. The outcome of these enterprises
will be an alternate source for protein, CHO, fat, minerals, vitamins and energy. Drought
tolerant perennial forest wood /timber value trees can also be raised utilising the rainfall received
round the year and can be a good source for valuable fuel wood or timber after some years (Plate
8). Similarly, drought tolerant perennial horticultural fruit crops can also be raised utilising the
rainfall received round the year and thus could help in improving the income of the resource poor
rainfed farmers. The integrated farming system when implemented properly in the rainfed areas
throughout the country, the present contribution from 2/3 net cultivated rainfed land viz., 42 per
cent can be doubled without any difficulty.
The linkage of other enterprises viz., goat, buffalo, pigeon. rabbit etc will also provide
good amount of organic source of nutrients to the soil. As we well aware, rainfed soils are not
only thirsty but also hungry. If we could improve the nutrient status of the existing rainfed soils
through said linkages; it could enhance the yield substantially, with the prevailing conditions of
the rainfed tract. Considering all these factors, Integrated farming system models consisting of
varied enterprises have been developed at Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore.
Crop + goat
An integrated farming system study involving grain crop, fodder crop, fodder trees,
perennial grasses and goat rearing in an area of one hectare of rainfed land was carried out at
Coimbatore from 1987-1992 (Plate 9). Generally, in dryland farmers raise only fodder sorghum
yielding 3 to 10 tonnes of fodder/ha depending upon the rainfall. In the integrated approach, the
cropping pattern was modified by including both sorghum grain crop (0.2 ha) and sorghum
fodder crop (0.2 ha). To meet the fodder requirement of goats, 0.2 ha of land was raised with
subabul and Cenchrus ciliaris, a pasture grass as an intercrop. Trees like Acacia senegal and
Prosopis cineraria were raised in 0.20 ha. The goat unit comprised of Tellichery goats 20 eves
and 1 buck.

47
 The results revealed that through short duration field crops and perennial crops the feed
requirement for one productive unit consisting of 20 eves and one buck for all the 365 days can
be met. After 5 years, the perennial fodder trees could bear the shock and would yield sufficient
quantum of loppings to supplement the feed requirement of 21 adults along with millets, legumes
and perennial grass linked. The Tellicherry goat will be a good breed to build up body weight
for every unit of feed secured through different sources under rainfed condition. It is a dual
purpose animal, where it gives 80 to 100 ml of milk after satisfying the full requirement of
dependent kids on it every day. Twenty productive females could give 45 kids per annum.
Each kid at the time of weaning will weigh around 12 kg. Moreover the unit of 21 animals with
different stages of kids under deep litter system would give 11.2 t of valuable manure. This,
when applied to the soil, will not only an excellent source of primary, secondary and micro
nutrients for the crops but also absorb more moisture, retain in the soil and releases to the crop
appropriately for better yield.
The net income from the farming system was Rs.5671 ha-1 year-1 and that of control
Rs.1919 ha-1 year-1. Out of the total income from the integrated farming systems, 59 per cent
was from goat rearing. The additional net income realized from integrated farming system was
Rs.3752 ha-1 year-1 as compared to cropping alone. The additional employment gained through
integrated farming system over cropping was 314 man days ha-1 year-1 (Models 11 and 12).

No. of Kidding year-1 : 1.5

No. of Kids Kidding-1 : 1.5

No. of Kids year-1 adult-1 : 2.25

No. of Kids from 20 adults year-1 : 45

Mean weight of dropping day-1 : Adult : 900g Kid : 110g

Mean weight of dropping year-1 : 8600 kg.

Coir waste used for the stall year-1 : 2600 kg

Deep litter waste obtained year-1 : 11200 kg (8600 + 2600)

Nutrient content of deep litter waste (%) : 1.75 N : 0.95 P: 0.82 K

Total nutrient (kg) available from the goat unit year-1 (kg) : 200 N : 106 P : 91K

48
 The organic manures like, litter from the goat unit can readily be used for soil
application, and thus will help in enriching the soil. Goat droppings are found to be a good
energy source, which can also be linked with biogas unit before it is utilised as manure. This
will generate good volume of gas (22 kg of goat dropping will generate one cubic meter of gas as
against 30 kg of cattle dung) as well as enhance nutrient availability. Thus, through recycling of
organic in the Farming Systems approach, the potential of each produce can be exploited to a
greater extent. The data collected on the availability of organic source of nutrient through 20 + 1
goat reared under deep litter system are presented below (Rangasmay, 1995).
Crop + Tree + Goat
Another integrated farming system model involving crop + tree + goat was taken from
March 1999 to February 2001. Conventional cropping system with sole sorghum was compared with
Ailanthus excelsa + crop + goat, Ceiba pentandra + crop + goat and Emblica officinalis + crop +
goat to identify the suitable component linkage. The cropping systems included were grain
sorghum + cowpea, fodder sorghum + cowpea and Cenchrus glaucus each in 0.33 ha in
integrated farming systems and the remaining 0.01 ha was allotted to the goat component. One unit
of Tellichery goats, consisting five females and one male was included in the system. Three tree species
viz., A. excelsa, C. pentandra and E. officinalis were evaluated for their performance under dryland
situation to evaluate the suitable in situ moisture conservation practices and nitrogen management
on yield of crops in the integrated farming system.
Experimental results on integrated farming system revealed that (i) integration of
sorghum + cowpea (grain), sorghum + cowpea (fodder) and C. glaucus each in 0.33 ha
intercropped in E. officinalis with Tellichery goat component (5+1) in 0.01 ha resulted in higher
productivity, economic returns and provided better employment opportunity and improved soil
fertility than raising sole sorghum alone (Table 19, 20 & 21) (ii) growth of E. officinalis was
better as compared to other trees under vertisol dryland situation, (iii) coir pith mulching and
pitcher irrigation increased the tree seedling growth than the control, (iv) tied ridges conserved
more moisture and improved the productivity of the crops, (v) application of 50 per cent N
through fertilizer and 50 per cent N through goat manure increased the productivity, enhanced
the soil fertility and provided better opportunity for recycling of manure to the crops
(Radhamani, 2001).

49
Employment generation (man days) of integrated farming system

1999 2000
Farming systems Cro Tree Goat Tota Crop Tre Goat Tota
p l e l
Conventional 37 - - 37 37 - - 37
cropping
A. excelsa + crop + 44 17 23 84 40 17 35 92
goat
C. pentandra + crop 44 17 23 84 40 17 35 92
+ goat
E. officinalis + crop 44 17 23 84 40 17 35 92
+ goat
(Radhamani, 2001)
Questions:
1. What are all the allied enterprises can be included in the wetland ecosystem?
2. Write about allied enterprises in the rainfed ecosystem?

50
 Chapte 15. LEIA & HEIA- principles and concepts and labour
management in Integrated farming system

LEISA - Low External Input Sustainable Agriculture:

LEISA refers to practices such as recycling of plant nutrients (nitrogen and others),
minimizing crop losses due to insects and pests, and securing favourable soil conditions for plant
growth are just the tip of the hat. An integral component of LEISA is in ensuring that this
environmental awareness remains connected to the daily lives, needs and concerns of farmers
who rely on these ecosystems for their livelihoods. With regards to LEISA practices focuses on:

• Maximizing the use of locally available plants and tree species

• Reducing the use of non-renewable fuels and energy sources
• Acknowledging the right of local communities to control, manage and benefit from
natural resources
• Ensuring that agricultural practices help to shape positive landscapes and sustained
‘life support systems’ for small-scale who rely on favourable environmental conditions
for their survival
S. Characteristics of HEIA Characteristics of LEIA
No.
1 The farming pattern depends heavily LEIA relies on the optimal use of natural
on external and chemical inputs. processes. Although yields have increased
substantially, contributing to raising total
production, farmers and the environment have
had to pay the price for keeping up with this
development.
2 The focus of agricultural development The focus is on the sustainability of farming
and research has mainly been on system
maximizing yields coupled with
increasing specialization of production

51
 3 There is a great damage to the Environmentally sound and that have the
environment potential to contribute to the long-term
sustainability of agriculture.
4 The continuing drop in prices of farm Greater emphasis is on the long-term
produce and the rising costs of sustenance and balance between the profit and
agricultural inputs have made farming livelihood.
increasingly unprofitable
5 HEIA depends on the higher Sustainable ecological practices depend largely
production and profit, without on local agro-ecological conditions and on
consideration of the local needs and local socio-economic circumstances, as well as
local market on farmers’ individual needs and aspirations.
6 Primarily one or two commodity One way of LEIA is to diversification of farms;
driven development, lack of diversity with a range of crops and/or animals, farmers
in the farming practices, as a result, will suffer less from price fluctuations or drops
there is greater risk of failure and price in yield of single crops. Maintaining diversity
fluctuation. The number of products will also provide a farm family with a range of
and commodities are very minimum. products to eat or sell throughout a large part of
the year.
Basic concepts of LEISA

• LEISA refers to those forms of agriculture that seek to optimize the use of locally available
resources by combining the different components of the farm system i.e., plants, animals, soil
water, climate and people, so that they complement each other and gave the greatest possible
synergistic effects.
• Seeks way of using external inputs only to the extent that they are needed to provide elements
that are in deficient in the eco system and to enhance available biological, physiological,
physical and human resource. In using external inputs, attention is given mainly to maximum
recycling and minimum detrimental impact on the environment.
• LEISA aims at a stable and adequate production level over the long term. LEISA seeks to
maintain, and where, enhance the natural resources and make maximum use of natural

52
 process. Where part of the production is marketed, opportunities are sought to regain the
nutrients brought to the market.
• LEISA requires management not only at farm level but also at district, regional, national and
even international level.
• LEISA incorporates that best components of indigenous farmers knowledge and practices,
ecologically – sound agricultural practices developed elsewhere, commercial science and new
approaches in science (eg., Systems approach, agro-ecology, biotechnology).
• LEISA practices must be developed within each ecological and socio economic systems. The
specific strategies and techniques will vary accordingly and will be in numerable.

Ecological principles
The insights and experience gained thus in agro ecological studies, indigenous agriculture
in the tropics and ecological farming throughout the world point to some basic ecological
principles which can guide the process of developing LESIA systems. The ecological principles
basic to LEISA can be grouped as follows.
1. Securing favourable soil conditions for plant growth particularly by managing organic
matter and enhancing soil life.
2. Optimize nutrient availability and balancing nutrient flow, particularly by means of
nitrogen fixation, pumping, recycling and complementary use of external fertilizers.
3. Minimizing losses due to solar radiation, air and water by way of microclimate
management, water management and erosion control.
4. Minimizing losses due to plant and animal pests and disease by means of premonitory
and safe treatment.
5. Exploiting complementary and synergy in the use of genetic resources, which involves
combining these integrated farm systems with high degree of functional delivery.
Basic Ecological Principles of LEISA
(i) A living soil:
Soil can be regarded as a non-renewable resource, as soil formation is such a slow process.
The soil provides a medium to anchor plant roots, but is also a very complex ecosystem. A
productive agricultural soil is full of life, with millions of microorganisms which all interact
chemically and physically with their soil environment. These processes regulate the release of

53
nutrients from minerals and organic matter to feed the plants. A living soil has a better structure
and can absorb and retain more water and air than a sterile soil. Sound ecological production
therefore begins with improving the soil. Good practices, which can help improve the condition
of the soil, are (LEISA, 2006):
• Growing legumes to fix nitrogen from the air and provide it to the following crop,
• Feeding the soil with as much organic matter as possible through green manure, compost,
cover crops, returning of non-toxic organic wastes and agro-forestry
• Keeping the soil covered at all times with mulch or cover crops
• No or reduced tillage which enhances water availability and soil conservation,
• Cultivating a range of crops and animals to reduce risks of disease and pest outbreaks,
maintain a balanced nutrient supply and provide resilience;
• Planting trees on contours or making terraces to prevent soil erosion by wind or water.
(ii) Biological diversity:
The diversity of different species of plants and animals, and the genetic variation within
each species, provides the vital resource of biological diversity, which enables life on earth.
Healthy ecosystems are relatively stable and the diversity they contain enables them to adapt to
changing circumstances.
For many small-scale farmers the available agrobiodiversity is the basis of survival. A mix of
different locally adapted crops and animals and different varieties of the same increases on-farm
diversity, increasing the chances of producing something even under adverse conditions. These
principles of traditional farming can be further developed and used systematically in ecological
farming.
Some examples of such practices are (LEISA, 2006):

• Intercropping in time and space: planting different crops together in different

combinations or formations, or in sequence, can optimize the use of available resources
and reduce the pressure of pests.
• Different plant species can also be used to support the ecological functioning of the
whole farm system: examples are trees or bushes for windbreaks, flowering plants which
provide food and habitat for beneficial insects that help control pests, shade trees for
light-sensitive plants, trees to provide green manure and fuel wood.

54
 • Integration of different crops or weeds with animals to better utilizes resources, for
example fish in rice fields, integrated crop-chicken-fish systems and other combinations
of crops and animals.
(ii) Water:
Growing populations, rapid urbanization and increasing industrial and agricultural
production are all increasing competition for and pressure on water. As agriculture is one of the
major users of water, and one of the major polluters of water resources, it is imperative that
water use in agriculture is as efficient as possible and that leaching of surplus nutrients and in
small scale farming it is important to make the best possible use of the limited amounts of
available water. Infiltration can be improved by keeping the soil covered, through minimum
disturbance of the soil, adding organic matter from cover crops and mulching. When introduced,
water-harvesting systems are generally multi-purpose. Farm ponds, earth dams and sub-surface
tanks will often serve as a source of drinking water and water for livestock during periods of
water scarcity. Water harvesting can open up new livelihood options. Subsistence farmers, who
invest in water harvesting systems with a storage component, often diversify their farming
system to include cash crop production, for the local market during off-season when prices are
high. This diversification increases the resilience of farm households, as they are better equipped
to cope with periods of climatic hazards such as droughts and floods.
(iii) Energy:
Solar energy is captured by plants that are able to transform it into biomass. This is the
basis for all higher life forms, animals as well as humans, and is a process that is unique for
green plants. Biomass contains stored energy as well as nutrients, and agriculture should focus
on maximizing the amount of solar energy, which is captured and transformed into plant growth
and thereby food and fodder resources. But additional energy is required for cooking and heating
and is useful for irrigation, threshing and processing. Fortunately there are many opportunities to
make use of renewable energy, most frequently fuel wood, straw, crop residues and even manure
are used. There are also other possibilities to make use of renewable energy: small scale bio-
digesters which use manure, solar energy devices, small scale hydropower generators, wind-
power and wood lots for fuel wood.

55
 (iv) Exploiting Animal-Plant Interaction:
In nature, nothing functions in isolation; everything depends on the other factors present.
In animal production, to optimize the performance of cattle, it is very important that management
practices should enhance the ecological functioning of the web of living organisms within the
production system - climate, soil and soil life, vegetation and cattle - by influencing their
interactions.
(v) Towards Local Resources-based Integrated Crop- Livestock Systems:
The present livestock production systems in most industrialized countries are in direct
competition with human needs. In the intensive large-scale production systems, increasingly
promoted by corporate agriculture, livestock wastes contaminate soil and water resources, create
less than favourable working conditions for the personnel involved in feeding and cleaning, and
decrease employment opportunities. Close integration of livestock in the farming system, with
recycling of all excreta, will be the basis of agriculture, which can be highly productive and also
sustainable.
Some Promising LEISA Techniques and Practices
(i) Nutrient management:
Nutrient management is managing the amount, source, placement, form, and timing of
the application of nutrients and soil amendments to ensure adequate soil fertility for plant
production and to minimize the potential for environmental degradation, particularly water
quality impairment. Nutrient management has taken on new connotations in recent times. Soil
fertility traditionally dealt with supplying and managing nutrients to meet crop production
requirements, focusing on optimization of agronomic production and economic returns to crop
production (LEISA, 2006). Contemporary nutrient management deals with these same
production concerns, but recognizes that ways of farming must now balance the limits of soil and
crop nutrient use with the demands of intensive animal production.
Farmers in the hill agriculture follow a system of close integration of crop, livestock and
forestry/grassland management. Farmers maintain traditional practices such as terracing, manure
management, legumes inter cropping, and mulching where appropriate. Farm yard manure
quality can be increased by better decomposition and the N-content can be increased by at least 2
to 3 times from about 0.5% N to 1.5% N through proper management of urine and manure.
Liquid manure can be prepared from urine and various plants extracts rich in minerals or

56
secondary plant compounds. These “manure teas” were shown to be effective liquid fertilizers on
crops such as vegetables and also for organic pest and disease management. Local marketing
systems for such “manure teas” are emerging in some areas. The use of urea fertilizer declined in
several areas due to liquid manure use. In Nepal, some of the LEISA practices are: Bio-pesticide
(cow urine, neem products, tobacco, ash etc), composting (pit), tree plantation, green manuring,
vermicomposting, liquid compost, NADEP compost, seed treatment, seed production.
(ii) Integrated pest management (IPM):
IPM is an ecologically based approach to pest (animal and weed) control that utilizes a
multi-disciplinary knowledge of crop/pest relationships, establishment of acceptable economic
thresholds for pest populations and constant field monitoring for potential problems.
Management may include such practices as (LEISA, 2006):
• Use of resistant varieties;
• Crop rotation;
• Cultural practices;
• Optimal use of biological control organisms;
• Certified seed;
• Protective seed treatments;
• Disease-free transplants or rootstock;
• Timeliness of crop cultivation;
• Improved timing of pesticide applications;
• Removal or 'plow down' of infested plant material.
The term biointensive IPM emphasizes a range of preventive tactics and biological controls
to keep pest population within acceptable limits. Reduced risk pesticides are used if other tactics
have not been adequately effective, as a last resort and with care to minimize risks.
Biological control is, generally, man's use of a specially chosen living organism to control a
particular pest. This chosen organism might be a predator, parasite, or disease, which will attack
the harmful insect. A complete biological control program may range from choosing a pesticide
which will be least harmful to beneficial insects, to raising and releasing one insect to have it
attack another, almost like a 'living insecticide.

57
(iii) Crop Residue Management and Conservation Tillage:
Conservation tillage is a term that covers a broad range of soil management systems that
leave residue cover on the soil surface, substantially reducing the effects of soil erosion from
wind and water. These practices minimize nutrient loss, decreased water storage capacity, crop
damage, and improve soil quality. The soil is left undisturbed from harvest to planting except for
nutrient amendment. Weed control is accomplished primarily with herbicides, limited
cultivation, and, in more sustainable systems, with cover crops. The National Crop Residue
Management Survey (Conservation Technology Information Center (CTIC)) specifies that 30
percent or more of crop residue must be left after planting to qualify as a conservation tillage
system. Some specific types of conservation tillage are Minimum Tillage, Zone Tillage, No-till,
Ridge-till, Mulch-till, Reduced-till, Strip-till, Rotational Tillage and Crop Residue Management.
(iv) Converting Farm Wastes into useful Organic Manure under LEISA System:
The ingredients required are green leaves, dry leaves, weeds from adjacent farms, cow
dung and urine, fodder wastes from cattle sheds, gobar gas slurry, coir pith, tank silt, quarry dust
and rock phosphate. These items are put in alternate layers (cow dung in between layers) in a
heap and left for 45 days. The heap is turned once or twice. In 45 days, the items get semi-
decomposed. The partially decomposed material can be used in two ways- for vermin-compost
preparation, which gets converted to vermin-compost in 45 days, and the other way is to add coir
pith, tank silt and quarry dust to semi decomposed material, which turns into good quality
manure in 45 days.
(v) Green Manuring and Cover Crops:
Green manure and cover crop species should fit the agro ecological condition. In general,
these crops should have the characteristics as: easy establishment, vigorous growth under local
conditions, ability to cover weeds quickly, ability to either fix atmospheric nitrogen or
concentrate plenty of phosphorus, should also have multiple uses. The green manure and cover
crops can be grown intercropped with another food for example beans with maize or cassava, or
perennial peanut with coffee. These crops can be grown on wasteland or on fields under fallow.
The species should survive on very poor soils, such as beans, tephrosia, or particularly hardy
trees. Farmers in Vietnam, for example, seed Tephrosia candida into their first year fallow,
thereby reducing the normal five-year fallow to just one or two years. These crops can be grown
during the dry season, planted after the normal crops like the rice bean/ rice system in Vietnam,

58
or intercropped with the normal crop and then allowed to grow through the dry season such as
the sweet clover/maize system in Mexico. It can also be planted as a relay crop amongst rainy
season crops at the end of the wet season to take advantage of the residual moisture, such as the
cowpea/maize and lablab/maize systems in Thailand. Green manuring adds organic matter to the
soil; green manure crops return to the upper top soil the plant nutrients taken up by the crop from
deeper layers; improves the soil structure and other soil physical properties; leguminous crops
add nitrogen to soil; increases the availability of certain plant nutrients like P, K, Ca, K, Mg and
Fe; facilitates infiltration of water thus decreasing runoff and soil erosion; green manure crops
hold plant nutrients that would otherwise be lost by leaching.
The main problem in adoption of green manuring is that the land on which green manure
crop is raised could have been profitably utilized for growing a crop of economic importance.
Another problem is adequate soil moisture either through rainfall or irrigation is essential for in-
situ decomposition of green manure crop. Under rainfed condition, if sufficient rainfall is not
received proper decomposition may not take place, and the germination of the succeeding crop is
hampered. There is a possibility of incidence of diseases and pests, even nematodes.
(vi) Practices for Land Degradation:
A good plant cover is very important for preventing soil degradation and achieving soil
rehabilitation. A vegetative cover has a number of beneficial effects on soil aeration, soil
moisture and organic matter content, physical characteristics and biological activity in the soil. In
addition, a plant cover protects against soil erosion. Cover crops can be quite aggressive creepers
and may compete with the main crop. On the other hand if leguminous plants are used as cover
crops they add nutrients because they fix atmospheric nitrogen and make it available for the crop.
Selection of crops is very important while dealing with degraded soils. Sodic soils in South
Indian region were corrected for their soil pH by including cucumber in the cropping pattern.
Similarly, raising Eucalyptus plantation along the canal bunds helped in solving the drainage
problem in low-lying delta areas. Farmers follow their own traditional practices in maintaining
soil physical structure and health. Practices like application of sand, groundnut shell, sal leaves,
retention of sunflower stalks are a few among those followed by the farmers for mulching in
South Indian condition.

59
(vii) Intercropping:
Intercropping is defined as growing of two or more crops simultaneously on the same
piece of land; crop diversification is in both temporal and spatial dimension; there is intercrop
competition during all or part of the crop growth. There are many types of intercropping viz.,
mixed intercropping, row intercropping, strip intercropping and relay intercropping. The
usefulness of intercropping are:
• greater stability of yield over different seasons,
• intercropping provides biological insurance against failure of one crop due to biotic or
biotic factor,
• better use of growth resources,
• better control of weeds, insect-pest and diseases
• for some cases one crop provides physical support to the other crop (e.g. growing of betel
vine or black pepper vines on the support of mango or coconut and arecanut),
• one crop provides shelter to the other crop e.g. growing of tea under the shade of
Albizzia, (g) erosion control through providing continuous leaf cover over the ground
surface, and
• it is the small farmers of limited means who is most likely to benefit.
There are some problems as well related to adoption by the farmers, as for example
• Yields decreased because of adverse competition effect,
• Allelopathic effect i.e. any direct or indirect harmful effect that one plant has on another
through production of chemical compounds that escape into the environment,
• Creates obstruction in free use of machines for intercultural operations, particularly
where the component crops have different requirements for fertilizer, herbicides,
pesticides etc., and
• Large farmers with adequate resources may likely to get less benefit out of intercropping.
(viii) Organic Manuring:
Organic manures are organic materials derived from animal, human and plant residues
which contain nutrients in complex organic forms. They are the sources of plant nutrients. They
release nutrients after their decomposition. They provide organic acids that help to dissolve soil
nutrients and make them available for the plants. Organic manures can be grouped into bulky
organic manures and concentrated organic manures based on the concentration of the nutrients.

60
The usefulness of organic manures are several:
• They supply plant nutrients including micronutrients needed for optimum plant growth,
• Continued use of manures builds organic matter in soils and improves soil structure. This
modification of soil structure helps improve water holding capacity, aeration, friability,
and drainage,
• They improve soil condition for better penetration of roots into deeper layers,
• They increase the availability of nutrients through improvement in cation exchange
capacity,
• Carbon dioxide released during decomposition acts as a CO2 fertilizer,
• Improves soil health in terms of soil microbial biomass carbon, rhizosphere environment,
• Plant parasitic nematodes and fungi are controlled to some extent by altering the balance
of microorganisms in the soil.
The problems of organic manures are: nutrient from organic manures are not immediately
available to the plants; they are released slowly and over a longer period of time than from most
commercial fertilizers; if there is an immediate need for nutrients, organic manures cannot
readily supply nutrient to plants. Many organic manures have low nutrient content and therefore
need to be applied in larger quantities. Some organic manure need composting before its
application to the field. Improperly processed organic manures may contain pathogens from
plant or animal that are harmful to human or plants. The composition of fertilizers is almost
constant. For example, urea contains 46% N regardless of which factory makes it anywhere in
the world. Another problem of using manures is the handling and transportation problems
associated with large amounts of manure required to obtain sufficient quantities of nutrients for
crops. The use of fresh manure may introduce new weeds into fields since certain weed seeds
remain alive even after passage through animals. Organic manures can also contaminate produce
or burn plants.

Labour management in farming system

In India, human resurce is plenty and very well spread in villages. Hence there was no
problem for labour availability or management till two decades ago. For the past two decades the
agriculturist are not in a position to get adequate labour for their agricultural operation. Even the

61
available labour demand very high wages and there is dearth of labour during peak demand
period. The sudden scarcity / peak demand of labour is due to the following factors.

1) Large scale migration of able bodised youth to urban, towns, cities in search of better
opportunities of work.
2) People are vary of drudgery of agricultural work. Hence most of the young people are not
choosing agricultural works.
3) Due to many industrial development initiated in backward districts, many young
labourers prefer to work in small scale industries
(eg) Match industries in Sattur, Kovilpatti Rice processing Units at Aruppukottai. draw
more young people for work thereby there is dearth of labour for agricultural work.
4) Low wages for agricultural works
Due to this situation labour scarcity is felt every where and suitable management of
available labourer is imperative for efficient crop production. Wherever labour utilization
is more, efforts should be made to reduce the labourer without affecting the crop growth
or yield.
In crop production, land, labour and capita are three important resources to be managed
efficiently. However, management of labour is a difficult process. Whenever, any programme is
drawn the role of labour should also be considered. The present day share of labour in most of
cost of cultivation of crops is 50-60%.

Energy requirement for various operations and the human labour energy utilization is also
considerably high. Cost of human energy when compared to total energy is very much
considered.

Crop % of human energy to total energy

Cotton 2.15%

Bajra 17.65%

Maize 16.29%

Ragi 27.76%

Sorghum 13.10%

62
 Efficient labour management is essential, but yet it is very difficult because labour as a
resource has certain unique features which are not seen in other resources. They are 1. Services
of laboure cannot be stored. As and when available it is to be used. 2. Labour comes in
indivisible unit. 3. In small farms family labour constitutes a considerable share. 4. Management
of human labour requires specific skill involving human psychology.

Problems in management of human labour

• Labour inefficiency
• Frequent increase in wage rates – not hoped by the prices of the produces
• Labour strike as a result of labour organization.
• Demand for wages hike during critical work periods
• Shortage of labour during peak requirement period. i.e. there will be shortage of labour in
one part of the year, as agricultural is highly seasonal.
• Heterogeneous group – leads poor efficiency and quality of work is also affected.
Measurement of labour efficiency

• Labour cost / unit area

• Number of labours / unit area

• Labour output / unit time

• Productivity of crop / man day or man hour

• Labour cost / unit area

It varies from crop. Normal cost for a crop is Rs 1000/-, but the labour cost is Rs 850/-
then there is labour efficiency. If it is Rs 1000 then there is labour inefficiency.

• No of labours / unit area

For a crop, 200 man days normal. If it is > 200-poor labour efficiency, if it is <200, then
better labour efficiency. It also varies from crop to crop.

• Labour output / unit time

It refers to work turned out by a labour in unit time or a day of 8 hours. It is assessed for
each and every operation.

63
• Mandays or man hour

No. of man days / man hour required for a quantity of produce obtained / unit area. If the
value is higher, then is desirable. There are certain limitations when this is used to assess the
labour efficiency. With the same amount of labour, higher productivity could be obtained with
efficient management of other inputs.

Methods of efficient labour management

The aim is

• To increase the labour productivity

• To reduce the labour requirement

• To reduce the labour cost per unit area

• To overcome, the difficulties arising out of shortage of labour which in turn is caused
during peak period of labour demand

• Better personnel management

Methods to increase labour efficiency

• To increase the labour productivity

• By proper selection of labourers – with good physique necessary skill and enough
experience in various farm operations

• By prompt payment of optimum wages

• By carrying out the operations under optimum field conditions to increase the labour
productivity.

eg. Weeding optimum stage and moisture

• Right choice of tools

Weeding with hand hoe or dryland weeder

Maharashtra sickle for paddy harvest

• To reduce the labour requirement

• Cost of production can be reduced.

64
 During shortage of labour, it is a welcoming relief to the farmers as using labour saving
implements

Eg. Forming ridges and furrows by ridger, it reduces 70-80% of labour requirement. By
using 5 tynes seed drill for sowing bold seds, 45% of labour can be saved, for green fodder
cutting – power operated chaff cutters – 2 men labours can chip 5 tonnes of green fodder and 2
tonnes of dry fodder.

• Using herbicides for weed control

For most crops, use of herbicides, reduce the labour requirement

Eg. For hybrid maize – pre-emergence use of atrazine + late inter cultivation
reduced the labour requirement.

• By mechanization eg. Tractor for preparatory cultivation

Paddy thrasher – very quick with 5 man days coverage whereas in case of manual labourers,
26 man days are required.

• By changing the method of crop establishment

Eg. By direct seeding, instead of nursery and transplanting, labour requirement can be
reduced.

• Reducing the labour demand during peak period

Agriultural operations are seasonal and during the peak labour requirement period, labour
shortage is felt due to labour intensive iperations are overlapping.

• Ways and means to over come the labour peaks are

 Allow willing labourers to do extra time work and pay extra wages.

 Use of uncertain seasonal labour force. Eg. Engaging school students for flower

 Picking, stripping / shelling groundnut pods.

 Adopt contract system of work. Payments are made on quantity of work turned out,
again the problem is quality of work.

• By changing the cropping pattern the sequence of crop should allow long distribution of
labourers, without peaks and snags. There are certain crops for which season is not so rigid
Eg. Sunflower - day neutral plant.

• Drawing of calendar of labour requirement and labour availability

65
• Carrying out of the less important operations during slack period Eg. Paddy harvest,
thrashing, winnowing and cleaning, staking paddy straw and winnowing of dried paddy.

Tips for efficient labour management

• Motivate the labourers by appreciation

• Clear communication with crystal clear instructions

• Try to fulfill their physical needs like shelter, food and clothing

• Provide safety and security with better care and affection

• Protect the self esteem of the labourers and also the achievement

The efficiency of crop production itself to a larger extent depends on the efficiency
of labour management “Listen to labourer”

Question

1. LEISA practices focuses on Maximizing the use of locally available plants and tree species
and Reducing the use of non-renewable fuels and energy sources

2. Distinguish between HEIA and LEIA

3. What are all the basic concepts of LEIA

4. How the nutrient can be managed through LEIA?

5. The National Crop Residue Management Survey (Conservation Technology Information

Center (CTIC)) specifies that 30 per cent or more of crop residue must be left after planting
to qualify as a conservation tillage system.

66
 Lecture 16. Conservation agriculture – principles, concepts and scope

Conservation Agriculture
Conservation agriculture (CA) integrates ecological management with scientific
agricultural production. CA promotes minimal disturbance of soil by the soil by tillage (Zero
tillage), balanced application of chemical inputs (only as required for improved soil quality and
health crop and animal production) and careful management of residues and wastes. CA
promotes application of fertilizers, pesticide, herbicides and fungicides in balance with crop
requirements. CA methods can improve or sustain crop yield and protect and revitalize soil,
biodiversity and the natural resource base. In short, CA methods enhance natural biological
processes of the plant above and below the ground.
Principle of conservation agriculture
The three principles of conservation agriculture include: direct planting of crop seeds,
permanent soil cover by crop residues/ cover crops and crop rotation.
1. Direct seeding or planting
Direct seeding involves growing crops without mechanical seedbed and with mineral soil
disturbance since the harvest of the previous crop. The term direct seeding is understood in CA
systems as synonymous with no till farming zero tillage, no tillage direct drilling etc., planting
refers to the precise placing of large seeds (Maize and beans): where as seeding usually refers to
a continuous flow of seed as in the case of small cereals (rice, wheat and barley). The equipment
penetrates the soil cover, opens a seeding slot and places the seed into that slot. Ideally the seed
slot is completely covered by mulch again after seeding and no loose soil should be visible on
the surface. Land preparation for seeding or planting under no-tillage involves slashing of weeds,
previous crop residues or cover crops; or spraying herbicides for weed control and seeding
directly through the mulch. Crop residues are retained either completely or to a suitable amount
to guarantee the complete soil cover and fertilizers either broadcast on the soil surface or applied
during seeding.
2. Permanent soil cover
A permanent soil cover is important to: protect the soil against the deleterious effects of
exposure to rain and sun; to provide the micro and macro organisms’ in the soil with a constant
supply of food and after the microclimate in the soil for optimal growth and development of soil
organisms, including plant roots. Cover crops need to be managed before planting the main crop

67
which can be done need to be managed before planting the main crop which can be done
manually or with animal or tractor power. The effect of soil cover includes, i) improved
infiltration and retention of soil moisture resulting in reduced crop water stress and increased
availability of plant nutrients, ii) source of food for diverse soil life, iii) increased humus
formation, iv) reduction of impact of rain drops – consequently reduction of runoff and erosion,
v) soil regeneration is higher than soil degradation , vi) mitigation of temperature variation on
and in the soil and vii) favorable condition for plant and root growth.
Practices
 Use of appropriate/ improved seeds of HYV as well as high residue production and
good root development.
 Integrated management and reduced competition with livestock or other uses-
including forage and fodder crops in the rotation.
 Use of multi-purpose cover crops – nitrogen –fixing, soil – porosity – restoring, pest
repellent, etc.,
 Optimization of crop rotation in spatial, timing and economical terms.
 Targeted use of herbicides for controlling cover crop and weed development.
3. Crop rotation
Crop ration is not only necessary to offer a diverse “diet” to the soil micro organisms, but
also capable of exploring different soil layers for nutrients. Nutrients leached to deeper layers
and no longer available for the commercial crop can be “recycled” by the crops through
rotation. Crop rotation also has an important phyto sanitary function as it prevents the
carryover of crop –specific pest and diseases from one crop to next via crop residues. The
effect of crop diversification are , i) higher diversity in crop production and thus in human
and livestock nutrition ii) reduced risk of pest and weed infestation iii) better distribution of
water and nutrients through the soil profile iv) increased nitrogen fixation and improved
balance of NPK form both organic and mineral sources and v) increased humus formation.
Advantages of conservation agriculture
 The benefit of conservation agriculture can be grouped as
 Economic benefits that improve production efficiency
 Agricultural benefits that improve soil productivity
 Environmental and social benefits that make agriculture more sustainable.

68
 1) Economic benefits are i) time saving and reduction in labour requirement ii) higher
efficiency – more output for a lower input and iii) reduction of cost – fuel, machinery
operating cost and labour cost- fuel , machinery operating cost and labour cost.
2) Agronomic benefits include i) improvement of soil productivity, ii) organic matter
increases and iii) soil and water conservation.
3) Environmental benefits – i) reduction in soil erosion, and thus of road, dam and
hydroelectric power plant maintenance costs, ii) improvement of water quality, iii)
improvement of air quality, iii) improvement of air quality and iv) biodiversity increases.
Constrains
Conservation agriculture has been successfully employed in sub humid as well as humid
climates, but there are still some constrains in semiarid environments that may hinder its
immediate application. Typically of these constrains are:
 Shortage of water limiting crop and residue production:
 Insufficient residues produced by the economically or socially important crops and
lack of knowledge of suitable cover crops:
 Sale of preferential use of crop residues for fodder, fuel and building material:
 Inability to control livestock grazing, especially in areas where communal grazing is
traditional (talent farmers are often obligated to allow the land owner’s cattle to graze
is residues after harvest):
 Inability to control residue consumption by termites:
 Insufficient money or credit to purchase appropriate equipment and supplies :
 Lack of knowledge of conservation agriculture by extension and research staff.
Issues
• The success of conservation agriculture in rain fed area depends on two critical
elements, viz., residue retention on surface and weed control. Since residue retention
are generally used as fodder in dry lands, there is need to determine the minimum
residue can be retained without affecting the crop livestock system. Initially,
emphasis may be given for crops whose residues are not used as fodder.
• More research on weed management under minimum tillage in a cropping system
perspective.

69
 • Identification of alternative sources of fodder for livestock to spare crop residue for
conservation farming.
• Identification of critical thresholds of minimum tillage for various rainfall, soil and
cropping system, such that the main objective of rain water conservation are not
compromised. This will balance the need for conserving soil and capture rain water I
the profile.
• In irrigated production system, identification of appropriate crop after paddy which
have a quick vegetative growth so that canopy closes rapidly for effective weed
control.
• Control termite in order to enhance the value of residue left on surface during long
interval period between two crops.
• Farm implements needed for seeding rain fed crops under minimum tillage.

Questions:
1) Soil disturbance should be --------------- in conservation agriculture
2) One of the three principles of conservation agriculture -----------------
3) Method used to control weeds ----------------
4) What is meant by conservation agriculture?
5) Advantages of conservation agriculture.
6) Explain one of the three principles of conservation agriculture.

70
 Lecture 17. Cost reduction technologies, non-monetary inputs and low
cost technologies in IFS
Cost reduction in crop production
Improvement in management practices help to realize higher yields but at the same time
most of the production technologies are also input intensive and labour intensive. Costs of labour
and input are higher and are increasing in upward trend at very frequent intervals. Increase in
wages and inputs make farmers to loose their interest for achieving higher yields. Therefore the
motivation of the farmers to aim for higher productivity may be reduced if the profits are going
to remain the same or sometimes less because of higher cost of cultivation. So, it is necessary to
sustain higher yield levels at reasonable cost of cultivation.
In most of the crops, out of total cost of production, about 50-60% goes as labour wages
and about 40 to 50% for inputs. Out of 100% total cost of cultivation in rice, human labour
occupies 40 %. The remaining are bullock pair - 7 %, seeds - 8 %, fertilizers - 26 %, pesticides -
5 % and irrigation - 12 %. Any attempt to reduce the cost should not result in reduced yields.
Cost reduction in crop production can be achieved through

a. Improving the labour efficiency and reducing the cost of labour for various operations.
Eg. 1. Ridge formation for cane (40 men labour) - Rs. 4000
2. Ridge plough (21/2 pairs) - Rs. 1000
Rectification (10 labour) - Rs. 1000
Total - Rs. 2000
b. Reducing the levels of inputs used without affecting the yield
Eg. Neem cake coated urea for rice there by nitrogen use efficiency is increased with
reduction in N requirement
c. Adoption of low – cost technology
Eg. Use of biofertilizer like azospirillum for cereals, millets, cotton, sesame and
rhizobium for pulses
d. Proper management of non-monetary inputs or no cost technology

71
No cost technology or non monetary inputs
Non monetary inputs are defined as those cultural operations which help to achieve high
yield at no extra cost and whose cost does not change with the level of output. All timely field
operations from sowing to harvest are no cost technologies.
The following are the some of the no cost technologies / non-monetary inputs in the crop
production
i. Selection of suitable varieties according to the region, season, soils etc.
a. Low temperature – MDU 2 rice
b. Saline soil – CO 43 rice
ii. Use of quality seeds without admixtures to avoid gap filling
iii. Timely land leveling and shaping for efficient water and nutrient management in garden
and dry land regions
iv. Optimum time of sowing / planting.
Eg. Sowing of cotton during August 15th and turmeric – end of May
v. Optimum plant population.
Eg. Soybean 3.33 lakhs / ha
vi. Optimal depth of sowing / planting.
Eg. Rice 4-5 cm, ragi 2-3 cm, sorghum 3-4 cm, cotton, maize, groundnut 5-7 cm.
vii. Correct age of seedlings for transplanting (aged seedling should be avoided)
Eg. Ragi / cumbu / sorghum 16-18 days
Paddy short duration varieties – 21 days
Paddy medium / long duration varieties – 30 days
viii. Timeliness in important field operations.
Eg. Weeding during the critical crop weed competition period
Rice 10-40 days after transplanting
Maize 10-35 Days after sowing
Sugarcane 21-90 days after planting
Early weeding reduces the labour cost
ix. Irrigation at proper time and at optimum level to avoid stress at critical periods
x. Time of fertilizer application to coincide with peak nutrient demand period.
Eg. Sugarcane –with 90 days after planting

72
 xi. Timely harvest to avoid harvest losses
xii. Proper drying is a common low non monetary input
xiii. Proper care in post harvest processing and storage to avoid wastages.

Low cost technology

Techniques which involve very little cost but help to achieve higher yields in crop
production. These technologies are locally adaptable techniques which can bring down the cost
of cultivation to a great extent.
Low Cost Technologies in Crop Production
1. Seed / Seedling treatments with plant protection chemicals, biofertilizers, seed hardeners,
etc. for pest and disease control, nutrient saving, better stand establishment and stress
tolerance
2. Crop rotation and integrated farming systems
3. Bio-fertilizers for various crops
4. Seed hardening and seed treatment for convenience in sowing
5. Mulching
6. Use of machineries and implements in labour saving
7. Suitable method of land configuration and methods of irrigation for water saving
8. Fertilizer use in nursery and fertilizer application
9. Correct time and method of fertilizer application
10. Placement of fertilizer like N and also treated materials
11. Application of growth regulators / promoters
12. The use of neem leaves for storage is another low cost technology
13. Paired row cultivation of crops in micro irrigation systems
Measures for reducing labour and inputs
1. Tillage, land shaping, intercultivation
• Minimal tillage, zero tillage, off season tillage
• Use of labour saving implements / machinery
Eg. Ridger, land former,
Ridger reduces the labour requirement by 60%

73
 • With groundnut stripper 300kg / day can be stripped, whereas with women labourers,
60kg / day only can be stripped.
2. Seeds and sowing
• Seed treatment
• Seed drill
• Relay sowing and ratooning
3. Fertilizers management
• Soil test based fertilizer recommendation
• Cropping system approach
• Bio-fertilizers
• Balanced use of fertilizers
• Integrated nutrient management
4. Plant protection
• Seed treatment (Pest and disease management)
• Protection in nursery stage
• Pesticide spray at ET levels of damage
• Biological control based on crop rotation and cropping system
• Summer ploughing
• Integrated pest / disease management
5. Weed management
• Early and timely weeding
• Use of correct tools which will increase the labour efficiency
• Line sowing / planting for intercultivation
• Effective and selective herbicides with little residual effect
6. Harvest and processing
 Timeliness
 Use of machineries for harvesting, threshing, winnowing, etc.
 Non-monetary inputs and low cost technologies for crop production

74
 Model question paper
Questions and answers
A. Choose the correct answer
1. If only one crop is raised in a year, leaving the land fallow for another eight months, then the
cropping intensity will be
a) 100% b) 200% c) 300% d) none (100%)

2. The biological factor affecting farming system is

a) Topography b) livestock c) Education d) rainfall (Livestock)

3. Diversified farming system is also known as

a) LEISA b) extensive agriculture (Integrated farming
system)
c) integrated farming system d) permaculture

4. The component enterprises in a farming system are of

a) Dependent type b) independent type (Dependent type)

c) both a & b d) none of these

5. Why farming system is mainly recommended in India?

a) To increase productivity b. to increase income

c) 70 % of India’s population depends on agriculture d) all of these

75
6. Practice of grazing animals, especially sheep and goat in public land is called as

a) Ranching b) Natural farming c) Organic farming d) All (Ranching)

7.Soil fertility is the biggest problem in

a) Irrigated farming b) Biodynamic farming (Dry farming)

c) Dry farming d) Organic farming
8.In which farming system an individual cultivator is the owner, manager and organizer of the
farm
a) Integrated farming system b) Peasant farming (Peasant farming)
c) State farming d) Biological farming
9. Example for capitalistic farming is
a) Sugar factory farm b) Coffee and tea plantations (a & b)
c) Rice fields d) a & b
10. The determination of general suitability of rainfall regime and quantification of
viable length of growing season for cropping are common in
a) Integrated farming b) Response farming (Response farming)
c) Diversified farming d) None of these

11. A suitable allied enterprise with rice crop is

a) Apiculture b) Sericulture c) Fishery d) Biogas (Fishery)

12. Integrated farming system aims at

a) Low benefit cost ratio b) High benefit cost ratio (High benefit cost ratio)
c) Both a & b d) None
13. Soil potentiality can be increased by

a) Organic manures b) Inorganic fertilizers (organic manures)

c) Irrigation d) Weeding
14. Stocking density of fingerlings per ha on rice + fish culture?

a) 400 Nos. b) 3000 Nos. (3000 Nos.)

c) 800 Nos. d) 2000 Nos.
15. The allied enterprise that provides a steady income in IFS is

a) Poultry b) Dairy c) Fishery d) Apiculture (Dairy)

76
16. Arrangement of components which process input into output

a) Crop b) Croppin System

season g system
c) System d) Croppin
g pattern
17. If aggressivity is positive it indicates the species is
a) Equally competitive b) Dominant c) Dominated d) None Dominant
18. Which objective favours cost benefit ratio
a) High input use efficiency b) Profitability (High input use efficiency)
c) Cash flow around the year d) Productivity
19. The major reasons for multiple cropping are
a) To control weed b) To improve sustainability (All of these)
c) To save water d) All of these
20. Multi-storeyed cropping of coconut and cocoa is an example for the annidation of
a) Space b) Time Space
c) Nutrient d) All of these

21. African tall is a variety of fodder

a) Fodder sorghum b) Fodder maize (Fodder maize)

c) Fodder cumbu d) Fodder cowpea
22. Which fodder legume is suitable for rainfed condition

a) Stylo b) Sudan grass (Stylo)

c) Deenanath grass d) Spear grass
23. Alfalfas of tropics

a) Lucerne e) Desmodium Lucerne

f) Stylo g) Clitoria
24. Which anaerobic acid production arrests the growth of bacteria and moulds in silage
making
a) Lactic acid b) Acetic acid (Lactic acid)
c) Carbon di oxide d) None
25. Major parasitic weed problem in lucerne cultivation is

77
a) Cuscuta b) Striga c) Parthenium d) cynodan (Cuscuta)

26. An example for bottom feeder fish species is

a) Silver carp b) Catla c) Rohu d) Grass carp (Rohu)

27. The popular breed of cattle meant for draught purpose is

a) Sindhi b) Kangeyam c) Holstein-Freiesian d) Murrah (Kangeyam)

28. The annual laying capacity of a turkey bird is around

a) 150 eggs b) 250 eggs c) 300 eggs d) 365 eggs

29. Cultivation of mulberry plants is called as

a) Apiculture b) Moriculture
(Moriculture)
c) Sericulture d) Olericulture
30. Mushrooms are fairly good sources of vitamin

a) Ca b) C c) B complex d) Both b & c (both b & c)

31. Which of the following is not the effect of modern agriculture?

a) Nitrate pollution b) Eutrophication (Ozone depletion)
c) Biomagnification d) ozone depletion
32. The human activity which causes maximum environmental pollution having
regional and global impact, is
a) Urbanization b) Industrialization (Industrialization)
c) Agriculture d) Mining
33. Meeting the needs of the present without compromising the resources of future
generation to meet their own need is called
a) Organic agriculture b) Modern agriculture (sustainable agricultur
c) Traditional agriculture d) Sustainable agriculture
34. Social, economical and ecological equity is the necessary condition for achieving
a) Social development b) Economical development (Sustainable
c) Sustainable development d) Ecological development development)
35. Name of NGO which is majorly involved in organic agriculture

78
 a) APEDA b) IFOAM c) WHO d) All of these (IFOAM)

36. Agricultural activity such as tilling, harvesting, heating and ventilation are direct
consumes of

a) Energy b) Air c) Sun d) Heat (Energy)

37. What do you mean by conservation
a) Protection, preservation and b) Exploitation of (Protection, preservation
management of resources resources and management of
c) Both a & b d) None resources)
38. Cover crop improves
a) Soil properties b) Biodiversity (All of these)
c) Soil fertility d) All of these

39. Core principles of conservation agriculture are

a) Soil cover b) Zero tillage ( Both a & b)
c) Both a & b d) Mono cropping
40. Major limitations of conservation agriculture are
a) Farm machineries b) Rainfed condition (All of these)
c) Technical knowhow d) All of these
41. Major objective of integrated farming system is
a) Recycle of waste b) extensive use of external inputs (Recycle of
c) use of synthetic fertilizer d) all of these waste)
42. In rainfed IFS, the more prominent livestock component is
a) Rabbit b) HF cow c) Pig d) Goat (Goat)
43. Major allied activity involved in the irrigated dryland ecosystem is
a) Fishery b) Piggery (Biogas)
c) Biogas d) Sericulture
44. IFS improves
a) Soil fertility b) Soil physical properties (All of these
c) Provide N,P,K d) All of these
45. Long term effects of integrating fish and poultry components in rice is to control
a) Weed b) Yield c) Soil fertility d) None (Weed)

B. Fill in the blanks

79
80
1. Building up of crops/other allied components in a vertical dimension is otherwise known
as…………… (multi- tier system)
2. Significant use of inputs to maximise the production of crops is the basic principle of _________
agriculture (Intensive)
3. Expand LEISA…………… (Low External Input Sustainable Agriculture)
4. The land area available for cultivation in 2050 would be around…………….m. ha. (137)
5. Emilia Hazelip developed ___________ agriculture over five decades ago. (Synergistic)
6. Biodynamic farming was originally developed by the Australian Scientist named
____________(Rudolf Steiner)
7. Mixed farming is a type of farming in which crop production is combined with
______________(Livestock)
8. Site- specific management of resources is predominant in _____________ (Precision
farming)
9. _________ farming facilitates voluntary pooling and management of land by the
members under a democratic constitution (Co-operative farming)
10. Management and ownership are belongs to rich persons under ___________
(Capitalistic farming)

11. The Project Directorate for Farming System Research is located at --------------
(Modipuram)
12. Apis mellifera is otherwise known as---------------------- (Italian bee)
13. The allied enterprise emerging with good demand in IFS is ------------------- (Poultry)
14. Growing two or more crops on the same piece of land simultaneously with definite row
pattern-------------------- (Intercropping)
15. ----------------goat breed is preferable for dry land IFS (Tellicherry)

16. The yearly sequence and spatial arrangement of crop on a given area is called ---------------------
(cropping pattern)
17. Cultivation of one crop variety alone in pure stand at normal density in a certain time and
place is called----------------------------(sole crop)
18. Growing two or more crops on the same field in a year is called -------------------- (multiple
cropping)

81
19. Shifting cultivation also called ---------------------------------(Jhum cultivation)
20. Cultivation of crops which have different natural habit and zero competition is called--------
------------------------ (parallel cropping)

21. ------------------------ hybridis the highest green forage yielder in unit time and space.

(Bajra Napier)

22. Non-legume hays are rich in----------------------------- (Carbohydrates)

23. Green succulent roughage preserved under controlled anaerobic fermentation called-----------
---- (Silage)

24. Protein rich concentrates contain ------------------------ % of crude protein (> 18 %)

25. Sorghum is the largest as well as the most important crop amongst the group of cereals,
hence known as the ---------------------- (Great millet)

Fill in the blanks

26. The soil type highly suitable for fish rearing is ------------------------ . (Clay)
27. The poultry chicken must be vaccinated against-------------- disease with FI strain vaccine
within first 6-7 days of age. (Ranikhet)
28. To clean unwanted fishes in dish pond----------------- oilcake is used (Mahua)
29. Young ones of pigeon are called ----------------------- (Squab)
30. Cultivation of agricultural crops within the rows of trees is known as-----------------
(Agrisilviculture)
31. ----------------- and----------------- kind of inputs are used in sustainable agriculture (renewable and
biodegradable inputs)
32. Expand CGIAR----------- (Consultative Group of International Agricultural Research)
33. Reduced biodiversity is the major problem in ----------------- (modern agriculture)
34. Expand LEISA------------ (Low external input for sustainable agriculture)
35. Generally pulse crops leave a residual amount of --------- to-------- Kg N/ ha. (30 to 50 kg)
36. Zero tillage is effective in mitigating--------------------(soil erosion)
37. Major conservation agriculture practicing countries are-----------------, --------------------- &------------------
( USA, Brazil and Argentina)

82
38. Mechanical manipulation of soil is called -------------------- (tillage)
39. The ruminants like ---------------------,----------------- and ------------------------are more suited to the
conservation agriculture(cattle, goat and sheep)
40. Incorporation of paddy straw reduces soil-------------- and act as------------ (erosion, mulch)
41. An example for lowland IFS------------------------(Cropping + Poultry/Pigeon + Fish
Culture + Mushroom
42. ----------------------fern is used as fish feed as well as biofertilizer to rice crop (azolla)
43. Predominant cropping system of western zone of Tamil Nadu is---------------(ragi-
cotton-sorghum)
44. Eves and buck ratio of Tellicherry goat in rainfed ecosystem is---------------- (20:1)
45. Expand WTCER ___________________ (Water Technology Centre for Eastern
Region)
46. An example for lowland IFS------------------------(Cropping + Poultry/Pigeon + Fish Culture +
Mushroom)
47. ---------------- and------------------ number of adult cows and calves is preferred for one hectare
irrigated dryland ecosystem (3 and 2, respectively)
48. Suitable size of biogas plant with 5 cows unit in irrigated dryland IFS is----------2m3)
49. -----------------------agroforestry system is more suitable for rainfed ecosystem (silvipasture)
50. In irrigated dryland IFS, ---------------------is an important component for livestock (forage
crops)
C. Indicate the following statements as either True or false
1. Farming system is a collection of functional units such as crop, livestock, processing etc. (True)
2. In space concept, crops are arranged in a tier system. (True)
3. Farming system components include soil, water, crops, livestock, labour etc. (True)
4. High External Input Agriculture depends on inputs from the own farm. (False)
5. Seed/seedling treatment for pest and disease control is a high cost technology. (False)
6. Specialised farming seeks the major resources/income derived from as single
enterprise.(True)
7. Biodynamic farming helps to connect nature with cosmic creative forces.(True)
8. In collective farming, farm families residing in the same village will not pool their
resources.(False)

83
9. In biological farming, farmers try to maximize the use of chemicals for control of pest
and disease.(False)
10. The linkage between the corporate firm and farmers for input supply and buy-back of
produce is practiced in contract farming.(True)
11. In synergetic cropping, the yields of both crops are higher than of their pure crop on unit
area basis. (True)
12. The time of peak nutrient demand of component crops are same in intercropping. (False)
13. Cultivation of two or more crops simultaneously on the same land with definite row
pattern is called mixed cropping. (False)
14. The crop re-growth from the stubbles after harvest called ratoon. (True)
15. Have to convert the yield of different crops to one unit in crop equivalent yield. (True)
16. Honey bees are popularly known as ‘angels of agriculture’. (True)
17. Primary by- product of biogas is hydrogen. (False)
18. Jersey cow comes under the category of local breed. (False)
19. Goat is called as “Poor man’s ATM”. (True)
20. Cultivation of fungi is also known as mushroom cultivation. (True)
21. Tree leaves are much useful during summer or lean periods. (True)
22. Liming increases the toxicity of Fe and Al. (False)
23. Roughages are bulky feeds containing relatively large amount of less digestible nutrients.
(True)
24. There is no risk of prussic acid poisoning in sorghum. (False)
25. Lucerne is called the “queen of forage crops”. (True)
26. Profitability of fish culture depends on the efficient management and utilization of
resources (True)
27. Poultry is one of the fastest growing food industries in the world (True)
28. Duck rearing can be associated with dryland ecosystem (False)
29. Mortality in piglets is a major constraint in profitable piggery production. (True)
30. Pork and meat from cow do not have any religious taboo. (False)
31. Diversity of crop species to enhance the farm’s biological and economic stability, such as
through rotations, relay cropping and intercropping- (True)
32. Quality of food material is not safe in sustainable agriculture- (False)

84
 33. Sustainable agricultural practices often rely on traditional knowhow and local innovation-
(True)
34. Sustainable agriculture attempts to ensure that the burdens and benefits are shared more
equitably between men and women- (True)
35. High external input agricultural (HEIA) practices is been adopted in sustainable
agriculture- (False)
36. Biological tillage is not compatible with mechanical tillage- (True)
37. Permanent organic soil cover may not alter the microclimate of soil and crop- (False)
38. Are there increased pest and weed problems under CA during transition period-
(True)
39. Soil cover is not mandatory for conservation agriculture- (False)
40. Zero tillage is not effective in mitigating soil erosion and reduced runoff- (False)
41. Intensification of crop and allied enterprises are the big opportunity of IFS. (True)
42. Employment opportunity is less in IFS compared to conventional agriculture. (False)
43. The nutrients leached out from rice fields could not be effectively utilized for fish culture.
(False)
44. Subabul trees are more suitable for fodder as well as timber in upland ecosystem. (True)
45. Scientist Kalyan Singh had conducted research in farming system at Punjab. (False)
46. The productivity of livestock mainly depends on the availability of quality feed
and fodders in requisite quantity. (True)
47. In low land IFS, water consumption will be high than conventional method.
(True)
48. Biogas production helps to tap fossil fuels. (False)
49. Poultry voids cannot be a good source for fish. (False)
50. Azolla can be utilized as external phytoplankton to fish. (True)

D. Definitions and brief notes

1. Farming system
2. Concept of farming system research
3. Principles of farming system
4. Sustainable agriculture
5. Integrated farming system

85
6. Differentiate specialized farming and mixed farming
7. Differentiate organic farming and natural farming
8. Define bio-intensive farming
9. Biological farming
10. Differentiate state farming and contract farming
11. Types of co-operative farming
12. Goals of integrated farming system (IFS)
13. Principles of IFS
14. Suitable IFS model for irrigated dry land
15. Benefits of mushroom cultivation
16. Advantages of goat rearing
17. Cropping system
18. Shifting cultivation
19. Ley farming
20. Annidation
21. Additive series of intercropping
22. Classification of feeds
23. Bio-reclamation
24. Year round fodder supply
25. Hydrocynic Acid (HCN)
26. Silage additives
27. Goat in dryland IFS
28. Difficulties in pig rearing
29. Suitable components for lowland IFS
30. Rabbit feeding
31. Role of biogas plant in IFS
32. What is sustainable agriculture
33. How does "organic agriculture" differ from "sustainable agriculture"?
34. Components of INM?
35. Explain LEISA
36. Watershed management

86
 37. Define conservation agriculture
38. Scope of conservation agriculture
39. Limitations of conservation agriculture
40. Benefits of livestock in conservation agriculture
41. Limitations of machineries in conservation agriculture
42. Discuss the resource recycling in Crop + poultry + fish + mushroom farming system.
43. Importance of dairy component in irrigated upland ecosystem.
44. Predominant lowland IFS model in Western zone and CDZ of Tamil Nadu.
45. Predominant silvipasture system for rainfed IFS.
46. Importance of IFS in hilly areas.
47. Objectives of IFS
48. Role of livestock in irrigated dryland IFS
49. Name the components of lowland IFS
50. Resource potential of mushroom spent
51. Write the possible integration of IFS components in rainfed ecosystem
E. Descriptive type questions
1. Describe the objectives of farming system
2. List out the scope and need of farming system
3. Describe the concepts and principles of farming system research
4. Briefly explain the types of agriculture
5. Explain the role of non-monetary inputs and low cost technologies in farming system.
6. Explain in detail about integrated farming system with one example.
7. Describe the precision farming techniques and its components.
8. Briefly explain the bio-dynamic farming and its preparations.
9. What is organic farming? write about its principles, advantages and disadvantages.
10. Narrate briefly the factors affecting the types of farming in India.
11. Explain the benefits or advantages of IFS.
12. Briefly explain the factors which influence choice and size of enterprises in IFS.
13. Describe the suitable IFS components of lowland IFS with a neat sketch.
14. Describe the suitable IFS components of dryland IFS with a neat sketch.
15. Narrate the complementary and competitive interactions between components in lowland
IFS.

87
16. Explain the principles and concepts of cropping system
17. Describe complementary and competitive interactions in cropping system
18. Write about selection of crops in intercropping system
19. Define multi-storeyed cropping system and explain with example
20. Narrate the various indices for evaluation of intercropping system.
21. Definition and classification of forages.
22. Give the package of practices for legume fodder.
23. Explore the factors affecting forage quality.
24. List the characteristics of good quality hay and explain different types of hay making.
25. Give the management practices for seed production in forage crops.
26. Describe briefly about the practice of fish culture
27. Explain the types and methods of mushroom production
28. Write a note on sheep rearing and its maintenance in rainfed IFS
29. Elucidate the suitability and the role of sericulture in irrigated dryland IFS
30. Explain the role of agroforestry in IFS. Mention its types and their benefits
31. Explain need, scope and objective of sustainable agriculture
32. Explain the potential cause of modern agricultural techniques
33. Differentiate sustainable agriculture vs modern agriculture
34. Explain the indicators of sustainable agriculture
35. Describe agro ecological practices in sustainable agriculture
36. Differentiate conventional and conservation agriculture
37. Explain the principles of conservation agriculture
38. Describe the benefits and limitations of cover crops in conservation agriculture
39. Define zero tillage and brief its role in conservation agriculture
40. List out the different machineries involved in conservation agriculture
41. Explain in detail about the integrated farming system development in Tamil Nadu.
42. Explain the bio resource flow of lowland IFS components
43. Explain the resource flow and utilisation in irrigated dryland IFS.
44. Explain how the crop residue wastes are efficiently used in India.
45. Advantages of resource recycling in IFS.
46. Justify the concept of “Waste to Wealth” with examples of IFS.

88