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Civil Engineering Department

CHAPTER -03

STRESS CONDITION IN SOIL: EFFECTIVE AND NEUTRAL PRESSURES

3.1 MODES OF OCCURRENCE OF WATER IN SOIL

Water present in the voids of soil mass is called soil water. It can be classified in several ways given
below.

Ground water or Free Water: It is subsurface water that fills the voids continuously and is subjected
to no forces other than gravity. Hence this water is also known as gravitational water or free water.
Such water has a free surface which can be easily observed in wells and bore holes. Ground water fills
up the voids in the soil upto the ground water table and translocates through them. It fills coherently and
completely all voids – making the soil saturated. Ground water obeys laws of hydraulics and is capable
of moving under hydrodynamic forces.

Capillary water: It is that water which is lifted up by surface tension above the free ground water
surface. This water is in suspended condition within the interstices and pores of capillary size of the
soil. The capillary water fills all the pores in the soils, to a certain distance above the water table – this
distance being known as zone of capillary saturation. The water saturated voids are bounded by
meniscus.

Capillary water is the soil moisture located within the interstices and voids of capillary size of the soil.
Capillary water is held in the interstices of soil due to capillary forces (The rise of water due to
capillary action induces certain stresses in the soil mass). Capillary action or Capillary is the
phenomenon of movement of water in the interstices of a soil due to capillary forces. The minute pores
of soil serve as capillary forces depend upon various factors such as surface tension of water, pressure in
water in relation to atmospheric pressure, and the size and conformation of soil pores.

Fig: 3.1 Classification of Soil Moisture based upon Adhesiveness of Water

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Fig: 3.2 Zones of saturation, aeration and capillary fringe

Fig: 3.3 Formation of Meniscus and Surface Tension

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Hygroscopic moisture is the water which the soil mass absorbs from the atmosphere. Capillary
moisture is that water which a soil sucks from the level of free water in a soil mass. As it rains, the rain
water seeps into ground and due to the permeability of the soil goes deeper and deeper and deeper till it
meets an impervious startum and starts accumulating over it and forms what is called ground-water
reservoir. The surface of water within the ground, where the water has the atmospheric pressure is called
the phreatic surface or more commonly the water table. The zone of soil below the water table is called
the zone of saturation and the water contained in the zone is called the ground water. The zone of soil
between the water table and the ground surface is called the zone of aeration. The rain water which
enters the soil mass to form the ground water is also sometimes called gravitational water since it enters
the soil under the influence of gravity.
It has been observed that soils above the water table are fully saturated upto a certain height and partially
saturated a little further. This saturation is the result of capillary rise of water in the soil. Capillary rise
of water in the soil is attributed to the effect of adhesive films which lift the eater above the water table.
The amount of lift is called capillary rise. The layer of soil in the zone of aeration moistened by
capillary rise of water is called the capillary fringe (Fig. 3.3).
The rise of water due to capillary action induces certain stresses in the soil mass known as Capillary
forces and hence the need to study the capillary phenomenon in detail. In order to understand the
principle underlying the rise of water in soil pores, the case of a glass tube inserted in water is presented,
in the succeeding article.

CAPILLARY RISE:- The pores of soil mass may be looked upon as a series of capillary tubes,
extending vertically above water table. The rise of water in the capillary tubes, or the fine pores of the
soil, is due to the existence of surface tension which pulls the water up against the gravitational force.
The height of capillary rise, above the ground water (or free water) surface depends upon the diameter of
the capillary tube (or fineness of the pores) and the value of the surface tension, and is supported from
the side of the tube around the edge of the meniscus. Fig3.4 shows an enlarged view of a capillary tube
inserted in water, and the consequent capillary rise.
The formation of a concave meniscus will take place only if the inner walls of the tube are initially wet.
If the walls are dry before insertion, a convex meniscus depressed below the water surface is formed.
However, since the soil pores always carry adsorbed water, the meniscus formation in soil will always
be concave in Fig.3.4. The vertical component Ts cos α of the surface tension force depends upon the
angle of α incidence between the meniscus and the tube.
Let d = inner diameter of the tube and hc = height of capillary rise.
When the capillary tube is inserted in water, the rise of water will take place. When equilibrium has
reached, water will stop moving further. At this equilibrium position, when the height of rise is h c, the
πd2
weight of column of water is equal to ℎc γw
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Fig: 3.4 Capillary Rise.

3.2 Principle of Effective Stress

At any plane in a soil mass, the total stress or unit pressure σ is the total load per unit area. This pressure
may be due to
(i) self-weight of soil (saturated weight, if the soil is saturated)
(ii) Over burden on the soil.
When a load is applied to soil, it is carried by the water in the pores as well as the solid grains. The
increase in pressure within the pore water causes drainage (flow out of the soil), and the load is
transferred to the solid grains.
The rate of drainage depends on the permeability of the soil.
The strength and compressibility of the soil depend on the stresses within the solid
The total pressure consists of two distinct components: intergranulat pressure or effective pressure and
the neutral pressure or pore pressure. Effective pressure “σ” is the pressure transmitted from particle
through their point of contact through soil mass above the plane. Such a pressure, also termed as
intergranular pressure, is effective in decreasing the voids ratio of the soil mass and in mobilizing its
shear strength. The neutral pressure or the pore water pressure or pore pressure is the pressure
transmitted through the pore fluid. This pressure, equal to water load per unit area above the plane, does
not have any measurable influence on the voids ratio or any other mechanical property of the soil, such
as the shearing resistance. Therefore, this pressure is also called neutral pressure “u”. Since the total
vertical pressure at any plane is equal to the sum of the effective pressure and the pore pressure, we have

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Fig: 3.5. Principle of effective stress

Total pressure = Effective pressure + Pore water pressure

σ = σ’ + u
At any plane, the pore pressure is equal to piezometric head hw times the unit weight of water,
i.e u = hw γw

3.2 To find the value of effective pressure, we shall consider different conditions of soil water
system.
1. Submerged soil mass
2. Soil mass with surcharge
3. Saturated soil with capillary fringe
4. Partially saturated soil

1. Submerged soil mass:-

From fig 3.2.1 shows a saturated soil mass of depth Z, submerged under water of height Z1 above its top
level. If a piezometric tube is inserted at level AA, water will rise in it upto level CC. Now, total
pressure at AA is given by

Axies at AA
σ = Zγsat + Z1 γw
Also, pore pressure u = hw γw
σ’ = σ – u = Zγsat + Z1 γw - γw hw

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= Zγsat + Z1 γw – (Z + Z1) γw
σ’ = Z(γsat - γw) = Zγ’
Axies at BB
Hence the effective pressure is equal to the thickness of the soil multiplied by the submerged weight of
soil. It does not depend upon the height Z1 of the water column even if Z1 reduces to zero, σ’ will remain
equal to Z γ’ so long as the soil mass above AA remains fully saturated. At BB, the total pressure is
equal to the water pressure Z1γw, and hence the effective pressure is zero. Thus, the effective pressure
varies linearly, as show in figure.

C C C C

Z1
Distribution Diagram

Water Z1 Moist Soil

Effective Pressure

B B q Z1γ
B B
hw
hw
Saturated Saturated Z
Z
Soil Soil

Zγ’ A A q Z1γ Zγ’

A A
Fig: 3.2.1 Fig: 3.2.2

2. Soil mass with surcharge:-

Let us now consider a moist soil mass of height Z1 above a saturated mass of height Z. Soil mass
supports a surcharge pressure of intensity q per unit area as show in figure 3.2.2.
At the level AA
σ = q + Z1γ + Zγsat
u = hw γw = Z γw
Therefore
σ’ = σ – u = q + Z1γ + Zγsat - Z γw
= q + Z1γ + Z γ’
At the level BB

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σ = q + Z1γ
u = hw γw = 0
Therefore
σ’ = σ – u = q + Z1γ
At the level CC
Effective pressure = total pressure = q. The effective pressure distribution diagram is also shown in
figure.

3. Saturated soil with capillary fringe:-

As shown in a figure 3.3.3 saturated soil mass of height Z. Above this, there is a sol mass of height Z1
saturated by capillary water. If we insert a piezomertic tube at AA, water will rise to a height
corresponding to the free water level BB.
We habe seen in the previous article that capillary induces a capillary pressure or compressive pressure
on the soil grains. This pressure is also intergranular and is effective in reducing the voids ratio of the
soil mass. This compressive pressure is equal to hc γw = Z1 γw in the present case.

Fig: 3.3.3

Hence, at the level AA

σ = Zγsat + Z1γsat
u = hwγw = Z γw
σ’ = σ – u = Zγsat + Z1γsat - Z γw = Z γ’ + Z1γsat
Alternatively, at AA

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σ’ = (Z + Z1) γ’ * Zγw
= Zγ’ + Z1γ’ + Z1γw = Zγ’ + Z1γsat
at the level BB
σ = Z1γsat
u = hcγw = 0
σ’ = σ – u = Z1γsat
Alternatively, at BB
σ’ = σ – u = Z1 γ’ + Z1γw = Z1γsat

at the level CC
This given an interesting result. Ordinarily, in a saturated soil, σ’ at depth Z1 is Z1γ’ while in this case,
when the soil is saturated by capillary, this has been increased to Z1γsat. Finally, at CC,
σ’ = capillary pressure = Z1γw
The effective pressure distribution diagram is shown is Fig. The effect of capillarity of height Z1, is
analogous to a surcharge q = Z1γw placed on the saturated soil mass.
At any depth x below the level CC, σ’ = x γ’ + Z1γw
Alternatively, at CC
σ = x * γsat
u = -[pressure due to weight of water hanging below that level] = - (Z1 - x) γw
Therefore σ’ = σ – u = x * γsat –(- (Z1 - x) γw) = x * γsat + (Z1 - x) γw = x(γsat - γ’) + Z1γw = x γ’ + Z1γw

4. Partially saturated soil:- In a partially saturated soil, a part of void space is occupied by air. Hence,
in addition to pore water pressure (uw), pore air pressure (ua) will also to there, Bishop (1959) based on
his intuition, gave the following expression for the effective stress.
σ’ = σ – ua + χ (ua - uw)
Where
Ua = pore air pressure
Uw = pore water pressure
χ = factor of unit cross-section
Area occupied by the water = Aw/A
Aw = area of water
A = area of cross-section of soil
Fig 3.3.4 gives the variation of factor χ with degree of saturation. Apart from degree of saturation, factor
χ also depends upon several other factors such as soil structure, process by which the soil reached the
present degree of saturation near unity (S≥90%), it is recommended to take χ as unity (i.e. 1). In that
case the above equation reduces to the form.
σ’ = σ – ua + 1 (ua - uw) = σ – uw = σ – u

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Fig: 3.3.4. Variation of χ with S

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