Suture Choice

a nd Other Methods
of Skin Closure
Julio Hochberg, MD*, Kathleen M. Meyer, MD, Michael D. Marion, MD

KEYWORDS
 Skin closure  Sutures  Surgical needles  Staples
 Topical adhesives  Tapes

Historically, there were few surgical options for wound closure. From catgut, silk, and
cotton, there is now an ever-increasing array of sutures, approximately 5,269 different
types, including antibiotic-coated and knotless sutures. In addition to the continual
advancement in suture material, the variety and refinement of surgical needles and
packaging has also increased. New closure methods have recently been developed,
such as topical adhesives and absorbable staples, which can either be used alone or
in combination with traditional suture repair.
The surgeon evaluating a skin laceration has to choose the best closure method for
that particular patient and wound from a multitude of possibilities. Closing a wound in
an infant differs greatly from closing a wound in an elderly patient with multiple comor-
bidities, such as diabetes, heart disease, steroids use, and thin skin. Skin itself varies
throughout the body in terms of its thickness, elasticity, speed of healing, and
tendency to scar. Suture techniques that avoid suture marks such as ‘‘railroad tracks,’’
especially in skin exposed in normal clothing, are generally more aesthetically pleasing
to the patient. In the selection of a suture, a patient’s health status, age, weight and
comfort, and the presence or absence of infection are as important as the biomechan-
ical properties of the suture, individual wound characteristics,1 anatomic location, and
a surgeon’s personal preference and experience in handling a suture material. There is
often more than one appropriate method of closure. Although suture materials from
different companies have similar chemical components, the performance and quality
of these products are not always equivalent.
The ultimate responsibility for the choice of the best material lies with the surgeon.
The cost of a complication, such as wound dehiscence, a fistula, reoperations, pain,
and even death, will never justify the use of a less expensive, lower quality suture.
Choosing a method of closure that affords a technically easy and efficient proce-
dure, with a secure closure and minimal pain and scaring, is paramount to any

Department of Surgery, Marshfield Clinic, 1000 North Oak Avenue, Marshfield, WI 54449, USA
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (J. Hochberg).

Surg Clin N Am 89 (2009) 627–641

doi:10.1016/j.suc.2009.03.001 surgical.theclinics.com
0039-6109/09/$ – see front matter ª 2009 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
628 Hochberg et al

surgeon. This article addresses the current state of affairs of sutures and methods of
wound closure. The nuances, advantages and disadvantages, and strengths and
weaknesses of various suture choices in different circumstances are reviewed.
Much of this reflection is based on the collective experience of the authors, each of
whom has trained at a different institution and brings a unique set of experiences to
the discussion.

PROPERTIES OF SUTURE MATERIALS

Tensile Strength
Tensile strength is the measured force, in pounds, that the suture will withstand before
it breaks.2,3 Suture material should have, and maintain, adequate tensile strength for
its specified purpose.2

Tissue Absorption
Tissue absorption is a suture characteristic distinct from the rate of tensile strength
loss. A suture may display rapid loss of tensile strength yet be absorbed slowly.4 An
absorbable suture is defined as a suture that undergoes degradation and absorption
in tissues. A nonabsorbable suture maintains its tensile strength and is resistant to
absorption. However, most foreign materials will eventually undergo some degree of
degradation over time. The rate of absorption is especially pertinent to late suture
complications, such as the development of sinus tracts and granulomas.5 Absorbable
sutures are generally used for buried sutures that approximate deep tissues.6 Nonab-
sorbable sutures are most commonly used externally in the skin and will eventually be
removed, or for wounds in deeper structures that require prolonged support.6 Factors
that delay wound healing are many and include, but are not limited to, diabetes, corti-
costeroid therapy, malnutrition, stress, and systemic disease. Such factors signifi-
cantly influence suture choice, and with an increased risk of delayed healing,
a nonabsorbable external closure would likely be chosen over an absorbable suture.

Cross-Sectional Diameter
Suture diameter designations are specified in descending sequence (ie, 1-0 is larger
than 11-0). When selecting suture size, the finest gauge commensurate with the
natural strength of the tissue is recommended.3 The number and diameter of sutures
used to close a wound should be the minimum necessary for coaptation of the edges.

Coefficient of Friction
The coefficient of friction pertains to how easily a suture passes through tissue.4

Knot Security
Knot strength is calculated by determining the force necessary to cause a knot to
slip.4,7 The least reliable part of any suture is the knot.3 Knot security is the quality
of a suture that allows it to be tied securely with a minimum number of throws per
knot.2 Greater knot strength minimizes the risk of wound dehiscence. A knot stays
tied because of the friction produced by one part of the knot acting on another, which
relates to the coefficient of friction of the suture material. A suture with a high
coefficient of friction has good knot security but tends to abrade and drag through
tissue.8 A knot should hold securely without fraying or cutting. For safety, a knot
should have at least 3 throws with 3-mm long ends. Smooth surfaces decrease
knot security and must be compensated for with extra throws.
 Suture Choice and Other Methods of Skin Closure 629

Elasticity
Elasticity is the ability of a material to return to its original length after stretching.4 High
elasticity will allow the suture to stretch with wound edema but return to its original
length and form once swelling has subsided. A high degree of elasticity provides
obvious clinical advantages, because highly elastic suture material is less likely to
cut through the skin with swelling and effectively approximates wound edges
throughout the healing process.

Plasticity
Plasticity is defined as the capacity of a suture to be permanently molded or altered.4
Plasticity refers to the ability of a suture to stretch with wound edema without return to
its original form once swelling subsides. Thus, sutures that are highly plastic may
become too loose when swelling decreases and fail to correctly appose wound edges.

Memory
Memory is the capacity of a suture to assume a stable linear configuration after
removal from packaging and after stretching. Memory is the capacity of a suture to
remain free of curling and other contortions that may interfere with surgical handling
and use. Sutures with significant memory are not pliable, which makes them difficult
to work with, and significant memory necessitates additional knots.9 (Nylon has signif-
icant memory, whereas Gore-Tex suture has no memory).

Handling
Several factors impact on how a suture handles including elasticity, plasticity, and
memory.3 The material should handle comfortably and naturally. The hallmark of silk
is its exceptional handling characteristics (workability) and ease of knot tying, setting
the standard with which all other material is compared.3,6

Tissue Reactivity
All suture materials are foreign to human tissue and may elicit a tissue reaction,3 such
as an inflammatory response, that interferes with wound healing and increases the risk
of infection. The duration and severity of the tissue response depends on the type and
quantity of suture material used along with its configuration.9,10 An ideal suture stim-
ulates minimal tissue reaction and does not create a situation favorable to bacterial
growth. Suture material should be nonelectrolytic, noncapillary, nonallergenic, and
noncarcinogenic.

Origin
Suture material may be either natural or synthetic; natural fibers (eg, surgical gut and
silk) cause a more intense inflammatory reaction than synthetic material (eg,
polypropylene).

Physical Configuration
Suture material may be composed either of a single filament or multiple filaments.
 Monofilament. Monofilament sutures have several desirable qualities, including
strength, low tissue drag, and low propensity to harbor infection. The incidence
of wound infection is significantly lower with monofilament compared with
braided sutures.4,11 However, monofilament sutures do not handle as easily as
braided sutures.
630 Hochberg et al

 Multifilament (braided or twisted). A multifilament configuration handles easily but

has been shown to promote tissue infection and reactivity.2 The increase in tissue
infection is a result of capillary penetration by bacteria and other foreign mate-
rials. A braided suture may harbor bacteria within its crevices and bacteria
may escape phagocytosis.4,12
Capillarity
Capillarity of a suture describes the ease of transporting liquids along the suture strand
and is an inherent physical property of multifilament sutures due to the available inter-
stitial space. Capillarity is related to the ability of a suture to transport and spread
microorganisms and is an important property in terms of wound infection. A braided
nylon could take up to three times as many microorganisms as monofilament nylon.
Monofilament sutures do not exhibit capillarity. Braided polyester (Mersilene) shows
capillarity, whereas braided silk with wax and plain and chromic gut do not have
capillarity.13
Fluid Absorption
Fluid absorption and capillarity properties are presumed to be of significance due to
the impact of contaminating bacteria on tissues. The chemical nature and physical
structure of sutures determine the level of fluid absorption. However, the chemical
nature seems to be more important than the physical structure. Synthetic sutures
have much lower fluid absorption capability than natural sutures, because synthetic
sutures are more hydrophobic. Multifilament sutures have a higher fluid absorption
than monofilament sutures. Plain and chromic gut sutures demonstrate the highest
fluid absorption.13
Ease of Removal
For wounds from which suture removal may be painful or difficult and support is only
needed for a short time period, rapidly absorbable sutures are indicated.
Color
Sutures are available in dyed and undyed material. A dyed material provides easy visu-
alization when the sutures are removed. If suture removal is not planned, undyed
material can be used to avoid unsightly show through the skin.

SUTURES
Absorbable
 Polyglactic 910 (Vicryl) is a synthetic, absorbable, braided suture made of poly-
glactin 910 coated with a copolymer of L-lactide and glycolide (Polyglactin 370)
and calcium stearate. Polyglactic 910 thus retains 65% of its tensile strength
at 2 weeks and 40% at 3 weeks. It is extremely useful as a completely buried
suture to approximate wound edges until the wound has gained enough strength
to keep the edges from separating.6 Complete absorption of Vicryl occurs
between 60 and 90 days by hydrolysis. There is less of an inflammatory response
due to the absorption of polyglactic acid by hydrolysis if compared with the
proteolytic absorption of surgical gut.2 Vicryl is available in a clear undyed or
violet-dyed form. In cutaneous closures, the dyed form is often visible beneath
the skin surface. Vicryl can be extruded if used in the subcuticular layer.
 Polyglactic 910 (Vicryl Rapide) is a synthetic, absorbable, multifilament suture. It
is derived from polyglactin 910 that is partially hydrolyzed in a buffer solution and
sterilized with gamma irradiation. This processing speeds absorption, leaving the
 Suture Choice and Other Methods of Skin Closure 631

mechanical properties of the suture intact.14 Fifty percent of tensile strength is

retained at 5 days. At 2 weeks, the tensile strength is 0%. Vicryl Rapide sutures
fall off in 10 to 14 days and absorption occurs by hydrolysis in 7 to 14 days.
 Antibacterial suture (coated Vicryl Plus) is an absorbable suture with an antimi-
crobial coating that was first developed using triclosan, a well-known antimicro-
bial material with a long history of safe use as the active agent in consumer health
care products.4 Pediatric surgeons noted less postoperative pain in patients
treated with coated Vicryl Plus. The reduction in postoperative pain was attrib-
uted to inhibition of bacterial colonization and, likely, the avoidance of subclinical
infection.15 Long-term studies are not yet available.
 Polyglycolic suture (Dexon II) is a synthetic, coated, braided, absorbable
suture made of polyglycolic acid polycaprolate. The lubricant coating
decreases the coefficient of friction. Polyglycolic acid retains 89% of its tensile
strength at 7 days, 63% at 14 days, and 17% at 21 days.16 Compared with
Dexon, Vicryl showed the slowest loss of function and the highest knot-
breaking strength. In the same study, Dexon II showed the greatest irrevers-
ible elongation.17
 Poliglecaprone (Monocryl) is a synthetic, absorbable, monofilament suture
made of a copolymer of glycolide and e-capralactone. In a side-by-side
comparison with Vicryl Rapide, poliglecarpone subcuticular closure resulted
in significantly smaller, less reactive scars and a lower tendency to hypertro-
phic scar formation.18 This suture has significant initial tensile strength, which
allows for the selection of a suture that is 1 to 2 sizes smaller than would
customarily be chosen.4 Dyed Monocryl retains 30 to 40% of its tensile
strength at 2 weeks, whereas undyed Monocryl retains 25% at 2 weeks and
0% at 21 days. Absorption of the sutures occurs by hydrolysis in approximately
90 to 120 days.
 Polydioxanone (PDS) is a synthetic, absorbable, monofilament suture made
from polyester, poly(p-dioxanone). This suture retains 74% of its tensile
strength after 2 weeks, 50% after 4 weeks and 25% after 6 weeks. Polydiox-
anone is somewhat stiff and difficult to handle. It is a low reactivity suture that
maintains its integrity in the presence of bacterial infection.6 The absorption
rate of this material is minimal until 90 days and it is absorbed slowly by hydro-
lysis in 180 to 210 days.
 Polyglycolide-trimethylene carbonate (Maxon) is a synthetic, absorbable, mono-
filament suture. It is a copolymer of glycolide and trimethylene carbonate.
Compared with PDS, Maxon was somewhat unwieldy.19 Maxon can be used
for the deep and superficial portions of a closure. Tensile strength was measur-
able for 42 to 92 days for Maxon, and 64 to 80 days for PDS. Absorption of Maxon
is complete in 6 to 7 months.4
 Barbed suture (Quill SRS) is a knotless, synthetic suture made of dyed poly-
dioxanone and is now available as undyed polyglecaprone (Monoderm).
Barbed suture is effective due to bidirectional fixation within the wound.
Closure with barbed sutures begins at the midpoint of the wound with suturing
that extends in two directions from the midpoint. Barbs within the suture
distribute tension across the wound and eliminate the need for knots.20 This
material facilitates the use of a continuous suturing technique in place of inter-
rupted sutures in a deep, layered closure. Because the Quill suture cannot slip
backward, it does not gap in areas of tension, allowing an esthetic subcuticular
closure with fewer preliminary buried sutures, which affords significant time
savings (as much as one half to two thirds). Thus, the greatest benefit of using
632 Hochberg et al

Quill suture is its speed in closing deep layers. However, a disadvantage is that
this suture has significant memory, and the needle size is not always appro-
priate for certain procedures. The product is in its infancy and will surely be
refined.
 Plain, chromic and fast-absorbing plain gut are biologic, absorbable, monofila-
ment sutures. These materials are made by twisting together strands of mostly
purified collagen prepared from the submucosal layers of the small intestine of
sheep or the serosal layer of the small intestine of cattle. The plain gut is
untreated, the strength retention is 7 days, and absorption occurs in 10 to 14
days. The chromic gut is tanned with chromic salts to increase the holding
time to approximately 14 days with absorption in 21 days. Fast-absorbing plain
gut is heat-treated to create more rapid absorption. These sutures have less
tensile strength than plain gut of comparable size. Fast-absorbing plain gut is
used primarily for epidermal suturing where sutures are required for only 5 to 7
days. Fast-absorbing plain gut is helpful for suturing wounds in children or
wounds in locations from which it is difficult to remove sutures.2 Chromic gut
is absorbed by proteolysis and macrophages, and plain gut attracts small
lymphocytes that facilitate absorption.21,22

Nonabsorbable
 Nylon (Ethilon), a synthetic, nonabsorbable, monofilament suture made of
a chemically inert polyamide polymer fiber, has low tissue reactivity. Nylon
sutures are the most commonly used sutures in cutaneous operations.6 The
tensile strength of this material at 2 weeks is high, with a potential loss of 50%
by 1 to 2 years due to progressive hydrolysis over time.
 Polypropylene (Prolene), a synthetic, nonabsorbable, monofilament suture made
by catalytic polymerization of propylene, has low tissue reactivity and high tensile
strength, similar to nylon. Polypropylene has as an extremely smooth surface,
which decreases knot security and must be compensated for with extra throws.
A significant advantage of Prolene is its high plasticity, and ability to accommo-
date wound edema. Polypropylene is easy to remove and is therefore an ideal
suture for a running, subcuticular stitch.6 This suture is also not subject to
degradation.
 Silk is a natural, nonabsorbable, braided suture that is white, extruded by silk
worm larvae, and made of protein filaments. Surgical silk is braided for easy
handling and dyed for greater visibility. Silk has good knot security but evokes
a significant inflammatory response. Owing to its braided configuration, silk is
also prone to infection and can be infiltrated by tissue ingrowth. Silk suffers
progressive degradation that may result in gradual loss of tensile strength.
 Braided polyester (Mersilene) is a synthetic, nonabsorbable, uncoated, braided
or monofilament suture material. The tensile strength at 2 weeks is high, and
the material has a high coefficient of friction. The monofilament form has poor
knot security, whereas the braided form gives a more secure knot. The braided
form cannot be used in the presence of infection or contamination.6 This suture
has low tissue reactivity and undergoes no significant changes in vivo.
 ePTFE (Gore-Tex CV4) is a synthetic, nonabsorbable, monofilament suture made
of polytetrafluoroethylene that has been expanded to produce a porous micro-
structure that is 50% air by volume. This suture is white in color and provokes
minimal tissue response with cellular ingrowth. The tensile strength does not
change in vivo. Gore-Tex is soft and supple, affording excellent handling.
 Suture Choice and Other Methods of Skin Closure 633

Gore-Tex does not degrade in the presence of infection and is not subject to the
action of tissue enzymes.

SURGICAL NEEDLES

Needles are manufactured from stainless steel wire, which has excellent resistance to
corrosion. Needles are chosen based on strength, temper, rigidity, malleability,
ductility, and surface finish. Needles must be matched to the patient and surgery.
The factors to be considered include the thickness and accessibility of the tissue to
be sutured, the importance of attaining a good cosmetic result, and the size of the
suture material.2 Surgical needle performance is determined by the following param-
eters: sharpness, resistance to bending, resistance to breaking (ductility), and by the
force that must be exerted to grasp a curved needle with the jaws of the needle
holder.5 Surgical needles have distinctive anatomy and characteristics, such as
shape, size, point, and method of suture attachment.

Needle Anatomy
 Eye: the eye is the site of attachment of the needle to the suture. The close eye is
similar to a household sewing needle. The French eye has a slit from inside the
eye to the end of the needle that holds the suture. The swaged needle is config-
ured so that the suture and the needle form a continuous unit.
 Body: the body of the needle is the portion grasped by the needle holder.
 Point: the point of the needle extends from the tip to the maximum cross-
sectional area of the body.

Needle Shape
 1/4 circle: used in microsurgery.
 3/8 circle: used to approximate the divided edges of thin planar structures that
are readily accessible (ie, skin).
 1/2 circle: used in deep body cavities and other confined locations.
 5/8 circle: used in the nasal cavity.
 1/2 curved or ski: used in endoscopic procedures.
 Straight: used when suturing easily accessible tissue, where direct finger-held
manipulation can be easily performed.

Needle Size
The choice of the length and curvature of a needle is determined by the size and depth
of the wound. The diameter of the needle should match the suture size to minimize
damage as the needle passes through tissue.

Needle Points
Each type of needle point is designed to penetrate a specific type of tissue. Needle
points are either cut, tapered, or a combination of both.3
 Conventional cutting. The needle body is triangular and has two opposing cutting
edges and a third edge on the inside of the curve. This configuration creates
a track that faces the wound edge, producing the potential to accidentally cut
tissue.3 (This point is used in tough tissues like skin and mucosa.)
 Reverse cutting. This needle point has the third cutting edge on the outside of the
curve to avoid the possibility of accidentally cutting tissue. (This point is used in
tough tissues like skin, mucosa, and in the nasal cavity.)
634 Hochberg et al

 Precision cosmetic. This form offers the most honed point for maintaining sharp-
ness. (This is used in delicate plastic or cosmetic surgery and on the skin.)
 Trocar point or tapercut. The needle body is round, tapered and ends in a small
triangular cutting point. The cutting edges of the trocar point needle extend only
a short distance from the needle tip and blend into a round, tapered body.5 (This
point is used for closures in the oral mucosa and nasal cavity.)
 Spatula point. This point is flat on the top and bottom with a cutting edge along
the front to one side. (This point is used with corneal or scleral tissue.)
 Blunt point. This is simply a blunted, dull point. (This point is used for friable
tissues such as fascia.)
 Taper. The needle body is round and tapers smoothly to a point that spreads the
tissue without cutting it. (This point is used in soft tissue that does not resist nee-
dle penetration, such as fascia, subcutaneous fat, and muscle.)
 Keith needle. This is a straight, cutting needle. (This point is used primarily for skin
closure of abdominal wounds.)
 Specialty needles. There are needle points especially designed for cleft palate
and microsurgery.

SUTURE ATTACHMENT
 Swaged needle (atraumatic needle) provides a less traumatic, smaller diameter
needle3 that does not require preparation or handling. The needle may be perma-
nently swaged to the suture or may be designed to come off with a sharp, straight
tug. These ‘‘pop-offs’’ are commonly used for interrupted sutures, whereby each
suture is only passed once and then tied.5 Nearly all modern sutures feature the
swaged, atraumatic needle.
 Threaded needle (traumatic needle) is a needle whereby the suture is threaded
through the eye of the needle. Threaded needles are more difficult to handle
and cause more tissue trauma than swaged needles. Threaded needles are
rarely used today. However, a threaded needle may salvage a suture line if
a continuous suture has broken.

SUTURING TECHNIQUES
 Simple interrupted sutures. These are the most commonly used sutures and are
useful in linear or irregular wounds. The needle is introduced at a 90 angle into
the skin to include a larger portion of the deeper dermis.21 This method allows the
width of the suture at its base in the dermis to be wider than the epidermal
entrance and exit points.6 An advantage of interrupted sutures is that more selec-
tive adjustments of wound edges can be made.2
 Vertical mattress sutures. These sutures are appropriate for either thick or thin
skin. Vertical mattress sutures are used if eversion is not achieved with simple
interrupted sutures. This suture provides a secure grasp of tissue and a good
approximation of the skin margins. Vertical mattress sutures need to be soft
and pliable but should not stretch tissue. These sutures help distribute tension.
Unfortunately, permanent hatch mark scars result if the sutures are left in place
for more than 5 to 7 days.6,23
 Half buried horizontal mattress or 3-corner sutures. This type of suture is used for
flap edges, because the suture minimizes tissue ischemia. The 3-corner suture is
especially useful for closing a V-shaped wound or for approximating skin edges
that differ in texture or thickness.
 Suture Choice and Other Methods of Skin Closure 635

 Horizontal mattress. This suture is useful in situations where compression of

wound edges is necessary for hemostasis. The horizontal mattress suture may
also be used to close wounds under moderate tension and to increase wound
tensile strength during the period of wound healing. In addition, the horizontal
mattress suture can be used to evert wound edges. However, this suture can
lead to tissue ischemia and therefore must be applied loosely, which may
make the wound appear untidy after the repair.
 Horizontal continuous mattress. These sutures are useful in everting wound
edges in areas prone to inversion, such as the retroauricular skin.
 Subcuticular continuous suture. This suture provides an excellent way to achieve
accurate skin edge apposition without external sutures or cross-hatching. The
suture can be an absorbable suture, such as polyglactic 910 (Vicryl) or poligle-
caprone (Monocryl), or a nonabsorbable suture, such as polypropylene (Prolene),
with external knots that are easy to remove.6
 Running continuous sutures. The running continuous suture provides a rapid,
secure closure with an even distribution of tension along the length of the
wound preventing tightness in any one area. It is used for linear wounds.
This technique also provides additional wound eversion. The only real disad-
vantage of the running continuous suture is demonstrated if the suture breaks
or the surgeon wants to remove only a few sutures at a time.2 Gaps can occur
in any continuous suture method if the tension is not controlled with a deep
closure.
 Continuous locking suture. These sutures are useful for suturing dermal matrix
(Alloderm). However, the continuous locking suture leaves permanent hatch
marks in the skin.
 Purse-string sutures. This is a continuous suture placed around a circle, such as
the areola. This suture has the disadvantage of inverting tissues.
 Buried sutures. These sutures are placed so that the knot protrudes to the inside,
under the layer to be closed.
 Quilting sutures. This suture refers to the attachment of a skin flap to the under-
lying aponeurosis with multiple sutures and is an efficient technique for preven-
tion of seroma formation.24
 Frost sutures. These are suspension sutures used in eyelid surgery to prevent
ectropium.
 Figure-of-eight or far-near-far pulley suture. These suture are a modification of
the vertical mattress suture. The suture provides a pulley effect that allows
wound closure under tension, such as the closure of the latissimus dorsi myocu-
taneous flap donor site. Figure-of-eight sutures have to be removed early to
avoid cross-hatching.
 Ligatures. This is a suture tied around a vessel for hemostatic purposes.
 Retention sutures. Retention sutures have been used in an attempt to reduce the
risk of acute fascial dehiscence and to repair postoperative fascial dehiscence.
However, these sutures do not seem to reduce the risk of wound complications.
In addition, in one study, 50% of patients with retention sutures had them
removed prematurely due to pain.12,25

SUTURE KNOTS

Knots must be tight enough to coapt the wound edges and should be no tighter.
Regarding knot strength, sliding knots with extra throws are as secure as square
knots, and surgeon’s knots are no more secure than square knots for smaller diameter
636 Hochberg et al

sutures.26 For safety, a knot should have at least three throws with 3-mm long ends.
Smooth surfaces, as seen with monofilament sutures, decrease knot security and
must be compensated for with extra throws.

PRINCIPLES OF SUTURING SKIN WOUNDS

1. The primary function of the suture is to maintain tissue approximation during

healing.
2. Sutures placed in the dermal layer provide tensile strength, and control tension for
the outer layer.
3. Sutures placed in the epidermis should coapt the edges and correct any inter-
vening gaps in the suture line or discrepancies in height between the two sides.
4. Debridment of the skin edges should be done if necessary.
5. Avoidance of direct tissue trauma helps ensure optimal outcomes.21
6. Clean passage of the needle, following the arc, is imperative, as is avoidance of
multiple punctures.21
7. Skin sutures that blanch the underlying skin are too tight.21
8. Skin edges are always kept everted and without tension. The everted skin edges
will gradually flatten.
9. Skin edges must just touch each other.

SUTURES ACCORDING TO ANATOMIC LOCATION

The final decision concerning the method and material used in closure is highly depen-
dent on the length and anatomic location of the wound (Table 1).7,27,28

STAPLES
 Nonabsorbable (Proximate). These staples are made of stainless steel and
combine the highest tensile strength of any suture material in use today with
a low tissue reactivity.2 Metal staples come in two sizes, regular and wide, and
are dispensed from lightweight easy to grip cartridges. Metal staples provide
a faster closure than sutures.2,29 Metal staples also provide excellent wound
edge eversion without strangulation of tissue and result in minimal cross-hatch
scarring.23 Staples yield a satisfactory result for cutaneous wound closure in
a wide variety of circumstances and are extremely useful in fixation of skin grafts.
Metal staples may offer a slightly superior cosmetic outcome when used to close
scalp wounds. It is common to use staples to close scalp wounds that are under
a great deal of tension. Contaminated wounds closed with staples have a lower
incidence of infection than those closed with sutures. Staple closure also elimi-
nates the risk that a health care provider will experience a needle stick, which
is a particularly important consideration in caring for trauma patients with
unknown medical histories. There are specially designed extractors for staple
removal, although removal can also be accomplished with a hemostat.
 Absorbable (Insorb). A novel form of skin closure that uses absorbable subcutic-
ular staples is now available. The staple is composed of an absorbable copol-
ymer of predominantly polylactide and a lesser component of polyglycolide.30
The closure of contaminated wounds with Insorb staples was found to be supe-
rior to closure with Vicryl sutures, because the Insorb staples had a significantly
lower incidence of infection.4 Insorb staples will not interfere with MRI examina-
tions. In some studies, the performance of Insorb staples was similar to that of
percutaneous metal staples with respect to the development of wound infection.
Table 1
Suture choice according to anatomic location of wound

Anatomic Location Tissue Layer Options

Scalp Dermal 4-0 Vicryl simple interrupted sutures —
Epidermal 5-0 Vicryl Rapide continuous running suture Metal staples or 4-0 Prolene simple interrupted
sutures (1-layer closure)
Face Dermal 5-0 Vicryl simple interrupted sutures 5-0 Vicryl, 5-0 Monocryl or 5-0 Prolene continuous
subcuticular suture
Epidermal 6-0 Monocryl simple interrupted sutures 6-0 Nylon or 6-0 fast-absorbing plain gut simple
interrupted sutures or 6-0 Monocryl continuous
running suture or Dermabond (1-layer closure)

Suture Choice and Other Methods of Skin Closure

Ears
Anterior Epidermal 6-0 Monocryl simple interrupted sutures 6-0 Nylon simple interrupted sutures
Lobe Dermal 5-0 Vicryl simple interrupted sutures —
Epidermal 6-0 Monocryl simple interrupted sutures 6-0 Nylon simple interrupted sutures
Posterior Epidermal 5-0 Monocryl continuous horizontal mattress suture 5-0 Nylon continuous horizontal mattress suture
Lips Muscle 5-0 Vicryl simple interrupted sutures —
Mucosa 5-0 Vicryl simple interrupted sutures —
Vermilion 6-0 Silk simple interrupted sutures 6-0 Nylon or 6-0 Vicryl simple interrupted sutures
Epidermal 6-0 Vicryl Rapide simple interrupted sutures 6-0 Monocryl or 6-0 Nylon simple interrupted
sutures
Eyelids Epidermal 6-0 Monocryl continuous running suture 6-0 Prolene continuous running suture or 6-0 Nylon
simple interrupted sutures
Neck Dermal 5-0 Vicryl simple interrupted sutures 6-0 Vicryl, 6-0 Monocryl or 6-0 Prolene continuous
subcuticular suture
Epidermal 6-0 Monocryl continuous running suture —
(continued on next page)

637
 638
Hochberg et al
Table 1
(continued)

Anatomic Location Tissue Layer Options

Breasts Dermal 3-0 Vicryl simple interrupted sutures 4-0 Quill, 5-0 Vicryl, or 5-0 Prolene continuous
subcuticular suture
Epidermal 5-0 Monocryl continuous running suture 5-0 Nylon simple interrupted sutures
Areola Dermal 4-0 Vicryl simple interrupted sutures 3-0 Gore-Tex CV4 pull-string sutures or 5-0 Vicryl
simple interrupted sutures
Epidermal 6-0 Monocryl continuous running suture —
Presternal Dermal 3-0 Vicryl simple interrupted sutures —
Epidermal 5-0 Monocryl continuous running suture Metal staples
Abdomen Dermal 3-0 Vicryl simple interrupted sutures 5-0 Monocryl or 5-0 Prolene continuous subcuticular
suture
Epidermal 4-0 Monocryl continuous running suture Metal staples
Back Dermal 3-0 Vicryl simple interrupted sutures —
Epidermal 4-0 Monocryl continuous running suture 5-0 Nylon simple interrupted sutures
Arm and forearm Dermal 4-0 Vicryl simple interrupted sutures —
Epidermal 5-0 Monocryl continuous running suture 5-0 Nylon simple interrupted sutures
Hand Epidermal 5-0 Nylon simple interrupted sutures —
Palm Epidermal 5-0 Nylon simple interrupted sutures, —
alternate with vertical mattress sutures
Leg and thigh Dermal 3-0 Vicryl simple interrupted sutures —
Epidermal 4-0 Monocryl continuous running suture 5-0 Nylon simple interrupted sutures or metal
staples
Foot Epidermal 5-0 Nylon simple interrupted sutures —
 Suture Choice and Other Methods of Skin Closure 639

Other studies have suggested that the Insorb staples may be superior to metal
staples with respect to inflammation, pain, and cosmetic outcome.31,32

TOPICAL TISSUE ADHESIVES

 2-Octylcyanoacrylate (Dermabond). Tissue adhesive provides an excellent,
strong, and flexible method of approximating wound edges. Compared with
sutures, staples, and tapes, adhesives provide faster closure12 and are essen-
tially equivalent to the other methods of closure in terms of cosmetic outcome,33
infection rate,34 and dehiscence rate. Adhesives can be used on most parts of
the body and have been employed to close wounds ranging from 0.5 to 50 cm
in length. Advantages of tissue adhesives include reduced cost, ease of applica-
tion, absence of needles and suture removal, and higher rate of patient satisfac-
tion;35 the major disadvantage is lack of strength. Tissue adhesives should not be
applied to tissues within wounds; they should be applied to intact skin at wound
edge to hold the injured surfaces together. In addition, these products should not
be used for wounds in mucous membranes,2 contaminated wounds, deep
wounds, or wounds under tension.26,36 Adhesives are particularly useful in super-
ficial wounds or wounds in which the deep dermis has been closed with sutures.
The avoidance of postoperative suture removal is beneficial, particularly in the
pediatric population.37 Dermabond used over sutures at the time of surgery7
provides extra support,6,38 creates an impermeable suture line, decreases the
need for postoperative care, and may reduce redness on the suture line.

TAPES
 Steri-Strips. Modern cutaneous tapes have an important roll in wound closure
and have certain advantages over sutures and staples. Closure with microporous
tape produces far more resistance to infection than other closure techniques.6
Tapes maintain the integrity of the epidermis, resulting in less tension to the
wound.2 Linear wounds in areas with little tension are easily approximated with
tape alone, whereas wounds in areas where the skin is more taut generally
require that tape skin closure be supplemented with dermal sutures. In addition,
tape will not adhere to mobile areas under tension or moist areas. Retention of
sutures in skin wounds beyond a few days may result in slower development
of tensile strength than if sutures are removed earlier. Thus, some surgeons
prefer to replace cutaneous sutures with tape at 3 to 6 days,6 and some surgeons
prefer to use tape in conjunction with liquid adhesive (Mastisol).2 If used over
sutures at the time of surgery, wound closure tape can relieve tension at the
wound edges, provide a partially closed environment, improve the aesthetics
of the wound, and reduce the often tedious wound management for which the
patient is responsible.2 Wound edge approximation is less precise with tape
alone than with sutures. Wound edema can lead to blistering at the tape margins
and to eversion of taped wound edges.

SUMMARY

Numerous options for skin closure have become available in the last 30 years. It is
paramount to choose a method tailored to each patient and wound. With excellent
technical execution, several methods of closure can achieve similar, high quality
results. A full understanding of the biomechanical properties of suture material allows
wound closure decisions to be made based on sound scientific knowledge.
640 Hochberg et al

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Our thanks to Victor Gottlieb MD, Rama P. Mukherjee MD, FRCS, and Alison Wing
for their great support and critique.

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