Republic of the Philippines

UNIVERSITY OF EASTERN PHILIPPINES

LAOANG CAMPUS
Laoang, Northern Samar
Web: uep.edu.ph

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

WRITTEN REPORT IN
WATER RESOURCES
ENGINEERING

Submitted to:
ENGR. MELCHOR J. ORONOS JR.
Instructor

Submitted by:
APRIL JOSOA D. PULGA
WILSON B. PULGA
CARLO I. SUBIA
BSCE-V

2nd Semester, SY: 2019-2020

Water Demand: Introduction
One of the most important life sustaining natural resources that a country should
continually protect, preserve and enhance is water. All forms of life depend on water. Access
to clean and potable water immensely contributes to the improvement of the quality of life.
The human body needs to continually consume regular amounts of water in order to
replace lost body fluids and to function properly. The production of food and raw materials by
the agricultural sector as well as the manufacturing, mining and construction activities in the
industrial sector all require huge amounts of water as a major input.
A severe water shortage will lead to a deterioration in the quality of life as well as
economic losses for firms heavily dependent on water as a major input for production.

TERMINOLOGY
Water conveyance in a water supply system depends on the rates of production,
delivery, consumption and leakage (Figure 2.1).
Water production (Qwp) takes place at water treatment facilities. It normally has a
constant rate that depends on the purification capacity of the treatment installation. The
treated water ends up in a clear water reservoir from where it is supplied to the system
(Reservoir A in Figure 2.1).
Water delivery(Qwd) starts from the clear water reservoir of the treatment plant.
Supplied directly to the distribution network, the generated flow will match certain demand
patterns. When the distribution area is located far away from the treatment plant, the water is
likely to be transported to another reservoir (B in Figure 2.1) that is usually constructed at the
beginning of the distribution network. In principle, this delivery is done at the same constant
flow rate that is equal to the water production.
Water consumption (Qwc) is the quantity directly utilised by the consumers. This
generates variable flows in the distribution network caused by many factors: users’needs,
climate, source capacity etc.
Water leakage (Qwl) is the amount of water physically lost from the system. The
generated flow rate is in this case more or less constant and depends on overall conditions
in the system.
Water demand (Qd) In theory, the term water demand (Qd) coincides with water
consumption. In practice, however, the demand is often monitored at supply points where
the measurements include leakage, as well as the quantities used to refill the balancing
tanks that may exist in the system.
In order to avoid false conclusions, a clear distinction between the measurements at
various points of the system should always be made. It is commonly agreed that Qd + Qwc
+Qwl. Furthermore, when supply is calculated without having an interim water storage, i.e.
water goes directly to the distribution network: Qwd + Qd, otherwise: Qwd + Qwp.
 Water demand is commonly expressed in cubic meters per hour (m3/h) or per
second (m3/s), litres per second (l/s), mega litres per day (Ml/d) or litres per capita per day
(l/c/d or lpcpd). Typical Imperial units are cubic feet per second (ft3/s), gallon per minute
(gpm) or mega gallon per day (mgd). The mean value derived from annual demand records
represents the average demand. Divided by the number of consumers, the average demand
becomes the specific demand (unit consumption per capita).
Accurate forecasting of water demand is crucial whilst analysing the hydraulic
performance of water distribution systems. Numerous factors affecting the demand are
determined from the answers to three basic questions:
1. For which purpose is the water used? The demand is affected by a number of
consumption categories: domestic, industrial, tourism etc.
2. Who is the user? Water use within the same category may vary due to different
cultures, education, age, climate, religion, technological process etc.
3. How valuable is the water? The water may be used under circumstances that
restrict the demand: scarce source (quantity/quality), bad access (no direct connection,
fetching from a distance), low income of consumers etc.

Variations in water demand are particularly visible in developing countries where

prosperity is predominantly concentrated in a few major, usually overcrowded, cities with
peripheral areas often having restricted access to drinking water. Figure 2.2 shows average
specific consumption for a number of large cities in Asia.
WATER DEMAND PATTERNS
Each consumption category can be considered not only from the perspective of its
average quantities but also with respect to the timetable of when the water is used.
Demand variations are commonly described by the peak factors. These are the ratios
between the demand at particular moments and the average demand for the observed
period (hour, day, week, year, etc.).
Time-wise, we can distinguish the instantaneous, daily (diurnal), weekly and annual
(seasonal) pattern in various areas (home, building, district, town, etc.). The larger the area
is, the more diverse the demand pattern will be as it then represents a combination of
several consumption categories, including leakage.
Instantaneous demand
Instantaneous demand (in some literature simultaneous demand) is caused by a
small number of consumers during a short period of time: a few seconds or minutes.
Assessing this sort of demand is the starting point in building-up the demand pattern of any
distribution area.
The demand patterns of such areas are much more unpredictable than the demand
patterns generated by larger number of consumers. The smaller the number of consumers
involved, the less predictable the demand pattern will be.
Diurnal patterns
For sufficiently large group of consumers, the instantaneous demand pattern for 24-
hour period converts into a diurnal (daily) demand diagram. Diurnal diagrams are important
for the design of primary and secondary networks, and in particular their reservoirs and
pumping stations. Being the shortest cycle of water use, a one-day period implies a
synchronised operation of the system components with similar supply conditions occurring
every 24 hours.
 The demand patterns are usually registered by monitoring flows at delivery points
(treatment plants) or points in the network (pressure boosting stations, reservoirs, control
points with either permanent or temporary measuring equipment). With properly organized
measurements the patterns can also be observed at the consumers’ premises. First, such an
approach allows the separation of various consumption categories and second, the leakage
in the distribution system will be excluded, resulting in a genuine consumption pattern.
Periodic variations
The peak factors from diurnal diagrams are derived on the basis of average
consumption during 24 hours. This average is subject to two additional cycles: weekly and
annual.
- Weekly demand pattern is influenced by average consumption on working and
non-working days. Public holidays, sport events, etc. play a role in this case as well.
- Annual variations in water use are predominantly linked to the change of seasons
and are therefore also called seasonal variations. The unit consumption per capita normally
grows during hot seasons but the increase in total demand may also result from a
temporarily increased number of consumers, which is typical for holiday resorts.
- Maximum consumption day generalising such trends leads to the conclusion that
the absolute peak consumption during one year occurs on a day of the week, and in the
month when the consumption is statistically the highest. This day is commonly called the
maximum consumption day.

DEMAND CALCULATION
Knowing the daily patterns and periodical variations, the demand flow can be
calculated from the following formula:
The definition of the parameters is as follows:

Qd - is the water demand of a certain area at a certain moment.

Qwc,avg - the average water consumption in the area.
pfo - the overall peak factor (this is a combination of the peak factor values from the
daily, weekly and annual diagrams: pfo = pfh x pfd x pfm; the daily and monthly peak
factors are normally integrated into one (seasonal) peak factor: pfs = pfd x pfm).
l - the leakage expressed as a percentage of the water production.
fc - the unit conversion factor.
 Where reliable information resulting from individual metering of consumers is not
available, the average water consumption, Qwc,avg, can be approximated in several ways:

n - is the number of inhabitants in the distribution area.

c - coverage of the area.
q - is the specific consumption (l/c/d).
d - the population density (number of inhabitants per unit surface area).
A - the surface area of the distribution area.
qa - the consumption registered per unit surface area.
nu - the production capacity (it represents a number of units (kg, l, pieces, etc.)
produced within a certain period).
qu - the water consumption per unit product.
The data for n, c, d, A and nu are usually available from statistics or set by
planning: local, urban, regional, etc.

The average consumption per district can then be calculated from Equation 2.9,
which has been modified:

A - is the surface area of the district.

n - the number of consumption categories within the district
qa,i - the unit consumption per surface area of category i.
pi - the percentage of the district territory occupied by category i.
ci - the coverage within the district territory occupied by category i.
 With a known population density in each district, the result can be converted into
specific demand (per capita).
Regarding the pfo values, the following are typical combinations:
1. pfh = 1, pfs = 1; Qd represents the average consumption per day. This demand is the
absolute average, usually obtained from annual demand records and converted into
required flow units.
2. pfh = 1, pfs = max; Qd represents the average demand during the maximum
consumption day.
3. pfh = max, pfs = max; Qd is the demand at the maximum consumption hour on the
maximum consumption day.
4. pfh = min, pfs = min; Qd is the demand at the minimum consumption hour on the
minimum consumption day.

FIRE DEMAND
Is the amount of water required to extinguish fire or the water required for firefighting
in a given area. Although the actual amount of water used in a year is small for firefighting.
Rate of fire demand is sometimes treated as a function of population and is worked
out on the basis of empirical formulas:
(i) As per GO Fire Demand

(ii) Kuichling’s
Formula

Where, Q = Amount of water required in litres/minute.

P = Population in thousand.

(iii) Freeman Formula

(iv) National Board of Fire Under Writers Formula
(a) For a central congested high valued city
(i) Where population < 200000

(ii) where population > 200000

Q = 54600 lit/minute for first fire and Q=9100 to 36,400 lit/minute for
a second fire.
(b) For a residential city.
(i) Small or low building, Q=2,200 lit/minutes.
(ii) Larger or higher buildings, Q=4500 lit/minute.
(v) Buston’s Formula

per Capita Demand (q)

Assessment of Normal Variation

Population forecasting Methods
(i) Arithmetic increase method

Where,
Prospective or forecasted population after n decades from the
present (i.e., last known census)
Population at present (i.e., last known census)
Number of decades between now & future.

Average (arithmetic mean) of population increases in the

Known decades.
(ii) Geometric Increase Method
(iii) Incremental Increases Method

(iv) Decreasing rate of growth method

Since the rate of increase in population goes on reducing, as the cities reach towards
saturation, a method which makes use of the decrease in the percentage increase, in many
a times used, and gives quite rational results. In this method, the average decrease in the
percentage increase is worked out, and is then subtraced from the latest percentage
increase for each successive decade. This method is however, applicable only in cases,
where the rate of growth shows a downward trend.

(v) Logistic Curve Method

DESIGN FLOWS
PRACTICAL DESIGN OF WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
1.0 MATERIALS
1.1 DEFINITIONS
Ductile Iron Pipe (DIP)- Pipe which is manufactured from ferrous material in which a
major portion contains carbon occurring as a free graphite in substantially nodular or
spheroidal form. (Reference: ANSI/AWWA C110/A21.10)
ANSI-American National Standards Institute
AWWA-American Water Works Association
Flanged Joint- A pipe joint that has a flared flange made into the pipe end to receive
bolts to couple an adjoining flanged pipe or fitting.
 Gray Iron Pipe- Pipe which is manufactured from ferrous material in which a major
portion contains carbon occurring in the form of flakes interspersed throughout the metal.
Mechanical Joints- Mechanical joints are pipe joints that are gasketed and bolted
together. See ANSI/AWWA C111/A21.11
Push on Pipe Joints- Single rubber gasket pipe joints where the pipe sections are
pushed together and not restrained. See ANSI/AWWA C111/A21.11.
2.2 WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
Sources of water
• Ground water- Series of municipal wells usually requiring chemical treatment, at
least to the extent of chlorinating.
• Surface water- Drawn from lakes or rivers below the surface. Ocean- desalination
plants on or near coastal regions.
• Precipitation- Large municipal reservoirs collecting rain runoff and snow melt.
Transmission and Distribution Mains
Transmission lines are categorized as mains that carry large volumes of water, great
distances, such as between a treatment plant and local storage facilities.
Distribution lines are smaller pipes including valves, hydrants, fittings, and
appurtenances, that deliver treated potable water to the customers.
System Types
The two types of distribution systems are looped and branched. Looped systems
have pipes that are interconnected throughout such that water can move through the entire
system back and forth, depending on the points of largest demand.
Branched systems or dendritic systems have only one path to follow from the
source to the customer. Think of the system as one-way flow.
Looped System Advantages
• Fluid velocities are lower, reducing head losses, resulting in greater capacity.
• Main breaks can be isolated to minimize loss of service to customers.
• Fire protection is greater due to greater capacity and ability to isolate breaks.
• Looped systems usually provide better residual chlorine content due to inline
mixing and fewer dead ends.
Looped System Disadvantages
• Looped systems generally cost more because there are pipes that become
inadvertently redundant in order to create the loops.
Branched System Advantages
• Lower costs – Avoiding construction of pipes and appurtenances just to create a
looped system reduces the cost.
 • In smaller rural communities, branched systems may be the only type that is
feasible, logistically and monetarily.
Branched System Disadvantages
• Main breaks take all downstream customers out of service.
• Branched systems cause poor chlorine residuals in low demand areas and may
require periodic flushing of hydrants in order to pull chlorinated water into the system.
• Velocities are faster, head losses greater and capacity reduced especially during
high demand.
• Fire protection is at risk due to inability to isolate a break.
2.3 WATER DISTRIBUTION MODELING
Critical Elements
The designer must determine how much information is needed to accurately model
the system. These are important in considerations of the model. Some elements, such as
small local demands, may not affect the model. Below are several considerations that should
be weighed while assembling your model components and developing your schematics.
• Potential large water consumption.
• Important loops.
• Large diameter pipes.
• Pumps, towers, tanks, SCADA (Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition).
• Existing utility crossings and other conflicts.
• Travel times
• Topography
Head Losses and Gains
The energy within a fluid in part depends on its flow under pressure. Friction head
loss is a function of velocity and type of pipe materials used. Potential energy is dependent
on the gradient at a particular point. Finally, there is pressure energy introduced from a
mechanical source. There are several friction loss algorithms that may be applied depending
on the software. Darcy Weisbach uses the well-known Reynolds number and Moody Chart.
Hazen Williams is another popular method and finally there is the Manning equation.
Conflicts and Separation
Crossing existing utilities usually requires that the water main avoid the conflict.
Rarely will an existing utility be moved. However, in many communities the franchise
agreements with gas, electric, telephone, cable TV, etc., requires the franchise utility to
relocate their facilities if they are in conflict with a proposed public utility. For this reason,
utility companies are now requiring exclusive easements in proposed subdivisions. It is not
uncommon to see a signature block on final plats for the utility company’s easements.
2.4 PUMPS
Pumps are used infrequently to add energy to the system. Because pumps add
energy and maintenance costs to the owner, they should be used only when absolutely
necessary. A pump failure or power loss could affect large service areas. Grade changes
and friction losses may require the addition of pumps when a tower or tank cannot be used.
Pumps may be needed to fill elevated tanks. Centrifugal pumps generally are the type used.
Variable speed pumps are more useful when used as a booster, not to fill a tank or reservoir.
2.5 VALVES
- Isolation Valves
- System Check Valves
- Altitude Valves
- Pressure Reducing Valves
- Air Release Valves
2.6 TANKS AND RESERVOIRS
In terms of the model parameters, reservoirs are considered an infinite source of
water with a constant head elevation. In contrast, a tank element is modeled with a
fluctuating water elevation or hydraulic grade. A reservoir is practically either a water plant
wet well of finished water, or in the terms of a smaller community purchasing from a large
producer, the point of connection at the master meter. In terms of modeling these are
defined as boundary nodes.
2.7 CONTROL DEVICES
Control switches are used to control elements of a system such as pumps and
valves. Some models allow you to enter switches as elements and others consider them as
attributes of elements such as pumps and valves.
2.8 EPA (Environmental Protection Agency)
Division 15 – Mechanical (Plumbing)
VALVES
Governing Standards
Except as modified or supplemented herein, all materials required in this section
including their installation shall conform to the applicable requirements of the following
standards. Standards current at the time of tender shall be used.
a. ANSI American National Standard Institute
b. ASME American Society of Mechanical Engineers
c. AWWA American Water Works Association
d. MSS Manufactures Standardization Society of the Valve and Fittings Industry
REFERENCES
Water Demand
035-SEE_Raymundo_RB.pdf
Introduction_Water_Distribution_Nemanja_Trifunovic-38-71
Fire Demand
Environmental Notes.pdf-10
Design Flows
SectVI-Specification_V3of4.pdf
c182content.pdf