LOW SPEED SUBSONIC WIND TUNNEL MANOMETER

- Convenient method of measuring (P1-P2), hence measuring V2.

WIND TUNNELS 2(𝑃1 − 𝑃2 )

𝑉2 =
- Are ground-based experimental facilities designed to produce flows of air (or other gases), √ 𝐴 2
𝜌 (1 − (𝐴2 ) )
which simulate natural flows occurring outside laboratory. 1

SIMPLE SCHEMATIC OF A SUBSONIC WIND TUNNEL MEASUREMENT OF AIRSPEED

QUASI-ONE-DIMENSIONAL FLOW

- Assuming flow properties are reasonably constant over any given cross section of the flow in
the tunnel.

STATIC PRESSURE (P)

- Pressure along the flow at that point.

- Is the pressure you have if the fluid is not moving or if you are moving with the fluid.

1 1 1
𝑃1 + 𝜌𝑉1 2 = 𝑃2 + 𝜌𝑉2 2 = 𝑃3 + 𝜌𝑉3 2
2 2 2 TOTAL PRESSURE (PT)

- Pressure at a given point in a flow slowed down isentropically to zero velocity.

AREA RATIO (A2/A1) - It is the difference between the total pressure and static pressure.

- Is a fixed quantity for a wind tunnel of given design.

DYNAMIC PRESSURE (q)

CONTROL KNOB - is the pressure of a fluid that results from its motion.
1
- Basically, controls pressure difference in wind tunnel (P1-P2). 𝑞 = 𝜌𝑉 2
- Allows the wind tunnel operator to control the value of test section, V2. 2

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 • From Bernoulli’s Equation *SUBSONIC INCOMPRESSIBLE FLOW
1 1 1
𝑃1 + 𝜌𝑉1 2 = 𝑃2 + 𝜌𝑉2 2 𝑃𝑇 = 𝑃 + 𝜌𝑉 2
2 2 2
1
1 1 • Wherein dynamic pressure, 𝑞 = 2 𝜌𝑉 2
𝑃𝑇 + 𝜌𝑉𝑇 2 = 𝑃 + 𝜌𝑉 2 𝑃𝑇 = 𝑃 + 𝑞
2 2
• Since total pressure is the pressure where velocity slows down to zero, Total Pressure = Static Pressure + Dynamic Pressure
1 1
𝑃𝑇 + 𝜌𝑉𝑇 2 = 𝑃 + 𝜌𝑉 2
2 2
1 2 Example No. 1
𝑃𝑇 = 𝑃 + 𝜌𝑉
2
𝑃𝑇 = 𝑃 + 𝑞 An airplane is flying at sea-level at 100 mph. What is the difference between impact and static
pressure?
Therefore, total pressure is the sum of static pressure and dynamic pressure.
Impact Pressure → Total Pressure (PT)
𝑃𝑇 > 𝑃 ; 𝑉>0
GIVEN:
𝑃𝑇 = 𝑃 ; 𝑉=0
V = 100 mph
PITOT TUBE
(sea-level) ρ = 0.002377 slugs/ft3
- Measures total pressure of a flow.

STAGNATION POINT
REQUIRED:
- Any point of the flow where velocity is zero.
𝑃𝑇 − 𝑃𝑆 = ?
PITOT STATIC PROBE

- Measures total pressure (PT) at the nose of the probe and static pressure (P) at a point on
the probe surface downstream of the nose. FORMULA:

1 1
𝑃1 + 𝜌𝑉1 2 = 𝑃2 + 𝜌𝑉2 2
2 2
1 1
𝑃𝑇 + 𝜌𝑉𝑇 2 = 𝑃𝑆 + 𝜌𝑉 2
2 2
1 1
𝑃𝑇 + 𝜌𝑉𝑇 2 = 𝑃𝑆 + 𝜌𝑉 2
2 2

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 1 REQUIRED:
𝑃𝑇 = 𝑃𝑆 + 𝜌𝑉 2
2
V = ? (at 25,000 ft)
1
𝑃𝑇 − 𝑃𝑆 = 𝜌𝑉 2
2
SOLUTION: FORMULA:

• We must first convert the velocity 1 1

𝑃1 + 𝜌𝑉1 2 = 𝑃2 + 𝜌𝑉2 2
2 2
88 𝑓𝑡
𝑓𝑡 1 1
𝑉 = 100 𝑚𝑝ℎ 𝑥 60 𝑠 = 146.6667 𝑃𝑇 + 𝜌𝑉𝑇 2 = 𝑃𝑆 + 𝜌𝑉 2
1 𝑚𝑝ℎ 𝑠 2 2
1 1
• We can now use the formula to solve for the required 𝑃𝑇 + 𝜌𝑉𝑇 2 = 𝑃𝑆 + 𝜌𝑉 2
2 2
1 1
𝑃𝑇 − 𝑃𝑆 = 𝜌𝑉 2 𝑃𝑇 = 𝑃𝑆 + 𝜌𝑉 2
2 2
1 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔𝑠 𝑓𝑡 2 1
𝑃𝑇 − 𝑃𝑆 = (0.002377 ) (146.6667 ) 𝑃𝑇 − 𝑃𝑆 = 𝜌𝑉 2
2 𝑓𝑡 3 𝑠 2
𝑷𝑻 − 𝑷𝑺 = 𝟐𝟓. 𝟓𝟔𝟓𝟗𝟕 𝒑𝒔𝒇 1 2
𝜌𝑉 = 𝑃𝑇 − 𝑃𝑆
2
𝑃𝑇 − 𝑃𝑆
In this example, the airplane is flying at sea-level with a velocity of 146.6667 fps. In reality, the 𝑉2 =
1
𝜌
airplane is flying way above sea-level. So let’s solve for the velocity if the airplane is flying at 25,000 2
ft. We will use the computed answer for pressure difference.
2(𝑃𝑇 − 𝑃𝑆 )
𝑉= √
𝜌
Example No. 2

An airplane is flying at 25,000 ft. The difference between impact and static pressure is 25.56596 psf.
SOLUTION:
What is the velocity?
• We must first solve for the density at 25,000 ft so that we can use the formula above.
𝜌𝐻 𝑇0 + 𝜆𝐻 4.26
GIVEN: =( )
𝜌0 𝑇0
H = 25,000 ft
𝑇0 + 𝜆𝐻 4.26
𝜌 = 𝜌0 ( )
𝑃𝑇 − 𝑃𝑆 = 25.56597 𝑝𝑠𝑓 𝑇0

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 4.26 EQUIVALENT VELOCITY (VE) / Equivalent airspeed (EAS)
𝑅
𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔𝑠 519 °𝑅 + (−0.003566 )(25,000 𝑓𝑡)
𝑓𝑡
𝜌 = 0.002377 3 [ ] - defined as the speed at sea level. It is calibrated airspeed (CAS) corrected for the
𝑓𝑡 519 °𝑅
compressibility of air.
- If density is at sea-level, or if we need the calibrated airspeed at which an aircraft flies, we
−3
𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔𝑠
𝜌 = 1.06499 𝑥 10 will use the formula
𝑓𝑡 3

• We can now solve for the velocity 2(𝑃𝑇 − 𝑃𝑆 )

𝑉𝐸 = √
𝜌𝑆𝑆𝐿𝐶
2(𝑃𝑇 − 𝑃𝑆 )
𝑉= √
𝜌
Example No. 3
2(25.56597 𝑝𝑠𝑓)
𝑉= √ The altimeter on a low-speed Cessna 150 private aircraft reads 5000 ft. By an independent
𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔𝑠
1.06499 𝑥 10−3 measurement, the outside air temperature is 505 deg R. If a pitot tube mounted on the wing tip
𝑓𝑡 3
measures a pressure of 1818 psf, what is the true velocity and equivalent velocity?
𝒇𝒕
𝑽 = 𝟐𝟏𝟗. 𝟏𝟏𝟓𝟔
𝒔
NOTE:
There is a huge difference between the two velocities in example no. 1 and 2. This velocity 219.1156
ft/s is what we call the true velocity. While the velocity in example no. 1, 146.6667 ft/s, is what we ALTIMETER
call the equivalent velocity.
- work by measuring the atmospheric pressure at the airplane's flight altitude and comparing
it to a preset pressure value.
TRUE VELOCITY (VT) / True airspeed (TAS)

- is equivalent airspeed adjusted for air density, and is also the speed of the aircraft through GIVEN:
the air in which it is flying.
- If density is local, or if the aircraft is flying at a certain height, we will use the formula H = 5000 ft

T = 505 deg R
2(𝑃𝑇 − 𝑃𝑆 )
𝑉𝑇 = √ PT = 1818 psf
𝜌𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑙

Where:
REQUIRED:
ρlocal = local density, density at certain height
VT=? and VE = ?

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FORMULA:
2(𝑃𝑇 − 𝑃𝑆 )
𝑉𝑇 = √
𝜌𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑙
2(𝑃𝑇 − 𝑃𝑆 ) 2(𝑃𝑇 − 𝑃𝑆 )
𝑉𝑇 = √ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉𝐸 = √
𝜌𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝜌𝑆𝑆𝐿𝐶
2(1818 𝑝𝑠𝑓 − 1761.2499 𝑝𝑠𝑓)
𝑉𝑇 = √
𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔𝑠
2.0324 𝑥 10−3
𝑓𝑡 3
SOLUTION:

• We must first find the static pressure or the pressure at 5000 ft. 𝐟𝐭
𝑽𝑻 = 𝟐𝟑𝟔. 𝟑𝟏𝟓𝟓
𝑃𝐻 𝑇0 + 𝜆𝐻 5.26 𝐬
=( )
𝑃0 𝑇0 • We will now solve for the equivalent velocity
𝑇0 + 𝜆𝐻 5.26
𝑃𝑆 = 𝑃0 ( ) 2(𝑃𝑇 − 𝑃𝑆 )
𝑇0 𝑉𝐸 = √
𝜌𝑆𝑆𝐿𝐶
5.26
𝑅
519 °𝑅 + (−0.003566 )(5,000 𝑓𝑡)
𝑓𝑡
𝑃𝑆 = 2116.8 𝑝𝑠𝑓 [ ] 2(1818 𝑝𝑠𝑓 − 1761.2499 𝑝𝑠𝑓)
519 °𝑅 𝑉𝐸 = √
𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔𝑠
0.002377
𝑓𝑡 3
𝑃𝑆 = 1761.2499 𝑝𝑠𝑓

• To find the true velocity, we still need the local density. Since, temperature is given and 𝐟𝐭
𝑽𝑬 = 𝟐𝟏𝟖. 𝟓𝟏𝟔𝟐
pressure at 5000 ft is solve, we will use the equation of state. 𝐬
There are different airspeeds/velocities that you will encounter in aviation. Some of them are the
𝑃 = 𝜌𝑅𝑇
same for a certain circumstances, and is different in a way.
𝑃
𝜌=
𝑅𝑇
1761.2499 𝑝𝑠𝑓 INDICATED AIRSPEED
𝜌𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑙 =
𝑙𝑏𝑓 ∙ 𝑓𝑡
1716 (505 °𝑅) - is the speed shown on the airspeed indicator.
𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔𝑠 𝑅
CALIBRATED AIRSPEED
−3
𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔𝑠
𝜌𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑙 = 2.0324 𝑥 10
𝑓𝑡 3 - is indicated airspeed corrected for position installation error.

EQUIVALENT AIRSPEED
• We can now use the formula for true velocity
- is calibrated airspeed corrected for compressibility.

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TRUE AIRSPEED *SUBSONIC COMPRESSIBLE FLOW

- is equivalent airspeed corrected for temperature and pressure altitude. 𝑘

𝑃2 𝜌2 𝑘 𝑇2 𝑘−1
=( ) =( )
𝑃1 𝜌1 𝑇1

True airspeed is the speed of your aircraft relative to the air it is flying through. As you climb, true • Measurement of airspeed for compressible relates the mach number.
airspeed is higher than your indicated airspeed. Pressure decreases with higher altitudes, so for any
𝑇2 𝑘−1 2
given true airspeed, as you climb, fewer and fewer air molecules will enter the pitot tube. Because of = 𝑀 +1
𝑇1 2
that, indicated airspeed will be less than true airspeed. In fact, for every thousand feet above sea level,
true airspeed is about 2% higher than indicated airspeed. So, at 10,000 feet, true airspeed is roughly “T ratio – Mach Number relationship”
20% faster than what you read off your airspeed indicator. 𝑘
𝑃2 𝑘−1 2 𝑘−1
= ( 𝑀 + 1)
𝑃1 2
MACH NUMBER (M)
“P ratio – Mach Number relationship”
- ratio of the speed of a body to the speed of sound in the surrounding medium. 1
𝜌2 𝑘−1 2 𝑘−1
𝑉 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 = ( 𝑀 + 1)
𝑀= = 𝜌1 2
𝑎 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑
“𝜌 ratio – Mach Number relationship”
𝑉
𝑀=
√𝑘𝑅𝑇 • We will be focusing on the measurement of airspeed, so won’t be using these formulas. But
from these formulas, we will get the formula or measurement of airspeed in subsonic
FLIGHT REGIMES
compressible flow.
- are specific conditions under which an aircraft flies.
TRUE VELOCITY
➢ LOW SPEED SUBSONIC M < 0.3
➢ SUBSONIC FLOW 0.3 < M < 1.0 - If the flow is compressible, and the pressure is at local, we will use the formula
➢ TRANSONIC 0.8 < M < 1.2 𝑘−1
➢ SONIC M = 1.0 2 2𝑎2 𝑃2 − 𝑃1 𝑘
𝑉𝑇 = [( + 1) − 1]
➢ SUPERSONIC 1.0 < M < 5.0 𝑘−1 𝑃1
➢ HYPERSONIC M > 5.0
𝑘−1
2𝑎2 𝑃2 − 𝑃1 𝑘
SEATWORK #1: Measurement of Airspeed (Subsonic Incompressible) 𝑉𝑇 = √ [( + 1) − 1]
𝑘−1 𝑃1
The altimeter of a low-speed Piper Aztec reads 8000 ft. A Pitot tube mounted on the wingtip
measures a pressure of 1650 lb/ft2. If the outside air temperature is 500 deg R, what is the • There are problems that gives the pressure difference, then the local pressure. So
true velocity of the airplane? What is the equivalent airspeed? remember that P1 is same value as Plocal in the formula for true velocity.

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CALIBRATED VELOCITY (Vc) FORMULA:

- is the velocity if the flow is compressible, and the pressure is at SSLC, we will use the 𝑉
𝑀=
formula 𝑎
𝑘−1 𝑉
2𝑎2 𝑃2 − 𝑃1 𝑘 𝑀=
2 √𝑘𝑅𝑇
𝑉𝐶 = [( + 1) − 1]
𝑘−1 𝑃𝑆𝑆𝐿𝐶
• But we must solve first for the velocity
𝑘−1
𝑘−1
2𝑎2 𝑃2 − 𝑃1 𝑘
2𝑎2 𝑃2 − 𝑃1 𝑘
𝑉𝐶 = √ [( + 1) − 1] 𝑉𝑇 = √ [( + 1) − 1]
𝑘−1 𝑃𝑆𝑆𝐿𝐶 𝑘−1 𝑃1

• Similar to the velocities in incompressible flow (they differ in densities: one is at local and
𝑘−1
one is at sea-level), the velocities in compressible flow also differ but in terms of pressure. 2𝑎2 𝑃2 − 𝑃1 𝑘
• NOTE: There are problems that gives the pressure difference, then the local pressure. But 𝑉𝐶 = √ [( + 1) − 1]
𝑘−1 𝑃𝑆𝑆𝐿𝐶
remember that P1 IS NOT same value as PSSLC in the formula for calibrated velocity.

Example No. 4 SOLUTION:

A high-speed subsonic McDonnell-Douglas DC-10 airliner is flying at a pressure altitude of 10 km. A • It’s wise to first solve the easiest part, we will solve first for the speed of sound.
Pitot tube on the wing tip measures a pressure of 4.24 x 104 Pa. Calculate the Mach number at
which the airplane is flying, if the ambient air temperature is 230 K. Also, compare true velocity and 𝑎 = √𝑘𝑅𝑇
calibrated velocity.
𝐽
𝑎 = √(1.4)(287.08 )(230 𝐾)
𝑘𝑔 𝐾
GIVEN: 𝑎 = 304.0391 𝑚/𝑠
HP = 10 km • In order for us to use the formula for velocity, we must determine first pressure static or P1.
4
PT = 4.24 x 10 Pa = 42,400 Pa 𝑃𝐻 𝑇0 + 𝜆𝐻 5.26
=( )
T1 = 230 K 𝑃0 𝑇0
𝑇0 + 𝜆𝐻 5.26
𝑃1 = 𝑃0 ( )
𝑇0
REQUIRED:

VT=?, VC=?, and M=?

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 5.26
𝐾 𝑚 2 1.4−1
288.16 𝐾 + (−6.5 )(10 𝑘𝑚) 2(304.0391 )
𝑃1 = 101325 𝑃𝑎 [ 𝑘𝑚 ] 𝑉𝐶 = √ 𝑠 [(42,400 𝑃𝑎 − 26,409.8186 𝑃𝑎 + 1) 1.4 − 1]
288.16 𝐾 1.4 − 1 101325 𝑃𝑎

𝑃1 = 26,409.8186 𝑃𝑎 𝒎
𝑽𝑪 = 𝟏𝟓𝟕. 𝟐𝟏𝟗𝟑
𝒔

• We can now use the formula for velocity, but which one? We should use the formula for
true velocity, because what we need is the Mach number of the aircraft. • There is a huge difference between the true velocity and calibrated velocity, because of the
pressure drop between sea-level and the pressure altitude 10 km. You must be very careful
𝑘−1
2𝑎2 𝑃2 − 𝑃1 𝑘 when using these formulas.
𝑉𝑇 = √ [( + 1) − 1]
𝑘−1 𝑃1

Example No. 5
𝑚 1.4−1
2(304.0391 𝑠 )2 42,400 𝑃𝑎 − 26,409.8186 𝑃𝑎 1.4 A high-speed aircraft is flying at Mach 0.95 in a standard atmosphere at 30,000ft. Determine true
𝑉𝑇 = √ [( + 1) − 1]
1.4 − 1 26,409.8186 𝑃𝑎 airspeed.

𝑚
𝑉𝑇 = 258.7328
𝑠 GIVEN:
• We can now solve for the Mach number. M = 0.95
𝑉
𝑀= H = 30,000 ft
𝑎
𝑚
258.7328 𝑠
𝑀= 𝑚 REQUIRED:
304.0391 𝑠
VT=?
𝑴 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟓𝟎𝟗

• We also need to find calibrated velocity to compare it to true velocity.

FORMULA:
𝑘−1
𝑉
2𝑎2 𝑃2 − 𝑃1 𝑘 𝑀= ; 𝑉 = 𝑀√𝑘𝑅𝑇
𝑉𝐶 = √ [( + 1) − 1] √𝑘𝑅𝑇
𝑘−1 𝑃𝑆𝑆𝐿𝐶

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SOLUTION: *SUPERSONIC FLOW

• We need to first solve for the temperature at 30,000 ft. • When M>1, a shockwave will form ahead of the Pitot tube.

𝑇𝐻 = 𝑇𝑂 + 𝜆𝐻
°𝑅
𝑇 = 519 °𝑅 + (−0.003566 ) (30,000 𝑓𝑡)
𝑓𝑡
𝑇 = 412.02 °𝑅

• We can now use the formula

𝑉 = 𝑀√𝑘𝑅𝑇

𝑙𝑏𝑓 ∙ 𝑓𝑡
𝑉 = 0.95√1.4 𝑥 1716 𝑥 412.02 °𝑅
𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔𝑠 ∙ °𝑅

𝒇𝒕
𝑽 = 𝟗𝟒𝟓. 𝟏𝟔𝟎𝟐
𝒔
• Changes will occur across a shockwave in supersonic flow.

SEATWORK #2: Measurement of Airspeed (Subsonic Compressible)

A high-speed subsonic Boeing 707 airliner is flying at a pressure altitude of 35,000 ft. A Pitot
tube on the vertical tail measures a pressure of 618 psf. At what Mach number is the
airplane flying?

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SHOCKWAVE

- type of propagating disturbance that moves faster than the local speed of sound in the
medium.

The Mach number decreases

The static pressure increases.

The static temperature increases.

The flow velocity decreases.

The total pressure pT decreases.

The total temperature TT stays the same for a perfect gas.

SEATWORK #3: Measurement of Airspeed (Supersonic Flow)

Research: How is a shockwave formed?

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