MATH 223: Calculus II

Dr. Joseph K. Ansong

Math 223 : Calculus II J.K.A

2 Dr. Ansong
Contents

4 Logarithmic and Exponential Functions 1

4.1 General Logarithmic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
4.1.1 Laws of Logarithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
4.2 The Natural Logarithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
4.2.1 Laws of Natural Logarithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
4.2.2 Derivatives of Logarithmic Functions . . . . . . . . . . 6
4.2.3 Logarithmic Differentiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
4.2.4 The Natural Logarithm as a Limit . . . . . . . . . . . 9
4.3 General Exponential Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
4.3.1 Laws of Exponents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
4.3.2 Derivative of Exponential functions . . . . . . . . . . . 12
4.3.3 Natural Exponential functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
4.3.4 Derivatives of Exponential Functions . . . . . . . . . . 16
4.4 Logarithmic and Exponential Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
4.5 Logarithmic Inequalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

5 Indeterminate Forms and L’Hopital’s Rule 23

5.1 L’Hopital’s Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
5.2 Indeterminate Forms ∞ − ∞ and 0 − ∞ . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
5.3 Indeterminate Forms of 00 , ∞0 , 1∞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
5.4 Scales of Infinity(Order of Magnitude) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
5.4.1 Motivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
5.4.2 Relative Rates of Decay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

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Chapter 4

Logarithmic and Exponential

Functions

In this chapter, we will first study general exponential and general logarithmic
functions, and move on to consider special cases of these two functions: the
natural logarithmic function and the exponential function, and learn about
their graphs. We will delve into the proofs of some basic properties of these
two functions, and the behaviour of the functions at infinity and close to
the origin. The natural logarithmic and the exponential functions may be
represented as limits, this chapter addresses this aspect of the functions. The
chapter concludes by looking at logarithmic inequalities and limits, the scales
of infinity, that is, comparison of the magnitude of two functions, and finally,
how to differentiate logarithmic functions.

4.1 General Logarithmic Functions

The logarithmic ( or log) function with base a is denoted by loga , such that

loga x = y ⇐⇒ ay = x; a > 0, a 6= 1.

The log function is the inverse of the exponential function, for example f (x) =
ax . Using the cancellation equations with f (x) = ax , f −1 (x) = loga x,
loga ax = x for every x ∈ R
aloga x = x for every x > 0.

4.1.1 Laws of Logarithms

If x and y are positive numbers, then

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1. loga xy = loga x + loga y

x
2. loga y
= loga x − loga y

3. loga xr = r loga x
where r is any real number.

Proof. 1. loga xy = loga x + loga y. Let m = loga x and n = loga y

=⇒ x = am , y = an

=⇒ xy = an · am = am+n
The last line would be proved later from the properties of the general
exponential functions.

=⇒ loga xy = loga am+n = (m + n) loga a

Using the cancellation property, we get

∴ loga xy = m + n = loga x + loga y

2. loga xy = loga x − loga y.

Using the definition of m and n above, we have
x am
= n = am−n
y a
x
=⇒ loga = loga am−n = (m − n) loga a
y
x
∴ loga = loga x − loga y
g
3. loga xr = r loga x. Let m = loga x

=⇒ x = am

Raising both sides to the power r gives

xr = (am )r

=⇒ loga xr = loga amr = mr

∴ loga xr = r loga x

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Math 223 : Calculus II J.K.A

4.2 The Natural Logarithm

The natural logarithmic function is a special case of the logarithmic function;
it is the log function to the base e, where the number e ≈ 2.71828. By
replacing a with e in the general logarithm, we get the natural logarithm:
loge x = ln x

Properties
1. Here are a first set of properties for the natural log function:
ln x = y ⇐⇒ ey = x
ln ex = x, x∈R
ln x
e =x
Note that if x = 1, we get
ln e = 1

2. Below is another important property of the natural log function.

For a > 0(a 6= 1),
ln x
loga x =
ln a

Proof. Let m = loga x, then

x = am =⇒ ln x = ln am
=⇒ ln x = m ln a
ln x
=⇒ m =
ln a
ln x
∴ loga x =
ln a

The relation above is helpful for using calculators to compute the log-
arithm with any base. Another definition of the natural log is given by
using integrals, as shown below.

Definition 1. The natural logarithm function is defined by

Z x
1
ln x = dt for all x > 0.
1 t

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If x > 0, ln x can be interpreted as the area of the region under the graph
1
of y = on the interval [1, x]. Figure 4.1 gives illustrations of the above
t
definition.

Figure 4.1: Schematic plot showing

Graph of ln x

Figure 4.2: Graph of ln x

4.2.1 Laws of Natural Logarithms

Theorem 1. Let x and y be positive numbers and let r be a rational number.
Then

(a) ln 1 = 0

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(b) ln xy = ln x + ln y

(c) ln xy = ln x − ln y

(d) ln xr = r ln x

Proof. The proof in (a) is straightforward. For the proof of the expressions in
(b)-(d), you may use the approach used in the proof of the general logarithmic
functions; the proofs shown below rely on the derivative of the logarithmic
function which will be treated shortly.
Z x
1
(a) ln x = dt, =⇒ ln 1 = 0.
1 t

1 1
(b) Let F (x) = ln ax for a > 0. Then F 0 (x) = (a) = . But
ax x
d 1
(ln x) =
dx x
This implies that ln x and F (x) = ln ax differ by a constant, say c.
That is
ln ax = ln x + c
If x = 1 =⇒ c = ln a. Note that x = 1 is the intial value of ln x from
definition. Thus
ln ax = ln x + ln a
Since a can be any positive number, we can replace a by y to get

ln xy = ln x + ln y.

1
(c) Put x = in (b) to get
y

1
ln 1 = ln + ln y
y

1
=⇒ ln = − ln y
y
   
x 1 1
∴ ln = ln x · = ln x + ln = ln x − ln y.
y y y

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(d) Let F = ln xr , and G = r ln x. Then

r r
F 0 (x) = , G0 (x) =
x x
=⇒ ln xr = r ln x + c
For x = 1, we get c = 0. Thus

ln xr = r ln x.

4.2.2 Derivatives of Logarithmic Functions

Prove the following identities

d x
(a ) = ax ln a (4.1)
dx
d 1
(loga x) = (4.2)
dx x ln a

Proof.
d x
(a ) = ax ln a
dx
Let a = eln a . Then
ax = e(ln a)x
d x x
(a ) = e(ln a)x · ln a = eln a · ln a
dx
d x
∴ (a ) = ax ln a
dx

Proof.
d 1
(loga x) =
dx x ln a
y
Let y = loga x. Then a = x.

d y
=⇒ (a ) = 1
dx
d y dy
=⇒ (a ) =1
dy dx

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Using equation (4.1), we get

dy
=⇒ ay (ln a) =1
dx
But ay = x. Thus
dy
x ln a =1
dx
dy 1
∴ = .
dx x ln a

Remark. Replacing a with e in equation (4.2), we get

d 1
ln x =
dx x
A more general form of this relation would be shown later.
Example 1. (1) Expand the following expressions using the laws of loga-
rithms
√
2 3 x1/3 y 2/3
(a) ln (b) ln
5 z 1/2
Solution. (a) √
2 3 √
ln = ln 2 3 − ln 5
5
(b)
x1/3 y 2/3 1/3 2/3
− ln z 1/2


ln 1/2
= ln x y
z
= ln x1/3 + ln y 2/3 − ln z 1/2
1 2 1
= ln x + ln y − ln z
3 3 2
Example 2. Use the laws of logarithms to write the expression as the loga-
rithm of a single quantity.

(a) ln 4 + ln 6 − ln 12 (b) 3 ln 2 − 12 ln (x + 1)

24
Solution. (a) ln 4 + ln 6 − ln 12 = ln (4 × 6) − ln 12 = ln = ln 2
12
 
1 8
(b) 3 ln 2 − ln (x + 1) = ln 23 − ln (x + 1)1/2 = ln √
2 x+1

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Theorem 2. Let u be a differentiable function of x. Then

d 1
(a) ln |x| = , x 6= 0
dx x
d 1 du
(b) ln |u| = , u 6= 0
dx u dx
d g 0 (x)
Note: (b) is similar to the derivative ln[g(x)] = .
dx g(x)
Proof. (a) Already discussed in a remark above.

(b) Try proving it using using the chain rule.

Example 3. Find the derivatives of the following funtions

(a) f (x) = ln (2x + 3) (b) g(x) = ln x (c) y = ln | cos x|

x+1

Solution. (a)

1 d
f (x) = ln (2x + 3) =⇒ f 0 (x) = (2x + 3)
2x + 3 dx
1 2
= (2) =
2x + 3 2x + 3
ln x
(b) g(x) = x+1
(x + 1) x1 − ln x
g 0 (x) =
(x + 1)2
x+1
x
− ln x (x + 1) − x ln x
= =
(x + 1)2 x(x + 1)2

(c) y = ln | cos x|

dy 1 sin x
= (− sin x) = − = − tan x
dx cos x cos x

4.2.3 Logarithmic Differentiation

Used to simplify complicated expressions for differentiation.

Example 4.

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√
(a) y = (2x + 1)2 (3x2 − 4)3 (c) y = x x

r
x−1
(b) y = 3 2
x +1
Solution. (a) y = (2x + 1)2 (3x2 − 4)3
=⇒ ln y = 2 ln (2x + 1) + 3 ln (3x2 − 4)
1 dy 2 3
=⇒ = (2) + 2 (6x)
y dx 2x + 1 3x − 4
4 18x
= + 2
2x + 1 3x − 4
 
dy 4 18x
· (2x + 1)2 (3x2 − 4)3
 
∴ = + 2
dx 2x + 1 3x − 4
r
3 x−1
(b) y =
x2 + 1
 1/3
x−1
=⇒ y =
x2 + 1
1 1
=⇒ ln y = ln (x − 1) − ln (x2 + 1)
3 3
1 dy 1 1
=⇒ = − (2x)
y dx 3(x − 1) 3(x2 + 1)
1 2x
= −
3(x − 1) 3(x2 + 1)
√
(c) y = x x
Sorry, it’s an exercise! :)

4.2.4 The Natural Logarithm as a Limit

For any number y > 0
yx − 1 ax − 1
ln y = lim and ln a = lim
x→0 x x→0 x
Remark. We note the following important relations:
f (x + a) − f (a)
(a) f 0 (a) = lim
x→0 x−a
f (x) − f (0)
=⇒ f 0 (0) = lim (4.3)
x→0 x

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(b) If f (x) = z = y x , then by logarithmic differentiation

ln z = x ln y
1 dz dz
= ln y =⇒ = z ln y
z dx dx
=⇒ f 0 (x) = y x ln y

f 0 (0) = ln y (4.4)
Thus, the derivative of f (x) = y x at x = 0 is ln y. Applying (4.4) in
(4.3) gives
yx − 1
ln y = lim
x→0 x
x
a −1
ln a = lim
x→0 x

4.3 General Exponential Functions

An exponential function is a function of the form
f (x) = ax , a>0
where a is a constant. The graph of ax with a = 2 is shown in Figure 4.3

Figure 4.3: Graph of y = 2x

4.3.1 Laws of Exponents

Let a and b be positive numbers. If x and y are real numbers, then

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(a) ax+y = ax · ay ax
(d) = ax−y
ay
(b) (ax )y = axy
 a  x ax
(c) (ab)x = ax bx (e) = x
b b

Proof. (a)
ax ay = ax+y
loga (ax · ay ) = loga ax + loga ay
= x + y = loga ax+y

Since the logarithm function is one-to-one

ax · ay = ax+y

(b) (ax )y = axy . Let r = ax

=⇒ loga (ax )y = loga ry = y loga r

= y loga ax = xy loga a = xy
=⇒ loga (ax )y = loga axy
Since the logarithm is a one-to-one function, we get

(ax )y = axy

Remark. To prove the relation in (c), we first establish the following identity

loga xy = loga x + loga y

We have already proved the above relation under “general logarithms”. An

alternative proof is shown below, you may skip it if you want.
Proof. Let y = loga x. Then

dy 1
=
dx x ln a
Also let g = loga bx. Then

d g d dg
ag = bx =⇒ (a ) = b =⇒ (ag ) =b
dx dg dx

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dg
=⇒ ag ln a ·=b
dx
dg b 1
=⇒ = =
dx bx ln a x ln a
Since dy/dx = dg/dx, y and g differ by a constant, say C. Thus

loga x = loga bx + C

x = 1 =⇒ loga 1 = loga b + C =⇒ C = − loga b

=⇒ loga bx = loga x + loga b
Since b is arbitrary, we get

loga xy = loga x + loga y

Proof. We’re now ready to prove the relation in (c); (ab)x = ax bx . Taking
the lagarithm of both sides, we get

=⇒ loga ax bx = loga ax + loga bx

= x loga a + x loga b
= x (loga a + loga b)
= x loga (ab)
=⇒ loga ax bx = loga (ab)x
∴ ax bx = (ab)x .

4.3.2 Derivative of Exponential functions

1). Let f (x) = ax by definition of the derivative:

0 f (x + h) − f (x) ax+h − ax
f (x) = lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h
0 ah − 1
f (x) = ax lim .
h→0 h
0 ah − 1
Note that: f (0) = lim . Therefore
h→0 h
0 0
f (x) = f (0)ax

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Remember:
yx − 1 ax − 1 ah − 1
ln y = lim =⇒ ln a = lim = lim
x→0 x x→0 x h→0 h
0
where f (0) = ln a. Therefore,
0
f (x) = ax ln a
Alternatively:
x
f (x) = ax = eln a = ex ln a
0 d
=⇒ f (x) = ex ln a · (x ln a) = ex ln a · (ln a)
dx
0
∴ f (x) = ax · (ln a)
Theorem 3. Show that
d u du
a = (ln a)au ·
dx dx
where a is a positive number (a 6= 1) and u is the differentiable function of
x.
Proof. Let y = au , then
d u d u du
(a ) = (a )
dx du dx
d u du
(a ) = au ln a
dx dx

d 1 du
Question: Show that loga u = · where u is the differentiable,
dx u ln a dx
a > 0(a 6= 1)

4.3.3 Natural Exponential functions

The natural exponential function denoted by exp(x) or ex , is the function
satisfying
1. ln(ex ) = x, ∀x ∈ [−∞, ∞]
2. eln x = x, ∀x ∈ [0, ∞]
Equivalently, ex = y ⇔ ln y = x. It is the inverse of the natural log function:
Diagram below

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Figure 4.4: Graphs of y = ln x and y = ex

The number e
The number e is the number such that:
Z e
1
ln e = dt = 1
1 t

1
Figure 4.5: Graph of y =
t

e ≈ 2.718281828459

Theorem 4. a) ln ex = x ∀ x ∈ [−∞, ∞]. =⇒ ln e = 1

b) eln x = x ∀ x ∈ [0, ∞]

Example 5. 1) Solve ln(x + 3) = 6

=⇒ x + 3 = e6 =⇒ x + 3 ≈ 403.43
∴ x ≈ 400.43

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2) Solve e1−2x = 5

=⇒ 1 − 2x = ln 5 =⇒ 2x = 1 − ln 5

=⇒ 2x = 1 − 1.609 = −0.609
∴ x ≈ −0.305

The number e as a Limit

0
Let f (x) = ln x and use the definition of derivative to compute f .

0 f (x + h) − f (x) ln(x + h) − ln(x)

f (x) = lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h
Let x = 1, we get.

0 ln(1 + h) 1 1
=⇒ f (1) = lim = lim ln(1 + h) = lim ln(1 + h) h
h→0 h h→0 h h→0

0 1 0
But f (x) = ⇒ f (1) = 1
x
1
=⇒ lim ln(1 + h) h = 1,
h→0

since ln is a continuous function.

h 1
i
ln lim (1 + h) h = 1
h→0

1
∴ lim (1 + h) h = e
h→0

Note that a similar expression for ex as a limit may be obtained if the sub-
stitution x = 1 is not made in the above derivation.
1
Let n = ⇒ n → ∞ as h → 0
h
 n
1
∴ lim 1 + =e
n→∞ n
 x n
Exercise. 1) Show that ex = lim 1+
n→∞ n
eh − 1
2) Prove that lim =1
h→0 h

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Theorem 5 ( Laws of exponents). Let x and y be real numbers and r be a

rational number. Then we have the following:

1) ex ey = ex+y
ex
2) = ex−y
ey
3) (ex )r = exr

Proof. 1)
ex · ey = ex×y
=⇒ ln(ex · ey ) = ln ex + ln ey = x + y
=⇒ ln(ex ey ) = ln ex+y .
Since ln is one to one: ex ey = ex+y

2) Let y = −y in 1). Therefore we have:

ex
ex · e−y = ex−y =⇒ = ex−y
ey

4.3.4 Derivatives of Exponential Functions

Theorem 6. Let u be a differentiable function of x. Then we have the
following:
d x
(a) e = ex
dx

d u du
(b) e = eu
dx dx
d x
Proof. (a) e = ex Let y = ex
dx
1 dy dy
ln y = x =⇒ = 1 =⇒ =y
y dx dx

d x
∴ (e ) = ex
dx

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d u du
(b) e = eu · Let y = eu
dx dx
ln y = u(x)

1 dy du dy du
· = ⇒ =y
y dx dx dx dx
d u du
(e ) = eu
dx dx

Exercise. (1) Differentiate the following:

e2x
a) f (x) =
1 + e−x
b) g(x) = ecos(x)
c) f (x) = x2 ln(e2x + 1)
d) g(t) = et ln t e). f (x) = 2x2

(2) Find the Limit of the following:

 2 
3t + 1 −0.1t
a) lim e
t→∞ 2t2 − 1
 x 
2e + 1
b) lim
x→∞ 3ex + 2
c) lim sin x1
x→∞

(3) Show that

log(3 + x) − log 3 1
lim =
x→0 x 3 ln 10

4.4 Logarithmic and Exponential Integration

(1) Let u be a differentiable function and u 6= 0. Then
Z
1
du = ln |u| + c.
u
NB: Z
d 1 1
ln |x| = ⇒ ln |x| = dx
dx x x

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(2) Let u be a differentiable function of x. Then:

Z
eu du = eu + c

ax
Z
(3) ax dx = + c, a > 0, a 6= 1. We use
ln a
y = ax ⇒ ln y = x ln a
0
y 0
⇒ = ln a ⇒ y = ax ln a
y
d x
⇒ (a ) = ax ln a
dx Z
ax + c1 = (ln a) ax dx

ax
Z
x
a dx = +c
ln a
Examples
Z Z √ Z
1 ln x
Integrate the following: a). dx b). dx c). e5x dx
2x + 1 x
Z 2
ex
d). 2
dx
Z 1 x
ex R3 x
e). x
dx f ). 0
2 dx
0 1+e

Z
1
Solution. a) I = dx, Let u = 2x + 1 ⇒ du = 2dx
Z   2x
Z +1
1 1 1 1 1
I= du = du = ln |u| + c
u 2 2 u 2
1
∴ I= ln |2x + 1| + c
2
Z √
ln x
b) I = dx, Let u = ln x ⇒ du = x1 dx
x
√
Z Z
1 2 3
I= udu = u 2 du = u 2 + c
3
2 3
∴ I= (ln x) 2 + c
3

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c) I Z= e5x dx, Let uZ= 5x ⇒ du = 5dx

du 1 1
I = eu · = eu du ⇒ eu + c
5 5 5

1 5x
∴ e +c
5
Z 2
ex
d). I = 2
dx, Let u = x2 ⇒ du = − x22 dx ⇒ − 12 du = dx
x2
Z x
  Z
u 1 1 1
I= e − du = − eu du = − eu + c
2 2 2

1 2
∴ I = − e x +c
2
1
ex
Z
e). I = x
dx Let u = 1 + ex ⇒ du = ex dx
Z 1 x0 1 + e Z
1
e du 1
I= · x
= du ⇒ ln |u| ⇒ ln |1 + ex | ⇒ ln |1 + e1 | − ln |1 + e0 |
0 u e 0 u
 
1+e
∴ I = ln ≈ 0.6201
2

3
2x 3 23
Z
1 7
f ). I = 2x dx = = − =
ln 2 0 ln 2 ln 2 ln 2

0

7
∴ I=
ln 2

4.5 Logarithmic Inequalities

a) For a number a > 1, y = loga x is an increasing function of x and it is
a decreasing function for 0 < a < 1.

b) If y = loga x, then x > 0. For example y = log3 (x − 1) ⇒ x − 1 > 0 ⇒

x > 1.

c) a > 1, loga x > loga y ⇒ x > y.

d) 0 < a < 1, loga x > loga y ⇒ x < y.

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Example 6. 1. Find the values of x that satisfy the ff inequalities:

a) log3 (2x + 3) > log3 (3x) b) log2 (x + 1) > log4 (x2 )

2. Find the solution set of 2 log49 (2x + 1) − 1 6 0

Solution. 1a)
log3 (2x + 3) > log3 (3x)
2x + 3 > 3x ⇒ x < 3
Also,
3
2x + 3 > 0 ⇒ x > −
2
And
3x > 0 ⇒ x > 0
Solution set: 0 < x < 3 . See Figure 4.6.

Figure 4.6:

(1b) log2 (x + 1) > log4 x2

NB: y = log2 (x + 1) ⇒ 2y = x + 1 ⇒ 4y = (x + 1)2
y = log4 (x+1)2 ∴ log4 (x+1)2 > log4 x2 ⇒ (x+1)2 > x2 ⇒ x2 +2x+1 >
x2
1
⇒ 2x + 1 > 0 ⇒ x > −
2

2) 2 log49 (2x + 1) − 1 6 0

1 1
log49 (2x + 1) 6 ⇒ log49 (2x + 1) 6 log49 49
2 2
⇒ log49 (2x + 1) 6 log49 7 ⇒ 2x + 1 6 7 ⇒ x 6 3
1
Also: 2x + 1 > 0 ⇒ x > − 21 ∴ − < x 6 3
2

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Math 223 : Calculus II J.K.A

Example 7. 1. Use the definition of the natural log function to prove that,
for x > 0, x(1 + x) > (1 + x) ln(1 + x) > x. Hence show that ln(1 + x) >
x − x2 + x3 − x4 + · · · and that as
ln(1 + x)
x → 0, →1
x

Z 1+x
1
Solution. NB: ln(1 + x) = dt, for x > 0 ⇒ x + 1 > 1
1 t
1 1
Let 1 < t < 1 + x ⇒ < < 1.
1+x t
Integrating with respect to t gives
Z 1+x Z 1+x Z 1+x
1 1
dt < dt < dt
1 1+x 1 t 1

x
⇒ 1+x
< ln(1 + x) < x.......(1)

x < (1 + x) ln(1 + x) < x(1 + x) ∴ x(1 + x) > (1 + x) ln(1 + x) > x

From (1):,
x
ln(1 + x) > ⇒ ln(1 + x) > x(1 − x + x2 − x3 + · · · )
1+x

⇒ ln(1 + x) > x − x2 + x3 − x4 + · · ·
Also from (1):

1 ln(1 + x) 1 ln(1 + x)
< < 1 ⇒ lim < lim <1
1+x x x→0 1 + x x→0 x
ln(1 + x)
⇒ 1 < lim < 1.
x→0 x
ln(1+x) 1
∴ By the squeeze theorem: lim x
→ 1 ⇒ ln lim (1 + x) x ⇒ ln e = 1.
x→0 x→0

1
Exercise. 1. Show that for all x > 0, x − x2 < ln(1 + x), and for all x > 1,
2
x−1
we have < ln x < x − 1
x

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Math 223 : Calculus II J.K.A

22 Dr. Ansong
Chapter 5

Indeterminate Forms and

L’Hopital’s Rule

A function f (x) is said to be continuous at a point a, if lim f (x) = f (a).

x→a
However, some limits cannot be evaluated by a simple substitution. For
2x sin x
example, lim = lim 2 = 2 and lim = 1. In each example, a direct
x→0 x x→0 x→0 x
substitution results in the indeterminate form 00 . Simarlarly, using direct
10x 10
substitution for lim 2 = lim = 0 results in the indeterminate form
x→∞ x x→∞ x
∞
.
∞

f (x)
Definition 2. If lim f (x) = 0 and lim g(x) = 0, then the limit lim is
x→a x→a x→a g(x)
0
called an indeterminate form of the type .
0

f (x)
Definition 3. If lim f (x) = +∞ and lim g(x) = +∞, then lim is said
x→a x→a x→a g(x)
∞
to be an indeterminate form of the type .
∞

5.1 L’Hopital’s Rule

Theorem 7. (L’Hopital’s Rule) Suppose f and g are differentiable on an
open interval I that contains a, with the possible exception of a itself, and
0 f (x) 0
g (x) 6= 0 for all x in I. If lim is an interminate form of the type or
x→a g(x) 0

23
Math 223 : Calculus II J.K.A

∞
then
∞
0
f (x) f (x)
lim = lim 0 (5.1)
x→a g(x) x→a g (x)

provided the limit on right-hand side exists or is infinite.

d  
f (x) dx
[f (x)] d f (x)
Remark. (1) lim = lim d 6= lim
x→a g(x) x→a [g(x)] x→a dx g(x)
dx
[Don’t use the Quotient Rule!!]
 
0 ∞
(2) Make sure the limit does have one of the indeterminate forms or
0 ∞
before applying L’Hopital’s Rule!
Example 8. 1) Use L’Hopital’s rule to evaluate the following:
√
x3 + x2 − 2x 9 − 3x − 3
(a) lim (b) lim
x→1 x−1 x→0 x
2) [Repeated application of L’Hopital’s rule]:
ex − x − 1 x3
(a) lim (c) lim
x→0 x2 x→∞ e2x
3 2
x − 3x + 4
(b) lim 4
x→2 x − 4x3 + 7x2 − 12x + 2

3. Evaluate the following:

ln x sin πx 1 + tan x
(a) lim (b) lim+ √ (c) lim
x→∞ x x→1 x−1 π−
x→ 2 sec x

5.2 Indeterminate Forms ∞ − ∞ and 0 − ∞

Definition 4. If lim f (x) = ∞ and lim g(x) = ∞, then the limit lim [f (x) −
x→a x→a x→a
g(x)] is said to be an indeterminate fom of the type ∞ − ∞.
Definition 5. If lim f (x) = 0 and lim g(x) = +∞, then lim f (x)g(x) is said
x→a x→a x→a
to be indeterminate form of the type 0 − ∞.
Remark. Indeterminate forms of the ∞ − ∞ and 0 − ∞ can be expressed
as one of the type 00 or ∞
∞
by algebraic manipulation.
Example 9. Evaluate the following:

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Math 223 : Calculus II J.K.A

1
 
2 1 1
(a) lim x sin 2 (c) lim+ − x
x→∞ 4x x→0 x e −1
√
(b) lim (x − x2 − 3x) (d) lim+ x ln x
x→∞ x→0

5.3 Indeterminate Forms of 00, ∞0, 1∞

The limit lim [f (x)]g(x) is said to be an indeterminate form of the type:
x→a

I. 00 if lim f (x) = 0 and lim g(x) = 0

x→a x→a

II. ∞0 if lim f (x) = ∞ and lim g(x) = 0

x→a x→a

III. 1∞ if lim f (x) = 1 and lim g(x) = +∞

x→a x→a

Remark. The above indeterminate forms can usually be converted to the

type 0 · ∞ by taking logarithm or using [f (x)]g(x) = eg(x) ln f (x) .
Procedure:

(i) Evaluate lim g(x) ln f (x) = L

x→a

(ii) Then lim [f (x)]g(x) = eL

x→a

Example 10. (1) Evaluate:

 x  
(a) lim+ X x 1 1
x→0 (b) lim 1 + (c) lim+
x→∞ x x→0 x

(2) Evaluate the following:

1 r
(a) lim (1 + 2h) h 1−x
h→0 (c) lim+ (sin x)
x→0 x
 ln x
ln(1 + x) 1
(b) lim (d) lim 1 +
x→0 x x→∞ x

5.4 Scales of Infinity(Order of Magnitude)

5.4.1 Motivation
Consider the solution to the following limits.

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Math 223 : Calculus II J.K.A

3x3 + 5
(1) lim
x→∞ 4x2 + x
3x + x52
=⇒ lim =∞
x→∞ 4 + 1
x

The limit going to infinity implies that the numerator, 3x3 + 5, is grow-
ing much faster than the denominator, 4x2 + x.
3x + 5
(2) lim
x→∞ 4x2 + 3x + 1
3/x + 5/x2
=⇒ lim =0
x→∞ 4 + 3/x + 1/x2

This implies that the denominator, in this case, is growing faster than
the numerator. Equivalently, we can say that the numerator is growing
more slowly than the denomintor.
3x3 + 5
(3) lim
x→∞ 4x3 + x
5
3+ x3 3
=⇒ lim 1 =
x→∞ 4 +
x2
4
Unlike the previous two examples, the numerator and denominator have
similar rates of growth, because the limit of their ratio is a constant.

In the examples, the limits are determined by the order of magnitude of the
polynomials in the numerator and denominator. In other words, the limits
could have been obtained if we considered only the term with highest order
of magnitude in the numerator and the denominator.

Motivational Questions
The main question to address is this: Apart from polynomials, is it possible
to determine the limit f (x)/g(x) of the two function f (x) and g(x) as x
approaches infinity or zero?
Why is this important? An answer to the question could tell us whether f (x)
is growing faster or slower than g(x). Think of the economies of two countries,
say Ghana and Nigeria, that are both growing very fast. Which economy is
growing more rapidly? Conversely, if both economies are decaying, can we
tell which one is decaying more slowly?
Consider the functions f (x) = x2 and g(x) = x. Notice that both func-
tions grow without bound as x becomes infinitely large (see Figure 5.1). But
f grows rapidly than g. In general, how can you tell which function is growing

26 Dr. Ansong
Math 223 : Calculus II J.K.A

Figure 5.1: Graph of ln x

(decaying) more rapidly (slowly) than the other? The following definitions
and theorems will help in answering the question above.
Definition 6. (Order of Magnitude) A function f (x) is said to be of the
f (x)
k-th order of magnitude if k → L 6= 0 as x → ∞, where L is a constant.
x
Definition 7. (Relative Rates of Growth) Let f, g : R → R, a  R∗ (R∗ =
R ∪ {−∞, ∞}), and lim |f (x)| = lim |g(x)| = ∞.
x→a x→a
 f (x) 
a) We say f approaches ∞ on a higher order of magnitude than g if lim  =
 
x→a g(x)
∞ or we can say that f (x) → ∞ faster than g(x), or g(x) → ∞ slower than
f.
b) We can say f approach ∞ on a lower order of magnitude than g(x) if
 f (x) 
lim   = 0 or we can say that f (x) → ∞ slower than g(x) or g(x) → ∞
 
x→a g(x)
faster than f (x).
 f (x) 
c) We say f and g approaches ∞ on the same order of magnitude if lim  =
 
x→a g(x)
C, C  R, C 6= 0.

Theorem: As x → ∞, the magnitude of the exponential, power and

logarithmic functions approach ∞. Moreover, the order of magnitude with
which they approach ∞ is given in the following order, with exponential
functions approaching the fastest, and logarithmic functions approaching the
slowest.
(1) Exponentials of the form ax , where a > 0, a 6= 1. If a > b then ax
approaches ∞ faster than bx as x → ∞.

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Math 223 : Calculus II J.K.A

(2) Power functions, xn , nN. If n > m, then xn approaches ∞ faster than

xm .

(3) Log functions, loga (x) for a > 0 and a 6= 1. All log functions approach
loga x ln(b)
∞ at the same rate, because = .
logb x ln(a)
If any of the above functions is multiplied by a non-zero constant , it
does not change the relative order of magnitude at which the function
approaches ∞. 5

Example
ex
1. lim = ∞, since ex grows faster than ln x as x → ∞.
x→∞ ln x
ln x
2. lim x = 0.
x→∞ e

NB: For a linear combination (sums and differences) of these functions, only
the dominant term matters.

Definition:Dominant term
Suppose f can be written as a linear combination of the functions {f1 , f2 , ..., fn }
and lim |f (x)| = ∞, where aR∗ . The dominant term of f is the function fi
x→a
which approaches ∞ on the highest order of magnitude. Denote this by f˜.

Theorem: Dominant term

Consider f (x) and g(x), with lim |f (x)| = lim |g(x)| = ∞. If f˜ and g̃ are
x→a x→a
f (x) f˜(x)
the dominant terms of f and g respectively, then lim = lim . eg:
x→a g(x) x→a g̃(x)
ex − 12x2 + x ex
lim = lim = ∞.
x→∞ x4 + 1 x→∞ x4

Theorem: Ranking growth rates as x → ∞

Let f << g mean that g grows faster than f as x → ∞ with positive real
numbers p, q, r and s and b > 1, then lnq x << xp << xp lnr x << xp+s <<
bx << xx .

5.4.2 Relative Rates of Decay

Definition: Relative rates of Decay
Let f, g : R → R, aR∗ , and lim |f (x)| = lim |g(x)| = 0.
x→a x→a

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Math 223 : Calculus II J.K.A

a. We say f approaches 0 on a higher order of magnitude than g if lim | fg(x)

(x)
|=
x→a
0.
b. We say f approaches 0 on a lower order of magnitude than g if lim | fg(x)
(x)
|=
x→a
∞.
c. We say f and g approach 0 on the same order of magnitude if lim | fg(x)(x)
|=
x→a
C, C  R, c 6= 0.

NB: Because ex grows faster than x2 as x → ∞, it also implies that e−x

decays faster than x−2 as x → ∞. So looking at the reciprocals of the ex-
ponential and power functions helps in determining their relative rates of
decay.
e−x + 1 e−x
 2 
1 x 2
Example 11. 1. lim = lim −2 + −2 = lim +x =∞
x→∞ x−2 x→∞ x x x→∞ ex
ex − 12x2 + x
2 Evaluate lim .
x→∞ x4 + 1
3. Show that the exponential function ex increases more rapidly as x → +∞
xn
than any fixed power of x. That is lim x = 0, n > 0 .....(1)
x→∞ e
ex
or lim n = +∞, n > 0.....(2)
x→∞ x

Solution
ex
  x 
x n
ln = ln e − ln x = x − n ln x = ln x − n
xn   ln x
ex  x 
∴ lim ln = lim ln x · lim −n =∞·∞=∞
x→∞ xn x→∞ x→∞ ln x
ex
∴ lim n = ∞
x→∞ x

2. Show that the function ln x increases more slowly than any positive inte-
ln x
gral power of x. That is: lim n = 0, x > 0, n > 1 (n is an integer).
x→∞ x
Solution x
1 1
Rx 1 Rx 1 R x −1/2 1
NB: If t > 1, 6 1 ⇒ ln x = 1 dt 6 1 1 dt = 1 t dt = 2t 2  =
t t2 t t2 1
1
2x 2 − 2
1 ln x 2 2
∴ ln x 6 2x 2 − 2 ⇒ 6 1 −
x x2 x
ln x ln x 2 2 ln x
x>1:0< n 6 6 1 − . As x → ∞, 0 < lim n 6 0.
x x x2 x x→∞ x
ln x
∴ By squeeze(sandwich) theorem: lim n = 0. This implies: xn > ln x.
x→∞ x

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Math 223 : Calculus II J.K.A

Examples
d k d
1. Prove the following: a). (ln x)k = b). (ln ln x)k =
dx x(ln x)1−k dx
k
x ln x(ln ln x)1−k
ln ln x ln2 x ln3 x
2. Find: a) lim = lim b) lim
x→∞ ln x x→∞ ln x x→∞ ln x
3.Determine
√ √which function has a higher order of magnitude: a). f (x) =
3
x, g(x) = √x √ √
b). f (x) = ln x, g(x) = 3 ln x c). f (x) = x, g(x) = ln3 x
x
4. Arrange the functions according to their order of magnitude: g = √ ,
√ ln x
x ln x x ln ln x x ln ln ln x
f= ,h= √ ,q= √
ln ln x ln x ln ln x
1 3−x 4x2 − 9x − 9
5. Find: a). lim b). lim c). lim
x→−4 (x + 4)4 x→3 (x − 3)4 x→3 x−3
√ √
6. Show that for large values of x, x > e ln x > ln3 x

2x3 − x2 + x
7. lim
x→0 x3 + 2x
2x3 − x2 + x + 1
8. lim
x→0 x3 + 2x + 2

30 Dr. Ansong