Chapter 4

UNIFORM FLOW

4.1 INTRODUCTION
When uniform flow occurs in a channel, (1) the discharge, the velocity and the depth
remain constant along the length of the channel, and (2) the energy line, the water surface and
the channel bottom are parallel, i.e. Sf = Sw = S0. In uniform flow, water is neither accelerated nor
retarded and the net external force on water is zero.
The flow in a long straight prismatic channel under normal condition, i.e. when there is
no inflow or outflow or no transition or control structures like sluice gates, weirs, dams etc.,
tends to be uniform.
Uniform flow is considered to be steady only, since unsteady uniform flow is not
practically possible. True uniform flow does not normally occur in natural channels, because
changes in the cross-section along the length of the channel induce non-uniform flow conditions.
Still, the concept of uniform flow is central to the understanding and solution of most problems
in open channel hydraulics. In fact, the resistance relations developed for uniform flow are used
to predict channel resistance in gradually varied flows, both steady and unsteady.

4.2 ESTABLISHMENT OF UNIFORM FLOW

The condition for the establishment of uniform flow in an open channel can be
determined considering the momentum equation, Eq.(2.16). For uniform flow, U1 = U2, Fp1 = Fp2
and β1 = β2. Hence, Eq.(2.16) reduces to

W sin   F f (4.1)

which indicates that when uniform flow occurs in a channel, the active component of the gravity
force causing the flow is equal to the total force of friction or resistance.
The above condition implies that (i) flow cannot be uniform in a horizontal channel for
which  = 0, and for uniform flow to occur, the channel must have a slope in the downstream
direction, (ii) flow cannot be uniform in an adverse slope channel in which both Wsin and Ff act
in the same direction, which is opposite to the direction of flow, and (iii) flow cannot be uniform
in a frictionless channel for which Ff = 0, and uniform flow of an ideal fluid is impossible, since
an ideal fluid has no friction.
The condition for the establishment of uniform flow, Wsin = Ff, can be used to explain
why the flow in a long straight prismatic channel under normal condition tends to be uniform.
Suppose that at some location of a channel Wsin > Ff and flow is non-uniform. As the flow
proceeds downstream, the flow is accelerated and the flow velocity increases. Since F f  U2, the
friction or resistance force also increases and a balance between Wsin and Ff tends to reach and
the flow tends to be uniform. On the other hand, if Wsin < Ff at some location of a channel, the
flow is retarded and the flow velocity decreases. Hence, the friction or resistance force also
decreases and a balance between Wsin and Ff tends to reach and the flow tends to be uniform
as the flow proceeds downstream. Thus, uniform flow seems to be self-adjusting and any
departure from the condition Wsin = Ff tends to reestablish this condition.

53
4.3 VELOCITY DISTRIBUTION

Shear Stress and Friction Velocity

When water flows in a channel, the pull of water produces a force that acts on the channel
bed in the direction of flow. This force is known as the shear or tractive or drag force and is
equal to the friction or resistance force Ff. If the average value of this force per unit wetted area,
which is known as the shear stress, is denoted by 0, then

Ff   0 P L (4.2)

where P is the wetted perimeter and L is the length of the channel. Therefore, from Eq.(4.1)

W sin   F f   0 PL (4.3)

When the angle of bottom slope  is small, sin  tan. Also, tan = S0 and when the
flow is uniform, S0 = Sf. Therefore, the active component of the gravity force = Wsinθ = ALsinθ
 ALtanθ = ALS0, where  is the specific weight of water, A is the cross-sectional area and
S0 is the channel bottom slope. Therefore,

ALS 0   0 PL (4.4)
or
A
 0  S 0  RS 0  gRS 0 (4.5)
P

For a wide channel, R  h, hence Eq. (4.5) becomes

 0  hS 0  ghS 0 (4.6)

The quantity  0 /  has the dimensions of velocity and the shear stress τ0 is expressed as

 0  u * 2 (4.7)
or
u*   0 /  (4.8)

where u* is known as the shear or friction or drag velocity. It does not represent a velocity which
is physically real. However, it is used as the velocity scale in the study of velocity distribution in
open channels.
Using Eqs.(4.5) and (4.8) it can be shown that

u*  gRS 0 (4.9)

and when the channel is wide

u*  ghS 0 (4.10)

Laminar or Viscous Sublayer

Even in a turbulent flow, there is a very thin layer near the boundary in which the flow is

54
laminar and is known as the laminar or viscous sublayer. The thickness of this layer is given by

11 .6v
v  (4.11)
u*

Smooth and Rough Boundaries

As stated earlier, the velocity distribution across a channel section is not uniform owing
to the presence of boundary (wall) roughness. The effect of boundary roughness on the velocity
distribution in turbulent flow was first investigated by Nikuradse who introduced the concept of
equivalent sand grain roughness (ks) as standard for all other types of roughness elements. The
ratio ks/R of the roughness height to the hydraulic radius is known as the relative roughness. The
boundary surfaces are classified based on the following criteria:

1. Hydraulically smooth boundary

u * ks
5 (4.12)
v

The roughness elements are well-covered by the viscous sublayer (k s < δv) and do not affect the
velocity distribution outside the sublayer. The velocity distribution depends on the viscosity of
water.

2. Hydraulically rough boundary

u * ks
 70 (4.13)
v

The roughness elements project through the viscous sublayer (k s > δv) and the velocity
distribution outside the sublayer is affected by the surface roughness. The viscosity of water has
no effect on the velocity distribution.

3. Transition boundary

u * ks
5  70 (4.14)
v

The velocity distribution is affected both by the viscosity of water and the bottom roughness.

Velocity Distribution in Turbulent Flow

Along a Vertical
The velocity distribution along a vertical in a wide channel in turbulent flow is given by
uz 1 z
 ln
u*  z0
(4.15)

where uz is the velocity at a distance z from the channel bottom,  ( = 0.4) is the von Karman

55
constant and z0 is the zero velocity level, i.e. u = 0 at z = z 0. Equation (4.15) is commonly known
as the Prandtl- von Karman universal velocity distribution law.
Experimental evidence suggests that the logarithmic velocity profile is a good
approximation for the full depth of the flow. The values of z 0 for different boundaries are as
follows:

1. Hydraulically smooth surface (u*ks/  5)

v
z o  0.11 (4.16)
u*

2. Hydraulically rough surface (u*ks/  70)

z o  0.033k S (4.17)

3. Transition regime (5 < u*ks/ < 70)

v
z 0  0.11  0.033k S (4.18)
u*

Depth-Averaged Velocity
For logarithmic velocity distribution, Eq.(4.15), Vanoni (1941) showed that the flow
velocity, measured at 0.632h from the free surface, is equal to the depth-averaged velocity in the
vertical. Also, it can be shown that the velocity at 0.6h depth from the free surface or the average
of the velocities at 0.2h and 0.8h depths from the free surface, when h is the total depth of flow,
is approximately equal to the average velocity in the vertical.

Cross-Sectional Mean Velocity

The cross-sectional mean velocity for turbulent flow in open channels are given by the
following equations:

1. Hydraulically smooth surface (u*ks/v  5)

U  3.64u * R 
 5.75 log 
u*   
(4.19)

2. Hydraulically rough surface (u*ks/v  70)

U  12.2 R 
 5.75 log
 k 

u*  s 
(4.20)

3. Transition regime (5 < u*ks/v < 70)

U  12.2 R 
 5.75 log  (4.21)
u* k
 s  3 . 35 / u * 

56
Example 4.1
A rectangular channel is 6 m wide and laid on a slope of 0.25%. The channel is made of
concrete (ks = 2 mm) and carries water at a depth of 0.50 m. Compute the mean velocity of flow.

Solution ks = 2 mm = 0.002 m

S0 = 0.25/100 = 0.0025

R = A/P = (6  0.50)/(6 + 2  0.50) = 0.4286 m

u * gRS 0  9.81  0.4286  0.0025  0.1025 m / s

ksu * 0.002  0.1025

  205  70
 10 6

Hence, the boundary is hydraulically rough and the mean velocity of flow is obtained by Eq.
(4.20), i.e.
U 12.2 R 12.2  0.4286
 5.75 log  5.75 log  19.65
u* ks 0.002

 U  19.65  0.1025  2.014 m / s

4.4 UNIFORM FLOW FORMULAS

Chezy Formula
The Chezy formula can be found mathematically from two assumptions. The first
assumption states that, in steady uniform flow the active component of the gravity force causing
the flow must be equal to the total force of friction or resistance, as indicated by Eq.(4.1). When
the channel slope is small, the active component of the gravity force = Wsinθ = ALsinθ 
ALtanθ = ALS0 = ALSf.
The second assumption states that, in turbulent flow the resistance force per unit wetted
area varies as the square of the mean velocity. The total wetted area is the product of the wetted
perimeter P and the length of the channel L. Hence, the total force of resistance is given by

F f  kPLU 2 (4.22)

where k is a constant of proportionality. Hence, Eq.(4.1) gives

ALS f  kPLU 2 (4.23)

Equation (4.23) can be rearranged to yield

1 1
U  CR S f 2 2 (4.24)

where  /k is written as one constant C.

57
 Equation (4.24) is probably the first steady uniform flow formula developed by the
French engineer Antoine Chezy in 1769. The resistance factor C is referred to as the Chezy's C.
The Chezy formula can be used in any systems of units. The dimensions of Chezy’s C in
SI units are m1/2/s and C/g is dimensionless. The numerical value of Chezy’s C varies with the
systems of units. For the rivers of Bangladesh, the numerical value of C varies from 30 m 1/2/s to
80 m1/2/s and the mean value of C may be taken as 50 m1/2/s.
The Chezy formula is applicable for steady uniform and nearly uniform flows. It is
widely used in Europe.

Darcy-Weisbach Formula
The Darcy-Weisbach formula, first presented by Julius Weisbach in 1845 and primarily
developed for pipe flow, is given by

L U2
hf f (4.25)
d 0 2g

where hf is the frictional loss, f is the friction factor, L is the length of the pipe, d 0 is the diameter
of the pipe, U is the mean velocity of flow and g is the acceleration due to gravity. Since d 0 = 4R
and the energy gradient Sf = hf/L, the above formula may be written as

8g 1
U R 2
S 1f 2
(4.26)
f

This formula is same in all the systems of units and may be applied to uniform and nearly
uniform flows in open channels. The friction factor f is dimensionless and its numerical value
remains same in all the systems of units.

Manning Formula
In 1889 the Irish engineer Robert Manning presented a formula for steady uniform flow
in open channels. This formula is completely empirical in nature. In SI and English units this
formula is given by

1 2 / 3 1/ 2
U R Sf (4.27)
n
and

1.486 2 / 3 1 / 2
U R Sf (4.28)
n

respectively, where U is the mean velocity, n (s/m1/3 or sec/ft1/3) is the Manning's roughness
coefficient, specifically known as Manning's n, R is the hydraulic radius and Sf is the slope of the
energy line.
The numerical value of n is the same in all the systems of units, but the coefficient in the
Manning formula is different in different systems of units. For example, when the Manning
formula in SI units (Eq.4.27) is converted to English units (Eq. 4.28), it has to be multiplied by
the factor (3.28)1/3 = 1.486, as shown below.

58
 n
n in s / m1 / 3  in sec/ ft 1 / 3 (since 1 m = 3.28 ft)
3.281 / 3
1 2 / 3 1/ 2
U  R Sf in SI units
n
1 1/ 2
 1/ 3
R2/3S f in English units
n / 3.28
3.281 / 3 2 / 3 1 / 2
 R Sf in English units
n
1.486 2 / 3 1 / 2
 R Sf in English units
n

The Manning formula has been verified by many laboratory and field measurements and
found to give satisfactory results. Therefore, it has been the most widely used of all the uniform
flow formulas for open channel flow computation. However, in applying the Manning formula
the main difficulty lies in the determination of the roughness coefficient n, for there is no exact
method of selecting the value of n. Even at the present stage of knowledge, in addition to the
information and the methods available for selecting n, the veteran engineers have to exercise
sound engineering judgement and experience in selecting the proper value of n.
Typical values of Manning’s roughness coefficient n for some open channel surfaces are
presented in Table 4.1.

Table 4.1 Typical values of Manning’s roughness coefficient n for some open channel surfaces

-------------------------------------------------------------
Surface Value of n Surface Value of n
-------------------------------------------------------------
Glass 0.010 Plastic 0.010
Cement 0.011 Concrete 0.013
Wood 0.015 Earth canals 0.025
Rivers 0.025 Flood plains 0.040
-------------------------------------------------------------

The Manning formula is valid for fully rough turbulent flow for values of R/k s up to
about 1500.

Relationship Between Chezy’s C, Darcy-Weichbach Friction Factor f and Manning’s n

Using Eqs.(4.24), (4.26) and (4.27), we obtain the following relationships between C and
n, C and f, and n and f in SI units:
1
1 6
C R (4.29)
n

C 8
 (4.30)
g f

1
f
nR6 (4.31)
8g
Also, combination of Eqs.(4.9),(4.24) and (4.30) yields with S0 = Sf

59
 U C 8
  (4.32)
u* g f

which indicates that C/g is dimensionless.

Estimation of Chezy's C

White-Colebrook Formula: For hydraulically smooth flow (u*ks/  5), the Chezy’s C is
estimated from

 3.64u * R   11 .4 Re 
C  18 log   18 log  (4.33)
    C 

in which Re (= UR/v) is the Reynolds number.

For hydraulically rough flow (u*ks/  70), C is obtained from

 12.2 R 
C  18 log  (4.34)
 ks 

and for the transition boundary, C is obtained from

U C  12.2 R 
  5.75 log  (4.35)
u* g k
 s  3. 35 / u * 

Estimation of Manning's n

Strickler fomula: The most simple and the best-known of the methods used for estimating
Manning's n is the empirical formula presented by the Swiss engineer Strickler in 1923. This
formula is based on data from (i) streams with beds consisting of coarse material and free from
bed undulations, and (ii) fixed bed channels with grains pasted to the bottom and sides. The
formula originally proposed by Strickler is

1/ 6
d 50 1/ 6
n  0.047d 50 (4.36)
21.1

where d50 is the median diameter or the diameter of the bed material in meters such that 50
percent of the material by weight is smaller.
The Strickler formula has two major advantages: (i) it relates n to the size of the grains
which can be measured easily, and (ii) since d50 is raised to 1/6th power, an error in estimating its
value has a corresponding less effect on the computed value of n.
Factors Affecting Manning's n
The value of n is highly variable and depends on a number of factors, which are to some
extent interdependent. The factors that exert the greatest influence upon Manning's n in both
natural and artificial channels are briefly described below.
i) Roughness of the surface: The value of Manning's n depends on the roughness of the

60
surface which in turn depends on the size and shape of the grains of the material forming the
channel perimeter. In general, fine-grained soils (e.g. clay, silt and sand) result in a low value of
n and coarse-grained soils (e.g. gravels and boulders) result in a high value of n.
ii) Vegetation: The presence of vegetation in a channel retards the flow and increases n
depending on the height, density, distribution and type of vegetation. Owing to the seasonal
growth of aquatic plants, the value of n may increase in the growing season and diminish in the
dormant season.
iii) Channel irregularity: Channel irregularities include sand bars, depressions, holes, humps,
etc. and increase the value of n.
iv) Channel alignment: The value of n is low for straight channels and high for curved
channels and increases with the curvature of the channel.
v) Silting and scouring: In general, silting converts an irregular channel into a regular one
and decreases n, whereas scouring does the reverse and increases n.
vi) Obstruction: The presence of obstructions like logs, bridge piers, boats, ships, launches,
steamers etc. tends to increase n depending on the size, shape, number and distribution of the
obstructions.
vii) Stage and discharge: The value of n generally decreases with increase in stage and
discharge. However, the value of n may be high when the flood plains in a river are submerged at
high stages.
viii) Suspended material and bed load: The suspended material and bed load cause an increase
in Manning's n because additional energy is required to move the sediment.

Example 4.2
An open channel lined with concrete (d50 = 1.5 mm) is laid on a slope of 0.1%. The
channel is trapezoidal with b = 6 m and s = 2. Compute the uniform flow discharge in the
channel if the depth of flow is 2 m. Also compute the numerical values of Chezy's C and friction
factor f.

Solution Sf = S0 = 0.1% = 0.1/100 = 0.001, d50 = 1.5 mm = 1.5/1000 m = 0.0015 m

n = 0.047d501/6 = 0.047  0.00151/6 = 0.016

A = (b + sh)h = (6+2  2)  2 = 20 m2

P  b  2 1  s 2 h  6  2 1  2 2  2  14.94 m

R = A/P = 1.34 m

Q = (1/n)AR2/3S01/2 = (1/0.016)  20  1.342/3  0.0011/2

= 48.29 m3/s

C = (1/n)R1/6 = (1/0.0159)  1.3381/6 = 66.01 m1/2/s

f = 8g/C2 = 8  9.81/66.012 = 0.018

4.5 COMPUTATION OF UNIFORM FLOW

61
Normal Depth
The depth of uniform flow is known as normal depth and is designated by h n. Similarly,
the discharge of uniform flow is known as the normal discharge designated by Qn, the velocity of
uniform flow is known as the normal velocity designated by U n and so on. The Chezy and the
Manning formulas for the discharge can then be written as

1/ 2 1/ 2
Qn  CAn Rn Sn (4.37)

and
1 2/3 1/ 2
Qn  An Rn S n
n
(4.38)

respectively.

Section Factor
The product of flow area and two-thirds power of the hydraulic radius, i.e. AR 2/3, is
known as the section factor in connection with the Manning formula. It can be computed if the
flow the channel section and depth h are given.
When the flow is uniform, the product of flow area and two-thirds power of the hydraulic
radius, i.e. AnRn2/3, is known as the section factor for uniform flow computation in connection
with the Manning formula. Using Eq.(4.38), it can be shown that

2/3 nQn
An Rn  (4.39)
Sn

Thus, AnRn2/3 can be computed either if the channel section and the normal depth hn are given, or
alternatively, using Eq.(4.39) from given values of the Manning's n, the normal discharge Q n and
the normal slope Sn.
When the Chezy formula is used, then AR1/2 is the section factor and AnRn1/2 is the section
factor for uniform flow computation. Using Eq.(4.37), it can be shown that

1/ 2 Qn
An Rn  (4.40)
C Sn

The section factor is an important element in the computation of uniform flow.

Conveyance
The conveyance for a channel section in terms of the Manning formula is given by

1
K AR 2 / 3 (4.41)
n

which can be computed when the section, the roughness coefficient n and the depth h are given.

When the flow is uniform, then using the Manning formula (Eq.4.38), it can be shown

62
that

Qn  K n Sn (4.42)
where
1
Kn  An Rn2 / 3 (4.43)
n

is the conveyance for uniform flow. It can be computed using Eq.(4.42) when Qn and Sn are given
or using Eq.(4.43) from the given section, n and the normal depth hn.
In terms of the Chezy formula, the conveyance is given by

K  CAR 1 / 2 (4.44)

and using Eq.(4.37), we obtain

Qn  K n Sn (4.45)

where

K n  CAn Rn1 / 2 (4.46)

is the conveyance for uniform flow.

For unit longitudinal slope of the channel, i.e. when S n = 1, Eq.(4.42) or (4.45) shows that
Qn = Kn, i.e. the conveyance is numerically equal to the discharge. Also, for a given longitudinal
slope, Qn  Kn. Thus, the conveyance is a measure of the carrying capacity of the channel.

Hydraulic Exponent for Uniform Flow Computation

The conveyance K is a function of the depth of flow for a given channel section and
roughness and it is convenient to express K in the form

K2 = C2hN (4.47)

where C2 is a coefficient and N is an exponent which is known as the hydraulic exponent for
uniform flow computation.
Assume that n and N are independent of h. Taking logarithm of both sides of Eq.(4.47)
and then differentiating with respect to h, one obtains

d (1n K ) N
 (4.48)
dh 2h
Also, using R = A/P in Eq.(4.41), taking logarithm of both sides of Eq.(4.41), then differentiating
with respect to h and using dA/dh = B, we get

d (1n K ) 1  dP 
  5B  2 R  (4.49)
dh 3A  dh 
Equating the right sides of Eqs. (4.48) and (4.49) and solving for N, we obtain

63
 2h  dP 
N   5B  2 R  (4.50)
3A  dh 

which is the general equation for the hydraulic exponent N when the conveyance is expressed in
terms of the Manning's formula.
When the conveyance is expressed in terms of the Chezy formula, Eq.(4.44), it can be
shown in a similar way that

h dP 
N  3B  R  (4.51)
A dh 
Equations (4.50) and (4.51) indicate that the numerical value N depends on the channel
shape and the depth of flow. It also depends on whether the conveyance is expressed in terms of
the Manning or the Chezy formula. The values of N for different channel sections are given in
Table 4.2.

Table 4.2 Values of N for different channel sections

Conveyance computed by Conveyance computed by

Channel section
Manning equation Chezy equation
1. Wide (b>>h) 3.33 3.00
2. Triangle 5.33 5.00
2 4( h / b)  2( h / b )
3. Rectangle 5 3
3  1  2(h / b) 
 1  2( h / b )
2  1  2 s ( h / b)
5 1  2 s ( h / b)
3  1  s ( h / b) 3
1  s ( h / b)
4. Trapezoid 1  s 2 ( h / b)
4 2 1  s 2 ( h / b)
1  2 1  s ( h / b)
2 
1  2 1  s 2 (h / b)

16h  5 sin  / 2 1  4h  6 sin  / 2 1 

5. Circle      
3d o    sin   sin  / 2  d o    sin   sin  / 2 
6. Parabola (perimeter 4 3
3 3
equation z = cy2) 3  2ch 3  2ch

Example 4.3
Derive the expression for the hydraulic exponent for uniform flow computation N for a
rectangular channel based on the Manning formula. Then compute the numerical values of N for
(i) wide, and (ii) narrow channels.

Solution
For a rectangular channel, A = bh, B = b, P = b + 2h, R = A/P, dP/dh = 2

2h  dP  2h  bh 
N  5B  2 R    5b  2   2
3A  dh  3bh  b  2h 

64
 2 4h  2 4( h / b ) 
 5    5
3 b  2h  3 1  2( h / b) 

This is the expression for N for a rectangular channel based on the Manning formula.

(i) For a wide channel, h/b  0. Hence,

2 4( h / b )  2  4  0  10
N 5  5   3.33
3  1  2(h / b)  3  1  2  0  3


(ii) For a narrow channel, h/b  . Hence,

2 4( h / b )  2  4  2 4 
N 5   5    5  2
3  1  2(h / b)  3  1 /(h / b)  2  3  0  2 

Example 4.4
Compute the hydraulic exponent for uniform flow computation N of a trapezoidal
channel with b = 6.1 m, s = 2 and h = 2 m based on the Manning formula.

Solution
h 2
  0.328
b 6.1

2 1  2 s ( h / b) 2 1  s 2 (h / b)
N  5   4
3 1  s (h / b) 3 1  2 1  s 2 (h / b)

2 1  2  2  0.328 2 1  2 2  0.328
 5   4
3 1  2  0.328 3 1  2 1  2 2  0.328

 4.653  0.793  3.860

Alternative solution A = (6.1+2  2)  2 = 20.2 m2, P = 6.1 + 1  2 2  2 = 15.044 m, R =

A/P = 20.2/15.04 = 1.342 m, B = 6.1 + 2  2  2 = 14.1 m, dP/dh = 2 1  s 2  2 5

2h  dP  2 2
 N   5B  2 R
3A 
 
dh  3  20.2
(5  14.1  2  1.342  2 5 )  3.860

Computation of Normal Depth

Analytical Method
The normal depth is an important parameter in the analysis of open channel flow. It may
be computed using the Manning or the Chezy formula when the channel section, the discharge

65
Q, the bottom slope S0 and the Manning's n or the Chezy's C are given. For wide and triangular
channels, the following analytical (explicit) expressions for the normal depth can be easily
obtained.

a) Using the Manning formula

i. Wide channel
3/5
 nq 
hn    (4.52)
 S 
 o 

ii. Triangular channel

3/ 8
21 / 4 (1  s 2 )1 / 8  nQ 
hn    (4.53)
s5/8  S 
 o 

b) Using the Chezy formula

i. Wide channel
2/3
 q 
hn    (4.54)
C S 
 o 

ii. Triangular channel

2/5
21 / 5 (1  s 2 )1 / 10  Q 
hn    (4.55)
s3/ 5 C S 
 o 

Example 4.5
A wide channel with S0 = 0.0025 carries a discharge of 3 m2/s. Compute the normal depth
and velocity (i) using the Manning formula when n = 0.020, and (ii) using the Chezy formula
when C = 45 m1/2/s.

Solution

(i) Using the Manning formula

3/ 5
 nq   0.020 x3 
3/5

hn        1.12 m
 S   0.0025 
 o 

q 3
Un    2.69 m / s
hn 1.12

(ii) Using the Chezy formula

2/3
 q   3 
2/3

hn        1.21 m
C S   45  0.0025 
 0 

66
 q 3
Un    2.48 m / s
hn 1.21

Example 4.6
For a triangular channel with side slopes of 2:1, a longitudinal slope of 0.0016 and n =
0.015, determine the normal depth if Q = 10 m3/s.

Solution s = 2, S0 = 0.0016, n = 0.015, Q = 10 m3/s

21 / 4 1  s 2  21 / 4 1  2 2 
3/8
1/ 8
 nQ  1/ 8
 0.015  10 
3/8

hn        1.55 m
s5/8  S  25 / 8  0.0016 
 o 

A  sh 2  2  1.55 2  4.79 m 2

Q 10
Un    2.09 m / s
An 4.79
Alternative solution

nQ 0.015  10
AR 2 / 3    3.75
So 0.0016
2/3
 sh 
 sh  2

  3.75
 2 1 s
2

2/3
 2hn 
or , 2hn
2
   3.75
 
 2 1 2
2


which gives hn8 / 3  3.206

 hn  1.55 m

Then, A  sh 2  2  1.55 2  4.79 m 2

Q 10
Un    2.09 m / s
An 4.79
Trial-and-Error Method
For other simple geometric channel sections, like the rectangular, trapezoidal, circular
and parabolic sections, the computation of normal depth can be conveniently carried out by the
trial-and-error solution of Eq. (4.39).

Example 4.7
For a rectangular channel with b = 6.0 m, n = 0.025 and S 0 = 0.0025, compute the normal
depth and velocity if Q = 20 m3/s.

67
Solution
nQ 0.025  20
An Rn2 / 3    10.000
So 0.0025
Now, assume several values of h and compute the section factor AR 2/3 until the computed
value of AR2/3 is close to 10.000.

h(m) A(m2) P(m) R(m) AR2/3 Remarks

1.00 6.000 8.000 0.750 4.952 h too small

2.00 12.000 10.000 1.200 13.551 h too large
1.60 9.600 9.200 1.043 9.876
1.62 9.720 9.240 1.052 10.054
1.61 9.660 9.220 1.048 9.965 h closest

Hence, the normal depth, hn = 1.61 m and the normal velocity

Q 20
Un    2.07 m / s
An 9.66
Example 4.8
For a trapezoidal channel with b = 6 m, s = 2, n = 0.025 and S 0 = 0.001, compute the
normal depth and velocity if Q = 14 m3/s.

Solution
nQ 0.025  14
An Rn2 / 3    11.068
So 0.001

h(m) A(m2) P(m) R(m) AR2/3

1.00 8.000 10.472 0.764 6.684
2.00 20.000 14.944 1.338 24.288
1.30 11.180 11.814 0.946 10.776
1.31 11.292 11.858 0.952 10.929
1.32 11.405 11.903 0.958 11.084

Hence, the normal depth, hn = 1.32 m and the normal velocity

Q 14
Un    1.23 m / s
An 11 .405
Example 4.9
Compute the normal depth and velocity in a parabolic channel with Q = 20 m 3/s, n =
0.025 and S0 = 0.0025 when the profile of the channel is given by y2 = 4z.

Solution

nQ 0.025  20
An Rn2 / 3    10.000
So 0.0025
Since y2 = 4z, we have z = 0.25y2 so that c = 0.25. Also, note that 4h/B = 2h 1/2 c = 2h1/2

68
 0.25 = h1/2.

h(m) B(m) A(m2) P(m) R(m) AR2/3

1.00 4.000 2.667 4.591 0.581 1.856
2.00 5.657 7.542 7.192 1.049 7.785
3.00 6.928 13.856 9.562 1.449 17.743
2.26 6.013 9.060 7.822 1.158 9.993
2.27 6.027 9.120 7.846 1.162 10.008

Hence, the normal depth, hn = 2.26 m and the normal velocity

Q 20
Un    2.21 m / s
An 9.060

Example 4.10
A circular channel 2 m in diameter is laid on a slope of 0.001 and carries a discharge of
4 m3/s. Compute the normal depth and velocity when n = 0.013.

Solution
nQ 0.013  4
An Rn2 / 3    1.644
So 0.001

  rad  A(m2) P(m) R(m) AR2/3

1 0.079 1 0.079 0.015
2 0.545 2 0.273 0.229
3 1.429 3 0.476 0.872
4 2.378 4 0.595 1.682
3.94 2.328 3.94 0.591 1.639
3.95 2.337 3.95 0.592 1.647

Hence, ωn = 3.95 rad and the normal depth

d    2 3.95 
hn  o 1  cos n   1  cos   1.39 m
2  2  2 2 
and, the normal velocity
Q 4
Un    1.71 m / s
An 2.337

Numerical Methods
The numerical methods, used for solving nonlinear algebraic equations involving a
single variable, e.g. the method of bisection, the method of iteration, the method of false
position, the secant method, the Newton-Raphson method etc., as stated in Art.3.2, can be
conveniently used to compute the normal depth for rectangular, trapezoidal, circular and
parabolic channel sections. The computation of normal depth using the bisection and the
Newton-Raphson methods is considered here.

Bisection method: Suppose that we want to compute the normal depth in a channel for a given
section, discharge Q, roughness coefficient n, bottom slope S0. Then the function

69
 nQ
f (h)  AR 2 / 3  An Rn2 / 3  AR 2 / 3  (4.56)
S0

must be satisfied by some positive depth greater than say h min and less than say hmax. The normal
depth is taken equal to (hmin + hmax)/2 and f(h) is determined. If f(h) is positive, then the root is
less than (hmin + hmax)/2 and the upper limit is taken as (h min + hmax)/2. On the other hand, if f(h) is
negative, then the lower limit is taken as (hmin + hmax)/2. The procedure is repeated till the desired
accuracy is attained.

Example 4.11
For a trapezoidal channel with b = 6 m, s = 2, n = 0.025 and S 0 = 0.001, compute the
normal depth by the method of bisection if Q = 14 m3/s.

Solution A  (6  2 h) h P  6  4.472h R  A/ P
  6  2h  h  11.068
5/3 5/3
nQ A nQ
f (h)  AR 2 / 3    
S 0  6  4.472h 
2/3 2/3
S0 P
Initially the values of hmin and hmax are taken as 0 and 10 m, respectively. The computation is
carried out as follows.

hmin hmax h=(hmin+ f(h) Root lies between

hmax)/2

0 10 5 148.647 0 and 5
0 5 2.5 26.562 0 and 2.5
0 2.5 1.25 -1.041 1.25 and 2.5
1.25 2.50 1.875 10.381 1.25 and 1.875
1.25 1.875 1.5625 4.105 1.25 and 1.5625
1.25 1.5625 1.4063 1.394 1.25 and 1.4063
1.25 1.4063 1.3281 0.143 1.25 and 1.3281
1.25 1.3281 1.2891 -0.458 1.2891 and 1.3281
1.2891 1.3281 1.3086 -9.357 1.3086 and 1.3281
1.3086 1.3281 1.3184 -0.009 1.3184 and 1.3281

Hence, the normal depth, hn = 1.32 m

Newton-Raphson method: Suppose we want to compute the normal depth in a channel for
given section, Q, n and S0. Obviously, when h = hn

nQ nQ
AR 2 / 3  0 or , A5 / 3  P2/3  0 (since R = A/P)
S0 S0

If we now assume

nQ
f ( h)  A 5 / 3  P2/3 (4.57)
S0

70
then

5 2 / 3 dA nQ 2 dP 5 2 / 3 2nQ dP dA
f ' ( h)  A   P 1 / 3  A B P 1 / 3 (  B)
3 dh S0 3 dh 3 3 S0 dh dh
(4.58)

For a given channel section, f (h) and f (h) depend on the depth of flow only and hence can
be easily evaluated.

Example 4.12
For a trapezoidal channel with b = 6 m, s = 2, n = 0.025 and S 0 = 0.001, compute the
normal depth by the Newton-Raphson method if Q = 14 m3/s.

Solution A  ( 6  2h) h P  6  2 5h and B  6  4h

nQ 0.025  14
  11.068
S0 0.001

f ( h)  [(6  2h) h]5 / 3 11 .068(6  2 5h) 2 / 3  3.175[(3  h) h]5 / 3  17.569(4  5h) 2 / 3

f ' (h)  5.291(3  2h) [(3  h) h] 2 / 3  26.191(3  5h) 1 / 3

The computation of normal depth is carried out as follows.

h f (h) f ' ( h) f ( h) h  h  h
h  
f ' (h)
1.000 -20.979 51.579 0.407 1.407
1.407 7.493 89.555 - 0.083 1.324
1.324 0.406 81.215 - 0.005 1.319
1.319 0.003 79.094 - 0.000 1.319

Hence, the normal depth, hn = 1.32 m

Normal Depth for a Conduit with Gradually Closing Top

In some channel sections the top width either remains constant or increases with flow
depth. The section factor AR2/3 for these channel sections increases with an increase in the depth
of flow and there is only one normal depth for a given discharge. The rectangular, triangular,
trapezoidal and parabolic sections fall in this category. However, for channel sections having a
gradually closing top, the section factor at first increases with depth and decreases with depth
when the full depth is approached. Consequently, it is possible to have two normal depths for the
same value of the section factor and, therefore, for the same discharge. The circular section falls
in this later category.
In a circular section when the depth is greater than about 0.82d 0, it is possible to have two
different normal depths for the same discharge and a small disturbance in the water surface may
cause the water surface to seek alternate normal depths, thus contributing to the instability of the

71
water surface. Therefore, it is advisable in the design of a circular section to restrict the depth to
a value less than or equal to 0.80d0.

4.6 COMPUTATION OF NORMAL AND CRITICAL SLOPES

The normal slope (Sn) is the longitudinal slope of the channel that is required to maintain
uniform flow in the channel. When the Manning formula is used

2 2
n 2U n n 2 Qn
Sn  4/3
 2 4/3 (4.59)
Rn An Rn

or, when the Chezy formula is used

2 2
U Q
S n  2n  2 n 2 (4.60)
C Rn C An Rn

Equations (4.59) and (4.60) indicate that the normal slope depends on the channel
section, the discharge, the depth and the channel roughness. Thus, when the channel section, Q, n
or C and hn are given, the normal slope can be obtained using Eq.(4.59) or (4.60).
The critical slope (Sc) is the longitudinal slope of the channel for which the flow in the
channel is both uniform and critical, i.e. uniform flow occurs in a critical state and Sn = Sc, Un =
Uc and hn = hc. When the channel section, n or C and h or Q are given, the critical slope can be
determined using the Manning formula as

n 2U 2 n 2Q 2
Sc   (4.61)
R4/3 A2 R 4 / 3

or, using the Chezy formula as

U2 Q2
Sc   (4.62)
C 2 R C 2 A2 R

When Q is given, the normal depth hn, which is also equal to the critical depth hc, is first
computed using the critical condition and then the critical slope is computed using Eq.(4.61) or
(4.62). On the other hand, when hn (= hc) is given, the mean velocity U or the discharge Q is first
determined using the critical condition and then the critical slope is computed using Eq.(4.61) or
(4.62).

Example 4.13
A rectangular channel has a bottom width of 6 m,  = 1.12 and n = 0.020. (i) For hn = 1 m
and Q = 11 m3/s, determine the normal slope. (ii) Determine the critical slope for Q = 11 m 3/s.
(iii) Determine the critical slope for hn = 1 m.

Solution Rectangular channel, b = 6 m,  = 1.12, n = 0.020

72
(i) hn = 1 m Q = 11 m3/s

A = bh = 6  1 = 6 m2, P = b + 2h = 8 m, R = A/P = 0.75 m

2 2
 nQ   0.020  11 
 Sn   2/3 
 2/3 
 0.0020
 AR   6  0.75 

(ii) Q = 11 m3/s

 Q2 1.12  11 2
hc  3  3  0.73 m
gb 2 9.81  6 2

 hn  hc  0.73 m

A = bh = 6  0.73 = 4.36 m2, P = b + 2h = 6 + 2  0.73 = 7.45 m, R = A/P = 0.58 m

2 2
 nQ   0.020  11 
 Sc   2/3 
 2/3 
 0.0053
 AR   4.36  0.58 

(iii) hc = hn = 1 m

A = bh = 6  1 = 6 m2, P = b + 2h = 6 + 2  1 = 8 m, R = A/P = 0.75 m

U n  U c  gDc /   ghc /   9.81  1 / 1.12  2.96 m / s

 Q  AU c  6  2.96  17.76 m 3 / s

1.5
or , Q  g /  bhc  9.81 / 1.12  6  11..5  17.76 m 3 / s

2 2
 nQ   0.020  17.76 
 Sc   2/3 
   0.0051
 6  0.75
2/3
 AR  

4.7 CHANNEL SECTION WITH COMPOSITE ROUGHNESS

The roughness may vary along the perimeter of a channel as shown in Fig. 4.1(a). Such a
channel section is known as a channel section with composite roughness. A good example of
such a section is provided by a rectangular flume built with a wooden bottom and glass walls
having different n-values for the bottom and the walls.

73
 (a) (b)

Fig. 4.1 Channel section with composite roughness

In applying the Manning or the Chezy formula to compute flow in such a section, it is
necessary to compute an equivalent n-value for the entire perimeter. Consider a channel in which
the flow area is divided into 3 parts, as shown in Fig.4.1(b), of which the wetted perimeters P 1, P2
and P3 and the corresponding coefficients of roughness n 1, n2 and n3 are known. Following
Horton (1933), it is assumed that each part of the area has the same mean velocity that is also
equal to the mean velocity of the whole section, i.e.

U1 = U2 = U3 = U (4.63)

On the basis of this assumption, the equivalent n-value for the entire section is obtained
as follows. Since the energy slope is the same for all the sections, Eqs. (4.27) and (4.63) give

1 2/3 1 2/3 1 2/3 1

R1  R2  R3  R2/3 (4.64)
n1 n2 n3 n

or
2/3 2/3 2/3 2/3
1  A1  1  A2  1  A3  1  A
           (4.65)
n1  P1  n2  P2  n3  P3  nP

so that
3/ 2
n   P1 
A1   1    A (4.66a)
 n  P
3/ 2
n   P2 
A2   2    A (4.66b)
 n   P
3/ 2
n   P3 
A3   3    A (4.66c)
 n  P
Using the above three equations in

A = A1 + A2 + A3

simplifying and rearranging, we get

2/3
 P n 3 / 2  P2 n 2 3 / 2  P3 n3 3 / 2 
n   1 1 
 (4.67)
 P 

which can be used to compute the equivalent n-value for the entire section.

74
Example 4.14
The sides of a laboratory flume are made of glass (n = 0.010) and the bottom is made of
wood (n = 0.015). The flume is rectangular with b = 1 m and is laid on a slope of 0.001.
Compute the discharge in the flume if hn = 0.4 m.

Solution Designating the perimeter of the bottom as P1 and the

combined perimeter of the two sides as P2, we have P1 = 1 m, P2 =
2  0.4 = 0.8 m, P = P1 + P2 = 1.8 m, n1 = 0.015, n2 = 0.010. Then,

A = 1  0.4 = 0.4 m2, R = A/P = 0.4/1.8 = 0.222 m

2/3 2/3
 P1 n13 / 2  P2 n2 3 / 2   1  0.0153 / 2  0.8  0.0103 / 2 
n   
     0.013
 P   1.8 

1 1/ 2 1
Q AR 2 / 3 S 0   0.4  0.222 2 / 3  0.0011 / 2  0.36 m 3 / s
n 0.013

4.8 COMPOUND CROSS-SECTION

The cross-section of a channel may be composed of several distinct subsections as shown
in Fig.4.2. Such a channel section is known as a compound section. For example, an alluvial
river subjected to seasonal floods generally consists of a main channel and two side channels.
The side channels are usually shallower and rougher than the main channel. So the mean velocity
in the main channel is greater than the mean velocity in the side channels.
In dealing with a compound cross-section, the subsections (the main and the side
channels) are first separated by drawing vertical lines at the banks (shown as dotted lines in
Fig.4.2). It is assumed that (i) the water surface and energy line are horizontal across the cross-
section, and (ii) the vertical separation lines are the lines of zero shear and, therefore, do not
contribute to the wetted perimeters of the subsections.
The discharges in the subsections are computed by applying the Manning or the Chezy
formula separately to each subsection, i.e.

1 2/3 1/ 2
Q1  A1 R1 S 0 (4.68a)
n1

75
 Fig. 4.2 Compound cross-section

1 2/3 1/ 2
Q2  A2 R2 S 0 (4.68b)
n2

1 2/3 1/ 2
Q3  A3 R3 S 0 (4.68c)
n3

The total discharge for the entire section is equal to the sum of these discharges, i.e.

Q = Q1 + Q2 + Q3 (4.69)

The mean velocity for the entire section is equal to the total discharge divided by the total area,
i.e.

U = Q/A (4.70)

where the total area

A = A1 + A2 + A3 (4.71)

The equivalent n-value for the entire section can be computed using the Manning formula
for the entire section as

1/ 2
n  AR 2 / 3 S 0 /Q (4.72)

or, using the equation

AR 2 / 3 AR 2 / 3
n  (4.73)
K1  K 2  K 3 K

where K1, K2 and K3 are the conveyances of the individual subsections and K (= K 1 + K2 + K3)
is the conveyance for the entire section.
The energy and momentum coefficients for the entire section are obtained using the
equations

3 2 3 2 3 2
 1 K 1 / A1   2 K 2 / A2   3 K 3 / A3
 (4.74)
K 3 / A2
2 2 2
 K / A   2 K 2 / A2   3 K 3 / A3
 1 1 1 (4.75)
K2 / A

76
where 1, 2 and 3 are the energy coefficients and 1, 2 and 3 are the momentum coefficients
for the individual subsections, respectively.
Example 4.15
A channel consists of a main section and two side sections as shown in the figure.
Compute the total discharge and the mean velocity of flow for the entire section when n = 0.025
for the main section, n = 0.035 for the side sections and S0 = 0.0001. Also compute the numerical
values of n, α and β for the entire section assuming that α = 1.12 and β = 1.04 for the main and
side sections.

Solution
The main and the two side (left and right) sections are separated by drawing vertical
(dotted) lines as shown. The computed values of A, P, R, Q and K for the three subsections and
A, P, Q and K for the entire section are shown below.
____________________________________________________
Section A P R Q K
____________________________________________________
Main 425.0 56.18 7.565 655.12 65512
Left 80.0 24.00 3.333 51.00 5100
Right 60.0 19.00 3.158 36.90 3690
_____________________________________________________
 565.0 99.18 743.02 74302
_____________________________________________________

Hence, the total discharge, Q = 743.02 m3/s

The mean velocity U, roughness coefficient n, energy coefficient α and momentum

coefficient β for the entire section are obtained as follows.

Q 743.02
U    1.315 m / s
A 565.0

1/ 2
n  AR 2 / 3 S 0 / Q  565.0  (565.0 / 99.18) 2 / 3  0.00011 / 2 / 743.02  0.024
3 2 3 2 3 2
 K / A   2 K 2 / A2   3 K 3 / A3
 1 1 1
K 3 / A2

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 1.12  65512 3 / 425 2  1.12  5100 3 / 80 2  1.12  3690 3 / 60 2
  1.236
74302 3 / 565 2

2 2 2
 K / A   2 K 2 / A2   3 K 3 / A3
 1 1 1
K2 / A
1.04  65512 2 / 425  1.04  5100 2 / 80  1.04  3690 2 / 60
  1.090
74302 2 / 565

4.9 COMPUTATION OF FLOOD DISCHARGE BY SLOPE-AREA METHOD

The slope-area method is an indirect method of estimating the flood discharge in a river
from past records of stages at different sections using the Manning or the Chezy formula. Flood
flows in natural channels are usually unsteady and varied. The use of a steady uniform flow
formula for computing flood discharge is acceptable only when the changes in flood stage and
discharge are sufficiently gradual and the data available are not sufficient to justify the use of a
more sophisticated method.
The selection of a suitable channel reach is probably the most important aspect of the
slope-area method. The following points must be considered in selecting the channel reach.
i) Reliable and good quality highwater marks must be available in the selected reach.
ii) A straight and uniform reach is preferred and a gradually contracting reach should be
chosen over an expanding reach if there is a choice. The change in conveyance in the reach
should be less than 30%.
iii) The length of the reach L should be at least 75 times the average depth of flow, the fall
of water surface F should be equal to or greater than the velocity head and the fall should at least
be equal to 0.15 m.
With reference to Fig. 4.3, applying the energy equation between sections 1 and 2, we get

2 2
U1 U
F  1   2 2  h f  he (4.76)
2g 2g
or

2 2
U U
h f  F  ( 1 1   2 2 )  he (4.77)
2g 2g

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 Fig. 4.3 Definition sketch

where he is the eddy loss, given by

U 12 U2
he  k  1 2 2 (4.78)
2g 2g

and the coefficient k is assumed to range between 0 and 0.1 for gradual contractions, between 0
and 0.2 for gradual expansions and to have a value of 0.5 for abrupt expansions or contractions.
The following data are required for the slope-area method: (i) the cross-sectional areas A 1
and A2 of the upstream and downstream sections of the selected reach, (ii) the wetted perimeters
P1 and P2, (iii) the Manning roughness coefficients n1 and n2, (iv) the energy coefficients α1 and
α2, (v) the length of the reach L, and (vi) the fall of the water surface F between the two sections.
In addition, the eddy-loss coefficient k is to be given if the eddy loss is to be included.
The computation of flood discharge using this method involves the following steps:

i) Compute the conveyances K1 and K2 for the two end sections.

ii) Compute the geometric mean conveyance for the reach, i.e.

K  K1 K 2 (4.79)

iii) Since the discharge Q is not known initially, as a first approximation assume that h f = F
and hence
hf F
Sf   (4.80)
L L

iv) The first approximation of the discharge (which is also the uniform flow discharge) is
then computed using the equation

Q  K Sf (4.81)

v) A more accurate value of the energy slope is now obtained using the equation

hf
Sf  (4.82)
L

where hf is given by Eq.(4.77). The corresponding discharge is then computed by Eq.(4.81) using
the revised slope given by Eq.(4.82).

vi) Repeat step (v) until the assumed and the computed discharges agree.

Example 4.16
Compute the flood discharge through a river a reach of 850 m using the following data:

79
 A1 = 10350 m2, P1 = 2035 m, n1 = 0.030, α1 = 1.15

A2 = 9275 m2, P2 = 1965 m, n2 = 0.030, α2 = 1.18

The fall of water surface in the reach is 0.76 m. Neglect eddy loss.

Solution L = 850 m, F = 0.76 m, he = 0

1 2/3 1
K1  A1 R1   10350  (10350 / 2035) 2 / 3  1020320
n1 0.030
1 2/3 1
K2  A2 R2   9275  (9275 / 1965) 2 / 3  869950
n2 0.030

K  K1 K 2  1020320  869950  942140

2 2
U1 U2
Approxi- Assumed F 1 2 hf Sf Computed
2g 2g
mation Q(m3/s) (m) (m) (10 4
) Q(m3/s)
(m) (m)

1st - 0.76 - - 0.7600 8.94 28170

2nd 28170 " 0.4343 0.5548 0.6395 7.52 25840

3rd 25840 " 0.3653 0.4668 0.6585 7.75 26220

4th 26220 " 0.3762 0.4806 0.6556 7.73 26170

5th 26170 " 0.3747 0.4788 0.6559 7.72 26170

 The flood discharge, Q = 26,170 m3/s

PROBLEMS

4.1 Assuming that the velocity distribution along a vertical in an open channel is logarithmic,
compute the position of the mean velocity below the free surface. Also show that (i) the velocity
at 0.6 depth, and (ii) the average of the velocities at 0.2 and 0.8 depths are approximately equal
to the mean velocity in a vertical.

4.2(a) A trapezoidal channel has a bottom width of 6.0 m, side slopes of 1.5H:1V, a depth of
flow of 2.0 m, n = 0.025 and S0 = 0.0001. Assuming that the flow is uniform, (i) compute Q, (ii)
compute C, f, 0 and u*, and (iii) compute ks, determine whether the channel boundary is smooth
or rough and state if the Manning formula is applicable for computing flow in this channel.
Assume that the velocity distribution is logarithmic.

(b) Consider the following data for the Padma (Ganges) river at the Baruria station in Faridpur
on the 2nd July, 1989: A = 33,500 m 2, Q = 56,200 m3/s and B = 3820 m. Assuming that the flow

80
is uniform, (i) compute n, C, f, u* and τ 0, and (ii) determine whether the channel boundary is
smooth or rough taking the velocity distribution as logarithmic. Assume that the river is wide.
Longitudinal slope of the river is 4 cm/km.

4.3(a) Show that for a wide rough channel with logarithmic velocity distribution in the vertical,
the Manning’s roughness coefficient n may be expressed by

( r  1)h1 / 6
n 
5.57( r  0.95)

where r (= u0.2/u0.8)is the ratio between the measured velocities at two-tenths and eight-tenths of
depth.

(b) The velocities at 0.2 and 0.8 of the depth along a vertical in a wide river are 1.25 m/s and 1
m/s, respectively. (i) Compute the numerical value of Manning's n, and (ii) determine the
variation of velocity in the vertical, if the river is 10 m deep.

4.4(a) Using the Manning formula and taking h = 1 m, compute the hydraulic exponent for
uniform flow computation N for a
i. rectangular channel with b = 6 m,
ii. trapezoidal channel with b = 6 m and s = 2,
iii. parabolic channel whose profile is given by y2 = 4z, and
iv. circular channel whose diameter is 2 m.

(b) Solve Problem 4.4

(a) using the Chezy formula.

4.5(a) A wide channel with n = 0.025 and S0 = 0.0025 carries a discharge of 3 m 2/s. Compute the
normal depth and velocity.

(b) A wide channel with S 0 = 0.006 and C = 50 m1/2/s carries a discharge of 4 m2/s. Compute
the normal depth and velocity.

4.6(a) A triangular channel with side slopes 1:1 is laid on a slope of 0.001. If n = 0.015 and h n =
1 m, compute the discharge.
(b) A triangular channel with s = 1, n = 0.025 and S 0 = 0.0025 carries a discharge of 5 m 3/s.
Compute the normal depth and velocity.

4.7 Water flows at a velocity of 1 m/s in an open channel under uniform flow condition. The
longitudinal slope of the channel is 0.0016 and n = 0.020. Compute the depth of flow when the
channel is
i) rectangular with b = 6 m,
ii) trapezoidal with b = 6 m and s = 2,
iii) triangular with s = 1,
iv) parabolic whose profile is given by y2 = 4z, and
v) circular whose diameter is 2 m.

4.8 Uniform flow occurs in an open channel with hn = 1 m, S0 = 0.0001 and n = 0.015. Compute
the discharge if the channel is

81
 i) rectangular with b = 6 m,
ii) trapezoidal with b = 6 m and s = 1,
iii) triangular with s = 1.5,
iv) parabolic whose profile is given by y2 = 4z, and
v) circular whose diameter is 1.5 m.

4.9(a) A rectangular channel having n = 0.025 and S0 = 0.0001 carries a discharge of 6 m3/s at a
normal depth of 1.5 m. Compute the bottom width.

(b) A trapezoidal channel having side slopes of 1.5H:1V, n = 0.020 and S 0 = 0.0002 carries a
discharge of 25 m3/s at a normal depth of 2 m. Compute the bottom width.

4.10 Compute the normal depth and velocity in a

i. rectangular channel with b = 8 m and Q = 22 m3/s,
ii. trapezoidal channel with b = 6 m, s = 2 and Q = 30 m3/s,
iii. parabolic channel whose profile is given by y2 = 5z and Q = 15 m3/s, and
iv. a circular channel whose diameter is 2 m and Q = 3 m3/s.
In all cases, take n = 0.025 and S0 = 0.0025.

4.11(a) A trapezoidal channel has a bottom width of 6 m, side slopes of 1.5:1,  = 1 and n =
0.025. (i) Determine the normal slope at a normal depth of 1 m when the discharge is 20 m 3/s.
(ii) Determine the critical slope when the discharge is 20 m3/s. (iii) Determine the critical slope at
the normal depth of 1 m.

(b) Solve Problem 4.11(a) when  = 1.12.

4.12 When the Manning formula is used, show the critical slope at a given normal depth h n may
be expressed by

gn 2 Dn
Sc  4/3
Rn

and that this slope for a wide channel is

gn 2 n 2 g 10 / 9
S c  1/ 3 
hn q2/9

where q is the discharge per unit width.

4.13 A channel consists of a main section and two side sections as shown in Fig.4.4. Compute
the total discharge, the mean velocity of flow and the Manning's n for the entire section when n =
0.025 for the main channel, n = 0.045 for the side channels and S 0 = 0.0002. Also, compute the
numerical values α and β for the entire section assuming that α = β = 1.00 for the main and the
side sections.

82
 Fig. 4.4 for Problem 4.13

4.14 An unlined irrigation canal (n = 0.025) is trapezoidal and has a bottom width of 6 m, side
slopes of 1:1 and a depth of flow of 2 m. The longitudinal slope of the canal is 0.0005. Compute
the discharge carried by the canal under uniform flow condition. It is proposed to line the canal
with concrete having n = 0.013. Compute the discharge that would be carried by the canal when
(i) only the sides are lined, (ii) only the bottom is lined, and (iii) both the bottom and the sides
are lined.

4.15 A rectangular testing channel is 0.60 m wide and is laid on a slope of 0.1%. When the
channel bed and walls were made smooth by neat cement, the measured normal depth of flow
was 0.40 m for a discharge of 0.23 m 3/s. The same channel was then roughened by cemented
sand grains and the measured normal depth was 0.35 m for a discharge of 0.12 m 3/s. Determine
the discharge for a normal depth of 0.45 m if the bed is roughened and the walls are made
smooth.

4.16 Compute the flood discharge through a river reach 1000 m long having a fall in water
surface of 0.85 m. Neglect the eddy loss. Use the following data:

______________________________________________________
Section A(m2) P(m) n α
______________________________________________________
Upstream 12,000 2,150 0.030 1.15
Downstream 10,500 2,050 0.030 1.18
______________________________________________________

*******

83