Forms of Energy 2

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UNIT 2: FORMS OF ENERGY

FORMS OF ENERGY

Unit Objectives:

 Explain the different forms of energy.


 Explain how energy can be converted from one form to another.
 State practical examples of and reasons for energy conversion processes
 Explain the concept of energy in transition, i.e. heat and work.
 Calculate the energy transfer and rate of energy transfer in a thermodynamic process.

One of the most important and fundamental laws of science is the Law of Energy Conservation.
This states that energy can be neither created nor destroyed but only converted from one form
to another. Clearly the law implies that energy can be manifested in many forms which
mutually convertible and can be measured in the same units. Those forms of energy which are
important in the study of thermodynamics will be examined in this chapter. In principle, all
forms of energy are mutually convertible. However, not all conversions are practical, and this
chapter will include examples of those energy conversions which are most relevant to modern
engineering-practice.

POTENTIAL ENERGY
Symbol: PE Unit: Joule (J)

Isaac Newton showed that there is a gravitational attractive force between all bodies, and that
the magnitude of this force depends on the mass of each body and the distance between them.
When one of the masses is the Earth, and the other mass (m in kg) is located near the Earth’s
surface, this force is significant. The force is given by:

F=mg

where g is the acceleration due to gravity, where the typical value of g = 9.81 m/s 2

Potential Energy (PE) is the energy possesses by the mass due to the Earth’s attraction when
the mass is located at sme height (h) above an arbitrary datum (reference line) Thus:

PE = F h N.m = J
= (m g)h kg.m/s2.m = N.m = J (Equation 2.1)

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UNIT 2: FORMS OF ENERGY

m h

PE = 0 PE = mgh

Figure 2.1 Potential Energy

Although potential energy is usually of minor significance in thermodynamics due to its


relatively small magnitude compared with other forms of energy, there are few cases in which
it plays an important role because it is a form of energy which can be stored easily. For example
in some areas of the world there are lakes of water in the mountains above a valley floor. This
water represents a great store of potential energy.

Example 2.1

What is the potential energy of a mass of 10 kg suspended 2 m above the floor of a laboratory?

Solution:

From Equation 2.1


PE = m g h
= 10 x 9.81 x 2 kg.m/s 2.m = N.m = J
= 196.2 J
= 0.196 kJ

Conclusion:
The mass stores only a small amount of potential energy.

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UNIT 2: FORMS OF ENERGY

Example 2.2

A fresh water lake with an area of 2400 m2and an average depth of 5 m is located in a
mountainous region which is 350 m above a valley floor. What is the potential energy stored in
this lake of water?

Solution:

Volume of water in the lake = Area x Depth


= 2400 m2 x 5 m
= 12,000 m3

Now, density of fresh water, ρ = 1,000 kg/m3


mass of water in the lake, m = ρ V
m = 1,000 kg/m3 x 12,000 m3
m = 12 x 106 kg

From Equation 2.1 PE = m g h


PE = (12 x 106 kg) (9.81 m/s2) (350 m)
PE = 41,202 x 106 J
PE = 41,202 MJ

Conclusion:
The lake stores a considerable quantity of potential energy. This could be converted to
electrical energy.

KINETIC ENERGY
Symbol: KE Unit: Joule (J)

Kinetic Energy (KE) is the energy possessed by a mass which is in motion. The motion may be
linear or rotational, but we will restrict our study to linear motion since this is more commonly
met in practical engineering problems.

Energy is required to accelerate a body from rest to any given velocity. This energy is the kinetic
energy and it is stored in the moving body. The kinetic energy which stored in a body of mass,
m, moving with a velocity, V, is given by

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UNIT 2: FORMS OF ENERGY

KE = ½ m V2 kg m2/s2 = N.m = J (Equation 2.2)

Velocity, V

Mass of car, m

Figure 2.2 Kinetic Energy

Kinetic energy is frequently of little significance in thermodynamics, and can often be neglected
unless there is a large mass flow rate or change of velocity in the particular application. Kinetic
Energy cannot be stored very well because it is continually degraded by the friction losses that
usually accompany motion.

Example 2.3

A motor vehicle weighing 19,620 N is travelling at 72 km/hr. What is the kinetic energy of the
vehicle?

Solution:
From equation 2.1
W =m g
19,620 N
W ¿
Hence, the mass of the vehicle, m= m
g 9.81 2
s
m=2000 kg

km
Velocity of the vehicle, V =72,000 → m/s
hr

72,000
V=
3600

m
V =20
s
From Equation 2.2

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UNIT 2: FORMS OF ENERGY

1
KE= m V 2
2
(20 m/ s )2
KE=2,000 kg x =400,000 J =400 kJ
2
Conversion of Potential Energy to Kinetic Energy

A practical example of energy conversion is found in hydro-electric power plant, this shown in
Figure 2.3.

Figure 2.3 Hydro-electric Power Plant

Here a body of water such as lake or reservoir is held in a mountain catchment area high above
the power plant on the valley floor below. The water has potential energy because of elevation.
When the water travels down the pipe to the power plant, the potential energy is converted
into kinetic energy. This kinetic energy is used to drive the turbine which, in turn, drives the
generator to produce electricity.

WORK
Symbol: W Unit: Joule (J)

Work is the product of a force and the distance moved by the force along its line of action. Like
Kinetic Energy, Work (W) can be linear or rotational. Thus is shown in Figure 2.4

Force
F

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UNIT 2: FORMS OF ENERGY

W=Fx

Shaft

Torque
Ɵ T
Figure 2.4 Work

If a constant force F moves through a linear distance x then the Work done is

W=Fx

If a constant torque T is applied to a shaft which rotates through an angular distance Ɵ, then
the Work done is,

W=TƟ

Note: Torque is also known as the twisting moment about an axis. It is equal to the product of
the tangential force and its radial distance from the axis.

T=Fr N.m ≡ N.m

Looking at these equations we see that the units of Work are identical with those of energy. If
the force F is in newtons and the distance moved x is in meters, then the unit of Work is in N.m
≡ J. If the torque T is in newton-meter and the angular distance Ɵ is in radians, then again the
unit of Work is the N.m ≡ J. [Note: Radian is just a number]

While Work is done on a body, there is a transfer of energy to the body. Similarly, while a body
does Work, there is a transfer of energy from the body, and so work can be said to be energy in
transition. This is a particular important concept. Since Work is energy in transition, it is clear
that energy in the form of Work cannot be stored. For example, if an object is lifted from the
floor to the top of a table, Work is done in overcoming the downward force of gravity and

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UNIT 2: FORMS OF ENERGY

moving the object to the height of the table. However, the energy is not stored as work but as
the final energy of the object.

Potential energy stored = m g


h
Table

Work done = F h = w h = m g
F=W w h
h

Mass, m
Datum level

Weight, w = mg

Figure 2.5 Work done in lifting object stored as potential energy

Example 2.4

A crane is used to lift a load of bricks to the top of a new office building. Calculate the work
done if the load of bricks weighs 1,600 N and the building is 50 m tall. Compare the work done
with the potential energy of the bricks when the top of the building.

Solution:

Force required to lift the bricks,


F = weight of the bricks, w
From Equation 2.3
W=Fx
W = 1,600 N x 50 m
= 80,000 J
= 80 kJ
From Equation 2.1
PE = m g h
=wh
= 1,600 N x 50 m
= 80,000 J
PE = 80 kJ
Conclusion:
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UNIT 2: FORMS OF ENERGY

The Work done is equivalent to the increase in the potential energy of the bricks.

Conversion of Work

In Example 2.4 we saw Work converted into potential energy. Since work is energy in transition,
it may be converted into other forms of energy too. A common practical example is found in
the motor car in which Work is converted into kinetic energy. The engine of the vehicle exerts a
torque on the output shaft causing it to rotate and thus produce Work. This Work is used to
drive the wheel of the vehicle and so move it along the road. Since the vehicle possess mass
and is moving at a certain velocity it therefore has kinetic energy. Thus Work has been
converted into kinetic energy.

Car velocity, V

Engine produces work output

Figure 2.6 Work done is converted to Kinetic Energy

The forms of energy which we have examined so far, namely, Potential Energy, Kinetic Energy
and Work all originate from mechanical sources. That is to say, they all derive from forces and
physical movement. For this reason these three forms of energy are sometimes grouped
together and referred to collectively as mechanical energy.

POWER
Symbol: P Unit: Watt (W)

The amount of work which is produced or used by a machine gives no idea of the size of the
machine. After all, any machine is capable of producing any amount of work if it is allowed to
run indefinitely. Clearly, the amount of work which is performed per unit time is a measure of

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UNIT 2: FORMS OF ENERGY

the size or capacity of the machine. If work is to be done more quickly, then a machine has to
be more powerful. Thus, power (P) measures the rate of doing work or conveying energy.
If the rate of work transfer is constant then,

W Fx x
P= = =F =F V → N m/s = J/s = W → (Equation 2.5)
t t t

where F = Force and V = velocity

Often the most convenient form of mechanical power transmission in a machine is by means of
rotating shaft. Thus in this case, we can write,

W Tθ θ
P= = =T =Tω → Nm 1/s = N m/s = J/s = W →(Equation 2.6)
t t t

Where T = torque and ω = angular velocity

The unit of Power is clearly that of work (N.m or J) divided by time (s). This unit ( N s.m ∨ Js ) is
known as the watt (W). However, in practical thermodynamics, the watt is a rather small unit,
and the kilowatt (kW) or megawatt (MW), are often used instead.

1 kW = 103 W
1 MW = 106W

Example 2.5

A force of 1,200N is required to propel a motor car at 99 km/h along a level road. Ignoring all
losses, determine the power output needed from the engine.

Solution:

km
V =99
h

km m
¿ 99 x 1000 s
hr 3600

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UNIT 2: FORMS OF ENERGY

m
V =27.5
s

From Equation 2.5

P=FC
m
P=1,200 N x 27.5
s

P=33,000 W

P=33 kW

Example 2.6

The output shaft of an engine delivers a torque of 66 N.m. If the shaft rotates 240 times in 4.2
seconds, calculate the power output of the engine.

Solution:

One revolution = 2π radians


240 revolutions = 240 x 2π radians = 1508 radians
Angular velocity, ω = 1508 radians/4.2 sec = 359 rad/s

From Equation 2.6

P=Tω
P = 66 N.m x 359 rad/s
P = 23,700 W
P = 23.7 kW

Note:
Power is a measure of the rate of doing work. A typical motor car-engine produces 25 kW.

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UNIT 2: FORMS OF ENERGY

HEAT
Symbol: q Unit: Joule (J)

From our everyday experience, we know that a cold drink left in a room will eventually warm up
to the temperature in the room. Similarly, a hot cup of coffee or a hot bowl of soup left in the
same room will cool down to the temperature in the room.

Surrounding atmosphere
Q
Heat flow
Q
Heat flow

Cold drink gets warmer Hot drink gets cooler

Figure 2.7 Heat transfer to and from surroundings

This might be summarized by saying that a body left in a medium at a different temperature will
transfer energy between the body and the medium until thermal equilibrium is reached, that is,
they reach the same temperature. Once this condition is reached, the energy transfer stops.
We notice that the energy transfer is always from the high temperature to the lower
temperature, and never the reverse. In the process just described, energy is said to be
transferred in the form of heat.

Heat may, therefore be defined as energy that is transferred by virtue of temperature


difference and in fact, an energy transfer will only occur in the form of heat if there is a
temperature difference. Any other energy transfer must be in the form of work. It follows that
there can be no heat transfer between two places that are at the same temperature.

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UNIT 2: FORMS OF ENERGY

In thermodynamics, it is important to distinguish between heat and internal energy, since they
are two different things. A body can contain energy but not “heat”. Internal energy is explained
in Section 2.6.
Like work, heat is energy in transition and, therefore, cannot be stored. Heat is only recognized
as it travels from a relatively hot source (high temperature energy source) to a relatively cold
sink (low temperature energy reservoir. Consider the two bodies shown in Figure 2.8

(a) Heat
Body A at transfer
high Q Body B at
temperature low
temperature
(hot) (cold)

(b) Body A
same No
heat Body B
temperature
transfer same
temperature

Thermal Equilibrium

Figure 2.8 Heat Transfer and Thermal Equilibrium

Initially, as in Figure 2.8a, body A contains more internal energy because of its higher
temperature. Energy transfers from body A to body B in the form of Heat due to the
temperature difference. Once thermal equilibrium has been reached, as in Figure 2.8b, Heat is
no longer transferred because both bodies have reached the same temperature. Body A has
experienced a net loss of internal energy whilst B has experienced a net gain of internal energy.
The net loss and the net gain will be equal if there has been no loss of energy during the heat
transfer process.

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UNIT 2: FORMS OF ENERGY

Heat is denoted by the symbol (Q), and since it is a form of energy, it has the same units as
energy, that is, the joule (J) or the kilojoule (kJ). Heat transfer per unit mass is often very
important in thermodynamics and it is denoted by the symbol (q).
Q
q= kJ/kg
m

Sometimes it is necessary to know the rate of heat transfer, that is, the amount of heat transfer
per unit time. Heat transfer rate is denoted by the symbol ( Q̇) where the raised dot indicates
‘per unit time’. Heat transfer rate has the unit of kJ/s which is equivalent to power measured in
kilowatts (kW).

When heat flows into a substance, a change of temperature does not necessarily result but
where heat flow does cause a change of temperature, this is known as the sensible as sensible
heat. If there is no change of temperature but rather a change of phase (in the physical state,
such as solid, liquid or gas), this is known as latent heat. This is examined for water and other
fluids in detail in succeeding chapters. However the quantity of sensible heat flow required is
given by

Q=mc (T h−T c )

Q=mc [ ( t h+ 273 )−( t c +273 ) ]

Q=mc [t h−t c ] Equation 2.7

where Q = quantity of heat transferred (J)


m = mass of the substance (kg)
c = specific heat capacity of the substance (J/kg-K)
Tc, tc = coldest temperature (ᵒC or K)
Th, th = hottest temperature (ᵒC or K)

Specific heat capacity is a property of a substance. At the pressures and temperatures


encountered in many engineering problems, specific heat capacity remains approximately
constant for many substances.

Example 2.7

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UNIT 2: FORMS OF ENERGY

In a heat treatment process, a cast iron component with a mass of 40 kg is heated from 30ᵒC to
700ᵒC in 7 minutes in a furnace. Calculate the heating power of the furnace. Assume that the
specific heat capacity of cast iron is 0.5 kJ/kg-K.

Solution:

From Equation 2.7, sensible heat flow required

Q=mc [t h−t c ]

kJ
¿ 40 kg x 0.5 −K x (700−30 ) K
kg

Q=13,400 kJ

This quantity of heat is transferred in time, t = 7 minutes


=7 min x 60 s/min
= 420 s

Heating power of furnace,

Q
Q̇=
t

13,400 J
¿
420 s

Q̇=31.9 kW kJ/s = kW

Note: Heat is a form of energy in transition which flows due to a temperature difference.

Conversion of heat

An example of the energy conversion process is seen in the engine of a motor vehicle. Heat is
supplied to the engine through the combustion of a fuel such as petrol. This results in the
rotation of the engine shaft providing work output which is used to drive the vehicle along the
road. Physical details of the engine and the processes taking place within the engine are beyond
the scope of this manual.

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UNIT 2: FORMS OF ENERGY

INERNAL ENERGY
Symbol: U Unit: Joule (J)

Internal energy is the energy that a fluid possesses because of the microscopic movements of
the individual molecules of fluid. Any temperature above absolute zero, the molecules are in
motion, and this motion can be linear or rotational. All three are present in a gas, as shown in
Figure 2.9

Linear motion

Rotational
motion

Vibrational motion

Gas Molecules

Figure 2.9 Molecular motion in a gas

An increase in temperature will results in greater molecular movement and hence an increase
in internal energy.

The symbol for internal energy is (U), and it shall have the unit of energy, that is the joule (J). In
practical thermodynamic problems, specific internal energy (the internal energy of unit mass) is
often more useful. For this, the symbol used is (u) and the unit is J/kg.

Values of specific internal for any substances can be determined with reference to an arbitrary
datum and tabulated. Usually the change of specific internal energy during a process is of more
importance than the absolute vales.

Conversion of internal energy

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UNIT 2: FORMS OF ENERGY

Since internal energy is one form of energy, it can be converted into other forms of energy, and
vice versa. A practical demonstration is seen when a brake is applied to stop a moving motor
vehicle. Here, the kinetic energy of the vehicle is absorbed by the brake and converted into
internal energy, resulting in a temperature increase of the brake.

CHEMICAL ENERGY
Symbol: None Unit: Joule (J)

This form of energy is of great interest to engineers since it is the energy which is released
when a fuel burns in air. An example of this is shown In Figure 2.10. Here gas from a bottle is
being mixed with air and burned to produce heat for cooking.

Figure 2.10 Chemical energy from gas

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