A n i m a l L e a r n i n g a n d Tr a i n i n g

Implications for Animal Welfare

Sabrina I.C.A. Brando, BSc

KEYWORDS
 Animal welfare  Learning  Training  Positive reinforcement

KEY POINTS
 A definition of animal welfare is the state of the individual as it attempts to cope with its
environment.
 Welfare concerns all of the mechanisms for coping, involving physiology, behavior, feelings,
and pathologic responses.
 When training programs are not in place the animal’s welfare could be impaired.
 Some of the behaviors an animal exhibits can be used to gain insight into how the animal
feels about the environment, caretakers, and procedures.
 Many contemporary animal trainers and care specialists focus on building relationships
using positive reinforcement.

ANIMAL WELFARE

The field of animal welfare is rapidly evolving and growing. Green and Mellor1 write
“The literature on animal welfare is diverse and expanding and reveals that ideas about
animal welfare have evolved since it became established as a field of scientific inves-
tigations about 25–30 years ago.2–4 Its scientific roots are multi-disciplinary5 and
include fields such as ethology, physiology, pathology, biochemistry, genetics, immu-
nology, immunology, cognitive neural science and veterinary epidemiology.3,4,6 In
addition, scientific thinking about animal welfare has been influenced by societal views
on what constitutes acceptable and unacceptable ways of treating animals, views
which reflected prevailing and evolving ethical, social, cultural, religious, economic
and other values.”3,7,8 In the assessment of animal welfare previously there was
a focus on pain, stress, maladaptive behavior, and disease; the focus was on reducing
negative animal welfare states. Now the assessment of animal welfare also includes
positive welfare states, the presence of feelings of pleasure or contentment; the
assessment is based the holistic approach of “considering the whole animal.”9 Mendl

The author has nothing to disclose.

AnimalConcepts, Zoom 1813, 8225 KM, Lelystad, The Netherlands
E-mail address: [email protected]

Vet Clin Exot Anim 15 (2012) 387–398

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cvex.2012.06.008 vetexotic.theclinics.com
1094-9194/12/$ – see front matter Ó 2012 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
388 Brando

and colleagues10 write “Concerns for animal welfare are generally based on the
assumption that non-human animals can subjectively experience emotional (affective)
states and hence can suffer or experience pleasure.”11–14
Broom15 writes “Health is part of welfare and it refers to what is happening in body
systems, including those in the brain, which combat pathogens, tissue damage or phys-
iologic disorder. Health is the state of an individual as it attempts to cope with pathology.
With disease challenges, as well as with other challenges, difficult or inadequate adap-
tation results in poor welfare.” “Poor welfare is often associated with lack of control over
interactions with the environment of the individual, ie, with difficulty in adapting. To use
animals in a human-orientated environment, and to ensure that the welfare of those
animals is good, we need to know about the abilities of animals to adapt. At the indi-
vidual level, adaptation is the use of regulatory systems, with their behavioral and phys-
iologic components, to help an individual to cope with its environmental conditions.”16
Broom17 also writes “A definition of animal welfare is: the state of the individual as it
attempts to cope with its environment. Welfare concerns all of the mechanisms for
coping: involving physiology, behavior, feelings and pathologic responses. Welfare is
a wider term than health but health is an important part of welfare. Animal welfare is
a scientific concept that describes a potentially measurable quality of a living animal
at a particular time. Behavioral measures are also of particular value in welfare assess-
ment. The fact that an animal avoids an object or event, strongly gives information about
its feelings and hence about its welfare. The stronger the avoidance the worse the
welfare while the object is present or the event is occurring.”
To ensure high welfare levels for animals, caretakers need to analyze and evaluate the
methods used to achieve desired behavior, to understand how learning affects their
welfare Table 1. Caretakers can use behavioral observations together with physiologic
observations as tools to gain insight into how animals experience their environment,
staff members, and conspecifics. Caretakers can determine what matters to animals
in their care and what are their welfare needs.10,18 In regard to medical care many
animals experience situations considered to be associated with negative welfare
states, such as lack of control over environment, lack of choices, fear responses, coer-
cion, and exposure to aversives.
In some cases choosing a negative welfare state is most conducive to supporting
health care. For example, an animal may need movement to be limited to ensure heal-
ing. However, other commonly experienced procedures have the potential to be modi-
fied to promote positive welfare states. For example, routine capture and restraint can
be trained using positive reinforcement so that an animal voluntarily participates in the
procedure. Health is part of welfare; however, in practice the emphasis is often on

Table 1
Welfare indicators

Positive Welfare Indicators Negative Welfare Indicators

Interest in activities or enrichment Body damage
Behaviors indicative of comfort or rest Apathy
Play behaviors Self-mutilation
Acceptable interactions with caretakers Learned helplessness
Physical and psychological fitness High vigilance
Normal sleep patterns Stereotypic behaviors
Normal grooming and bathing behaviors Little to no control over the environment
Normal interactions with conspecifics Extensive huddling or hiding from caretakers
Control and choice over the environment
 Animal Learning and Training 389

health, and often only on physical health. By focusing on welfare, including physical and
psychological health, caregivers can provide optimal care for the animals they steward.

LEARNING IS ALWAYS OCCURRING

Animals are learning all the time. They are learning about routine procedures, such as
shifting, weighing, and nail clipping. They are also aware of and learning about the
frequency, quantity, and time of feeding; cleaning; care staff personalities; show
times; and enrichment activities. Because animals are constantly learning, albeit
through different mechanisms, animals are almost always “in training.” They learn
about the environment, housing conditions, social dynamics, when the areas are
cleaned, and when animals will be handled. The animals might learn about shifting,
handling, or weighing but not necessarily participate in these procedures on a volun-
tary basis. When medical, behavior and other care programs are not actively and
extensively discussed, planned, and analyzed many things can lead to poor welfare.
When animals are not trained to voluntarily participate in their care (to shift into areas,
to be on scales, to feel comfortable being handled or when treated) the procedures
and outcomes for these animals are often aversive in nature. Water sprays, brooms,
stones, loud noises, the threatening posture of a human body, grabbing hands, and
nets and gloves have all been used in a coercive manner to move animals; to handle;
and to control and restrain animals for husbandry and medical procedures (personal
observations).

LACK OF A TRAINING PROGRAM AFFECTS WELFARE

When training programs are not in place animal welfare suffers. For example, access
to food is often misused or abused when animals are not trained to voluntarily shift into
holding areas. The food is positioned to encourage animals to move to desired areas,
such as dens or crates for handling and medical examination. If animals show fear
responses to those areas they either have to enter to eat or go without food. This
severely reduces the animal’s choices and control over access to food. This often
results in pacing, spending excessive amounts of time close to shift doors, or other
maladaptive behaviors. The animal may be motivated to eat but will not dare to enter
the area because of past experiences of being trapped or captured. If the animal is
very hungry then it might run in quickly to access food and immediately exit again.
Many animals wait for the caretakers to leave. Caretakers will observe the food is
gone when they return. Some animals spend a considerable amount of time in off
exhibit holding areas when caretakers are not around (observed by cameras). These
animals have learned that capture depends on staff being present. Sometimes
animals need to be enclosed inside for enclosure repair, cleaning, or medical exami-
nations. In these situations some caretakers wait long periods of time for the animal to
enter the holding area. When the animal finally comes in, the door is shut behind them.
This often results in pacing, escape behaviors, or huddling behavior (depending on the
individual and species) until the door is opened again and the animal can run out. Most
animal care staff and veterinarians confirm that one trial learning is often sufficient for
the animal to learn to stay away from those areas or people involved in the capture for
considerable amounts of time afterward.
The behaviors an animal exhibits can be used to gain insight into how the animal
feels about the environment, the caretakers, and the procedures. Pacing, huddling
together, alarm calls, hiding when a person shows up, and not approaching caretakers
or veterinarians are all examples of animals that are experiencing reduced welfare.
These behaviors should be used as an indicator that the behavior and care program
390 Brando

is not functioning at best practice levels and that changes need to be made to reduce
fear and anxiety toward humans, procedures, and the environment.

ANIMAL RESPONSE TO HEALTH CARE

The accounts of animals identifying veterinarians from the crowd, even when dressed
up to look like a caretaker or technician, are many. Because of busy schedules many
veterinarians do not have time to spend feeding animals, playing with them, or offering
enrichment. One of the reasons some veterinary procedures, such as blood sampling,
are sometimes transferred to zoo keepers is that often as soon as the veterinarian
comes into sight, animals run away, hide, or are no longer cooperative. The animals
have learned to associate the veterinarian with unpleasant procedures, anxiety, or
pain. The animals often never see the veterinarian outside of these medical proce-
dures, resulting in an association based only on aversives. Animals are often asked
to shift into holding areas or crates before the veterinarian arrives to increase the chan-
ces of success for the medical examination. Caretakers need to consider that this
might facilitate getting the procedure accomplished in the short term but may make
shifting for future examinations more difficult. When an animal shifts into a holding
area and it is followed-up with aversive experiences, a decrease in the success rate
of these behaviors is observed.
Some veterinarians are able to find time to interact with animals and build a trusting
relationship. These animals learn to associate the veterinarian with pleasant activities,
such as feeding, resting, and playing. Something unpleasant rarely happens, and
when it does the event is signaled. For example the word “door” can be used to signal
when a door opens or shuts, and can then be anticipated by the animal. This reduces
high vigilance and makes it more likely the animal will be inclined to participate in
species-specific behaviors, social activities, grooming, eating, and so forth.
In the best scenario the animal participates voluntarily in its own care. Unless animals
are in rehabilitation and reintroduction programs with special requirements, all animals
housed in captivity should not have to live with fear and anxiety toward humans or their
environment. How the animal responds to its environment and the way it copes with
negative and positive stressors is important for understanding the individual animal’s
welfare. Not teaching animals to be comfortably handled can result in fear, anxiety, or
aggressive behavior. Aggressive behavior often leads to the animal being moved on to
another collection, into shelters, or at times euthanasia. Furthermore, many people do
not like working with animals that present aggressive behavior or fear responses. This
could result in less motivation to provide optimal care for such individuals.
Understanding how different learning mechanisms work can help reduce unneces-
sary fear, anxiety, extreme vigilance, aggressive behavior, and program-induced
stereotypic or other undesired behaviors. This can greatly improve their welfare and
the experiences of positive welfare states and reduce the negative experiences often
related to involuntary procedures and circumstances.

CHANGES IN ANIMAL TRAINING

Understanding animal learning is an important facet of being an animal care specialist.

This applies to veterinarians, curators, zookeepers, and pet owners. Because animals
are constantly learning caretakers need to be aware of the effects of their decisions,
attitudes, and actions. Veterinarians encounter a great number of animals with behav-
ioral problems. This is observed in companion animals and captive wild animals.
Because of this there is a growing need for more and more veterinarians who have
an interest in specializing in animal behavior and learning.
 Animal Learning and Training 391

The field of animal training has seen beneficial changes. These changes include
a transition to the use of methods that focus on positive reinforcement and heightened
sensitivity to the animal’s body language to avoid creating fear responses and aggres-
sive behaviors. There has been a shift away from coercive methods of training and an
emphasis on empowering the animal. This has led to good relationships with animals
based on trust. Positive reinforcement has been applied to species varying from
mammals and reptiles to birds and fish.19–23
Many animal species are trained in a free-contact scenario. The trainer and the
animal have full access to one another. In this situation the use of aversives can
lead to dangerous situations, particularly when working in close proximity to an
animal.19 Acceptable ways of animal training have been under discussion for many
years, especially in the dog training world. Yin writes about the dominance contro-
versy24: “Virtually everyone who started as a dog trainer over 15–20 years ago started
out using traditional dog training techniques: similar to those used by Cesar Millan
(National Geographic’s The Dog Whisperer). This is how most dogs were trained
back then. As a result we have first-hand experience as to why and when such
punishment-based techniques might work, the pitfalls, and why and when other tech-
niques work better. Traditional training techniques are based on the idea that we must
become the dominant leader and rule our pets the way a wolf would rule a pack.”
Many dog trainer associations have opposed traditional dog training methods, and
in February 2009 the American Veterinary Society of Animal Behavior has also
opposed these punitive methods. The American Veterinary Society of Animal Behavior
issued a position statement about the use of punishment for behavior modification in
animals, detailing nine possible adverse effects of using punishment when training
dogs.25 Training methods with frequent use of punishers and other aversive methods
should be modified by reducing or abolishing the use of punishers in facilities, veter-
inary clinics, and at home. Punishers do not inform the animal what it is that we would
like her or him to do, only what was the incorrect response. The frequent use of
punishers can also instill anxiety in regard to learning. Animals may hesitate to respond
in fear of making the wrong decision. This response can become slower until the
animal may choose not to respond at all.
Focusing on positive reinforcement training allows the caregiver to build trust and
a bond with the animals, while at the same time promoting the desired behaviors
and creating a stimulating, interesting, and safe learning environment. In traditional
animal training many practices that result in poor animal welfare have been used.
For example, excessive food deprivation has often been used to motivate the animals.
In other cases, gregarious animals were placed in social isolation and received limited
human contact because of undesired behavior (personal observations). Many things
are done to animals, including grabbing, poking, squeezing, spraying with water
hoses, and scaring with loud noises because there is a perceived need to control
the animal. Humans have also practiced these methods on animals because they
can. This is because often the animals are small enough to be overpowered and
handled, or in an enclosure where they can easily be accessed. If the animal could
potentially harm a human and there were no protective barriers, it is unlikely a care-
taker would think of waving food in front of an animal to gain cooperation and then
put it back in the container. If the animal could potentially harm a human and there
were no barriers, it is unlikely a caretaker would think of using the spray of water
from a hose or throwing stones to get an animal to move to other areas. Most humans
would never grab or hold an animal down if it was thought the animal could hurt or kill
the handler (except perhaps in a medical emergency). The reasons things have tradi-
tionally been done this way are many: because humans have been able to get away
392 Brando

with such practices, often because of time constraints, the perceived ease of using
such methods, “because we have always done it this way,” or just because the alter-
native options have not yet been considered.
Many contemporary animal trainers and care specialists focus on building relation-
ships using positive reinforcement. They are not only concerned with the correct applica-
tion of behavioral learning principles but they also pay attention to and consider the effect
of human body language, posture, and communication of the animals in their care.26

UNDERSTANDING PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING

Although there are many processes through which animals can learn, this article
focuses mainly on classical and operant conditioning with an emphasis on positive
reinforcement as it applies to daily husbandry and medical care procedures. “Clas-
sical conditioning is a process of behavior modification in which a subject learns to
respond in a desired manner such that a neutral stimulus is repeatedly presented in
association with a stimulus (the unconditioned stimulus) that elicits a natural response
(the unconditioned response) until the neutral stimulus alone elicits the same response
(now called the conditioned response). For example, in Pavlov’s experiments, food is
the unconditioned stimulus that produces salivation, a reflex or unconditioned
response. The bell is the conditioned stimulus, which eventually produces salivation
in the absence of food. This salivation is the conditioned response.”27
In a veterinary example an ophthalmoscope used to investigate the eyes of an
animal and a bottle of eye drops are the unconditioned stimuli. The bright light used
with the ophthalmoscope and drops applied to the eyes make the rat close its eyes
(unconditioned response). Over time the bright light becomes associated with the
ophthalmoscope and the drops become associated with the bottle. Eventually the
presence of the ophthalmoscope or the bottle can elicit closing of the eyes as if the
light or the drops were there (conditioned response). In this example the animal
may start to squint when the veterinarian picks up the ophthalmoscope or bottle of
eye drops. These at first unconditioned stimuli became conditioned stimuli, eliciting
the same response (squinting or closing of the eyes) as if the bright light or the drops
where there. Classical conditioning has taken place when such reactions are
observed. In this example it is important to note that although training may not have
been intentionally occurring the animal has learned a specific response to the stimuli.
In addition to the resulting behavior, there are also underlying emotional states asso-
ciated with the process, such as fear, anxiety, or pleasure. Veterinary professionals
who are aware of how their actions influence animal behavior and emotional states
are better prepared to improve welfare states in regard to medical procedures.
This also applies to other principles of learning. Understanding how positive and
negative reinforcement, and positive and negative punishment are used to influence
behavior can make a veterinary professional more cognizant of his or her actions.
Learning processes in which an aversive is applied to decrease behavior (positive
punishment) or removed to increase behavior (negative reinforcement) are generally
considered options only when less intrusive choices (positive reinforcement and nega-
tive punishment) are not successful. The animal training community has shown that
positive reinforcement can be used successfully for voluntary participation in medical
procedures in several species. Some examples include training animals to cooperate
in nail clipping, crate training, blood sampling, radiographs, and accepting oral medi-
cations. Positive reinforcement trainers are highly aware of aversives experiences and
how they affect behavior and the relationship between the trainer and the animal and
therefore rarely consider the use of aversives as an option in training. This same
 Animal Learning and Training 393

sensitivity applied in the veterinary setting can lead to more successful medical proce-
dures with little or no stress. For additional information see the articles on the applica-
tion of science-based training technology and a framework for solving behavior
problems elsewhere in this issue.
To better understand what learning principles are in play veterinary professionals
need to identify if a behavior has been increased, maintained, or decreased. They
also need to identify what consequences resulted from the presentation of the
observed behavior. Was an aversive removed? Was an item of value (eg, a preferred
food item) presented and consumed? Careful scrutiny of behavior change and the
process help veterinary professionals refine practices and focus on the use of positive
reinforcement–based methods
Not understanding and recognizing these principles can have serious impact on the
care and welfare of animals. Animals that learn fear responses and aggressive
behavior toward humans because of heavy-handed treatment procedures may be
difficult or dangerous to treat. These patterns can be broken by understanding how
the learning process works and adjusting handling strategies to train the patient to
cooperate voluntarily. Cooperation can make medical care easier, and it can also influ-
ence emotional states. Understanding and recognizing positive and negative welfare,
and matching behavior to internal states, is essential to improve animal welfare.
Animal trainers are also careful to observe the animals they work with and keep
track of changes in behavior, preferences, and learning. Changes can occur depend-
ing on such variables as life stages, seasons, the weather, pain, and social dynamics,
which can work alone or together. Good trainers adapt when necessary, and are
sensitive to the animal’s needs. Good trainers also understand how the different
mechanisms and tools work together or effects caused by incorrect application.
Ramirez proposes that “training is teaching.”28 By teaching animals to participate in
their daily health and husbandry care the stress that is related to these proce-
dures29–34 can be significantly reduced. Positive reinforcement can be used to reduce
fear responses and aggressive behavior. Positive reinforcement can be used to train
animals to be cooperative in their care and provide a stimulating environment in which
they can experience positive welfare states.

FEAR RESPONSES AND ANIMAL WELFARE

Reducing fear responses is important to animal welfare. Desensitization and counter-

conditioning are the tools of choice to address fear responses and provide positive
welfare states. Stafford35 writes “According to the training glossary of the International
Marine Animal Trainers’ Association (IMATA), desensitization is a “process of using
time or experience to change an animal’s perception of a stimulus from a value, .
to neutral or no value.” When trainers think of desensitization, they are usually con-
cerned with reducing the aversive value of a stimulus, such as eliminating a dog’s fear-
ful reactions to thunderstorms by providing reinforcing consequences for calm
responses. However, it is important to remember that desensitization also cuts the
other way. For example, leaving the same few dog toys out day after day can reduce
the reinforcement value of those toys. Similarly, using a clicker repeatedly, tooting all
day long on a whistle, or shouting “good boy” over and over again to mark precise
behavior approximations (what the Breland’s36 first called “bridging a behavior”)
without following those signals with meaningful reinforcement can weaken (ie, desen-
sitize) the effectiveness of those bridging stimuli. Because a strong bridge (in whatever
form) is needed to accurately and precisely reward improvements in the behaviors one
wants to teach, including reducing fearful and anxious responses, it is vital that one not
394 Brando

inadvertently desensitize animals to this key training tool through its overuse and
underreinforcement.
Counterconditioning is “pairing one stimulus that evokes one response with another
that evokes an opposite response, so that the first stimulus comes to evoke the
second response.”37 For example, if a dog is afraid of the nail clippers, the dog can
be fed its favorite food as the veterinarian approaches with the nail clippers. “The
goal is to replace the animal’s apprehension with the pleasure elicited by the food.
Counter conditioning must be done gradually, however; if the process is rushed, the
favorite food may take on the fear association instead.”37 A clear video is available.38
By teaching animals to participate in their daily care they gain more control and
choice over their environment. Caregivers can offer the animal the opportunity to partic-
ipate and collaborate, rather than imposing procedures on them. This can decrease the
fear and stress related to procedures and can also increase the motivation of animals to
participate in pretrained procedures. Concern for mental and physical well-being
includes understanding learning principles and addressing fear responses, and can ulti-
mately lead to an increase in the welfare standard of the animals in one’s care.

THE HUMAN-ANIMAL RELATIONSHIP

“We should work with animals as if gates and doors weren’t there; as if they could
leave any moment they wanted. If they then decide to stay and be with you, then
you can say you have a good bond and the animal is truly interested in being with
you” (J. McBain, personal communication, 2008).
Veterinarians, curators, zookeepers, and pet owners are all “trainers.” Whether
aware of it or not, each is training the animals in their care, influencing behavior,
and affecting the human-animal relationship. An animal can learn that a human’s pres-
ence results in desired consequences or undesired consequences. This affects how
an animal responds to each individual it encounters. This means the decisions
made in regard to how medical care is provided can have consequences. Some
consequences have lasting effect. Doing something to an animal that is unpleasant
just one time, such as a short restraint procedure, can be enough to teach the animal
to mistrust a handler for a long time. Although an emergency may require such action,
it is important to consider or accept the consequences before proceeding. Best care
practices require refining some of the traditional methods used to provide medical
care. With the knowledge that many animals respond with fear or aggressive behavior
to capture and restraint, at the very least animal care programs should include
a strategy for reducing stress for these procedures either through training or arranging
the environment so that the process is as stress-free as possible. Although it is
possible to get animals to cooperate by other means, such as using positive punish-
ment or other coercive methods, this does not result in good welfare states. It is impor-
tant to attend to the animal’s medical needs but the process with which it is done is
equally important to maintaining a trusting relationship with the animal. Even when
restricted for time, veterinary professionals have options. For example, not all restraint
procedures require a strong hold for the duration of the treatment. Negative reinforce-
ment in which the handler relaxes restraint when the animal is calm can teach the
animal to present calm behavior during restraint procedures. These refinements can
be incorporated readily, are easy for an animal to learn, and improve animal welfare
when less intrusive options are not possible.
When working with animals it can be helpful to consider how the animal perceives
the humans it encounters. This can be measured by looking at its behavioral
responses toward humans. Does the animal orient toward people, move toward or
 Animal Learning and Training 395

away from people? Is the animal eager to participate in interactions with a human?
How does the animal behave when people are absent? How does the animal respond
to specific individuals? Does behavior change when certain individuals come or go?
An animal that associates desired consequences with human presence is likely to
seek interaction. This can be helpful to building cooperation in medical care.
However, it is also important for many species to be independent or maintain social
dynamics with conspecifics. This means finding a balance between the reinforcing
value of humans and other aspects of the animal’s life. Technology, such as pressure
plates, timers, and infrared sensors, are being used to create and automate enriching
environments. Animal behavior can trigger desired consequences without the need for
a trainer to be present or perceived. The implications for this are particularly important
for those animals with strong fear responses or aggressive behavior toward humans or
animals that may be destined for release in the wild. A paper dealing with choice and
control opportunities in animal training and enrichment is in preparation to further
explain this growing technology and its application. (Brando S. Choice and control
opportunities in animal training and enrichment. Submitted for publication).
A trusting relationship can help facilitate animals to cooperate in their own medical
care. Other key factors include providing an environment in which the animal is moti-
vated to participate, is safe, and is enriched by the experience. It is also important to
recognize when an animal does not want to participate. “To develop and maintain an
animal’s positive attitude toward learning....this means that the trainer cares about the
overall learning experience of the animal..”39 When an animal does not want to
participate it is the trainer’s responsibility to evaluate the situation. Rather than
blaming the animal, the trainer looks into the factors that may be contributing to the
lack of collaboration. This might include medical issues, discomfort with the environ-
ment, social dynamics, lack of interest in reinforcers, mistrust of staff members, or the
particular situation. It is important to focus on positive methods and trust-building
interactions, even in periods of noncooperation.
Building a trusting relationship with an animal may take time but it can have a positive
impact on animal welfare.40 It also requires consistency and clarity in behavior and
signals used to communicate with animals. These signals include those that inform
the animal about upcoming procedures or request participation in voluntary husbandry
or medical behaviors. If handlers do not have the opportunity to train animals to enter
a crate on a voluntary basis and have to resort to catching the animal on a regular basis,
handlers may want to consider having a distinct signal for catching versus noncatching
events. For example, an orange jumpsuit could signal a capture will take place; it might
not fully reduce the anxiety during the capture events, but in the absence of the orange
suit animals know that capture will not happen. This can help reduce anxiety toward
caregivers outside the capture situations (personal observation).
“The development of these relationships is enriching to both personnel and animals
inasmuch as people who care about their animals are committed to promoting and
ensuring the well-being of those animals.”40,41 Staats and colleagues42 propose that
the “cognitive intent to act in ways directed toward the well-being” of the animal
(which they define as commitment) has a significant role in the relationship that
develops between a person and an animal.” This commitment, the authors suggest,
is measured by sustaining the relationship despite personal effort, time, money, and
patience. This does not necessarily mean investing lots of time; sometimes just
several minutes a day make a positive difference.43
Caregivers often expect a lot from an animal; go there, stay here, be calm, do not
aggress, keep your mouth open, and so forth. Sometimes situations and environments
are difficult. Animals might not always get or do what they want, go where they want,
396 Brando

or be with whom they want, but they need to have some control over what happens to
them. It is important to ask how much control and how many choices do the animals
have in their day to day life. Caregivers who are serious about animal welfare and
creating environments that promote positive welfare states need to ask and then
act on these questions.

SUMMARY

Animals are always learning. An understanding of learning theories can help caregivers
address, treat, and prevent many of the behavioral problems seen in captivity. Positive
reinforcement training gives animal caretakers opportunities to teach animals to
voluntarily participate in their care and to interact with their environment. Under-
standing how animals learn can allow caregivers to use such procedures as desensi-
tization and counterconditioning to reduce fear and anxiety. This can lead to trusting
relationships between caregiver and animal and allows for positive experiences for
staff members and animals. Animal behavior and learning are important aspects of
a holistic approach to animal welfare. An understanding of the role they play in animal
welfare is fundamental to ensure that caregivers provide the best in animal care
practices.

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