CHAPTER -1

INTRODUCTION OF ELECTRONICS

Science is one of the most important, biggest blessings to mankind. Now-

a-days science is used in every day life from fans and T.V to trains and
planes. lt these are linked with the stream of science known as physics
which was subdivided into electronics. It is only electronics which has now
ventured into all fields of life, it is due to electronics only that a new
branch of science termed as computer science which has become an
integral part of life. Electronics essentially deals with electronic devices
and there utilization. “An electronic device is that in which electron flow
through a vacuum or gas or semiconductor".

1.1 History of Electronics

Electronics circuitry has undergone tremendous changes since the

invention of Triod by Lee De Forest in 1907. With the invention of
transistor in 1948 by W.H. Braittain, I. Bardeen and Shockley, the
electronic circuits have considerably reduced in size. Transistor was
cheaper, reliable, consumes less power and smaller in size than vacuum
tube .Development of Printed Circuit Board (PCB) further reduced the size
of electronic equipments by eliminating bulky wiring and tie points.

The most exciting development in electronics took place in 1971 when

INTEL, semiconductor device manufacturing company of USA announced
to release the first microprocessor in 16 bit and 32 bit configurations. The
microprocessor forms CPU of the present microcomputers. Not only this
we have single chip computer which contain both the processor and
memory devices adequate for the host of application in same integrated

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circuit chip. Microprocessors have evolved at a dramatic pace in numbers,
technology power functionality and applications.

1.2 Branches of Electronics

Electronics has gained such an importance that it has become a separate

branch of science and technology. It can further be categorized as follows:

1. Contemporary Electronics : It uses vacuum tubes in its circuit.

2. Analog Electronics : Adjacent point on the load line may

be used so that

the output voltage is continuo

3. Digital Electronics : It uses two state operations only the

two non-adjacent points

only the load line typically, saturation

and cut off is used

1.3 Applications of Electronics

Electronics has gained much importance due to its numerous applications

in industries. The electronics devices are capable of performing the
following functions:

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1.3.1 Rectification

The conversion of alternating current into direct current is called

rectification. Electronics devices can convert ac power dc power with very
high frequency. This dc supply can be used for charge storage

batteries, field supply of dc generator etc.

1.3.2 Amplification

The process of increasing the strength of weak signal is known as

Amplification. Electronics devices can accomplish the job of amplification
and thus acts as an amplifier. The amplifier is used in a wide variety of
ways. For example in radio sets, public address system etc.

1.3.3 Other Applications

Electronic devices have wide application in automatic control. For

example speed of motor, voltage across the refrigerator etc, can be
automatically controlled with the help of such devices.

Electronic devices are also used for the conversion of light into electricity
and vice-versa, DC power into AC power of any frequency.

1.4 Latest Trends in Electronics

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The ordinary person of the 21 century cannot think of his life without
electronics equipments. Up till about a decade ago no one would have
ever imaging of an access to internet and online devices while moving in a
train or an airplane or even while simply walking on a road.

The electronic industry, in particular is emerging as one of the most

important industries in INDIAN market. Finding new better ways to do old
things has become the mantra of the digital age. Until recently, "better" in
the consumer electronics vernacular, usually meant faster, smaller, lighter
and less expensive. But in the past 20 century economy, better also must
encompass any time, any place connectivity, the ability to roam around
with a mobile device and still have a high speed hook up to the internet or
corporate files without cables or configuration problems.

In recent times a new generation of robots, laptop, computers and feature

enhanced cellular phones are opening up new and convenient ways to
read news, send e-mail from a taxi, download digital audio files, conduct
on line transaction such as stock trades or hold teleconferences, business
of all kinds is coming

to recognize of extending data access into the mobile, wireless

environment.

Students entering higher education in the next few years may take for
granted the idea of a wireless campus-a place where they never have to
worry about finding a phone jack or a data line. Wireless leakage from the
buildings allow for outside coverage so students sitting in the sun on nice
day can maintain their network or internet data connections.

The development of self learning electronic chips computers with artificial

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intelligence robot with neutral control device electronic pots and pals aare
undoubtedly going to change the basic structure of social and emotional
frame work. The microbes which will be capable of reaching to cancer
cells situated at brain can perform a bloodless surgery and bring a new
life to the patient are really miraculous isn't it?

Having grown accustomed to mobile voice communication, cellular phone

users also now want more from their handsets, access to e-mail, and text
messaging weather data and stock quotes, and even interactive services.
The so called third generation of mobile phone technology will go beyond
any other services. Until third generation is ready, handset makers and
service provider are rolling out an interim service half way towards 3G,
known as 2.5G bringing consumer's improved wireless capabilities by
building on existing 2G digital networks.

In context to our country India, improvements in the electronics industry

have not been limited to particular segments, but encompass all its
sectors strides have been made in the area of commercial electronics,
software, telecommunication, positioning and networking systems and
defense.

The Indian electronic industry is a good area for inventors who are
considering India as a potential investment opportunity. A bright future
for the few entrepreneurs in the field of electronics.

Advantages

One advantage of digital circuits when compared to analog circuits is that signals
represented digitally can be transmitted without degradation due to noise. For

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example, a continuous audio signal, transmitted as a sequence of 1s and 0s, can be
reconstructed without error provided the noise picked up in transmission is not
enough to prevent identification of the 1s and 0s. An hour of music can be stored on a
compact disc as about 6 billion binary digits.

In a digital system, a more precise representation of a signal can be obtained by using

more binary digits to represent it. While this requires more digital circuits to process
the signals, each digit is handled by the same kind of hardware. In an analog system,
additional resolution requires fundamental improvements in the linearity and noise
characteristics of each step of the signal chain.

Computer-controlled digital systems can be controlled by software, allowing new

functions to be added without changing hardware. Often this can be done outside of
the factory by updating the product's software. So, the product's design errors can be
corrected after the product is in a customer's hands.

Information storage can be easier in digital systems than in analog ones. The noise-
immunity of digital systems permits data to be stored and retrieved without
degradation. In an analog system, noise from aging and wear degrade the information
stored. In a digital system, as long as the total noise is below a certain level, the
information can be recovered perfectly.

Disadvantages

In some cases, digital circuits use more energy than analog circuits to accomplish the
same tasks, thus producing more heat. In portable or battery-powered systems this can
limit use of digital systems.

For example, battery-powered cellular telephones often use a low-power analog front-
end to amplify and tune in the radio signals from the base station. However, a base
station has grid power and can use power-hungry, but very flexible software radios.
Such base stations can be easily reprogrammed to process the signals used in new
cellular standards.

Digital circuits are sometimes more expensive, especially in small quantities.

The sensed world is analog, and signals from this world are analog quantities. For
example, light, temperature, sound, electrical conductivity, electric and magnetic
fields are analog. Most useful digital systems must translate from continuous analog
signals to discrete digital signals. This causes quantization errors.

Quantization error can be reduced if the system stores enough digital data to represent
the signal to the desired degree of fidelity. The Nyquist-Shannon sampling theorem
provides an important guideline as to how much digital data is needed to accurately
portray a given analog signal.

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CHAPTER - 2
Description of components use
Resistor
A resistor is a two-terminal electronic component that produces a voltage across its terminals
that is proportional to the electric current passing through it in accordance with Ohm's law:

V = IR

Resistors are elements of electrical networks and electronic circuits and are ubiquitous in
most electronic equipment. Practical resistors can be made of various compounds and films,
as well as resistance wire (wire made of a high-resistivity alloy, such as nickel/chrome).

The primary characteristics of a resistor are the resistance, the tolerance, maximum working
voltage and the power rating. Other characteristics include temperature coefficient, noise, and
inductance.

Resistor Color Code

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I. KIND OF RESISTORS

1. CARBON FILM
The most popular resistor type. This resistor made by depositing a carbon film
onto a small ceramic cylinder. A small spiral groove cut into the film controls the
amount of carbon between the leads, hence setting the resistance. Such resistors show
excellent reliability, excellent solderability, noise stability, moisture stability, and
heat stability. Typical power ratings range from 1/4 to 2 W. Resistances range from
about 10 Ohm to 1 MOhm, with tolerances around 5 percent.
2. CARBON COMPOSITION

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This type is also popular. Its made from a mixture of carbon powder
and glue like binder. To increase the resistance, less carbon is added.
These resistors show predictable performance, low inductance, and
low capacitance. Power ratings range from about 1/4 to 2 W.
Resistances range from 1 Ohm to about 100 MOhm, with tolerances.
around +/- 5 percent

3. METAL OXIDE FILM

4. PRECISION METAL FILM

This type is very accurate, ultra low noise resistor. It uses a ceramic substrate
coated with a metal film, all encased in an epoxy shell. These resistors are used in
precision devices, such as test instruments, digital and analog devices, and audio and
video devices. Resistances range from about 10 Ohm to 2 MOhm, with power rating
from 1/4 to about 1/2 W, and tolerances of +/- 1 percent.

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6. FILAMENT RESISTORS
Filament resistors are similar to bathtub or boat resistors except that they are not
packaged in a ceramic shell (boat). The individual resistive element with the leads
already crimped is coated with an insulating material, generally a high temperature
varnish. They are used in applications where tolerance, TCR, and stability are not
important but the cost is the governing consideration. The cost of this type is slightly
higher that of carbon composition and the electrical characteristics are better.
7. POWER FILM
Power film resistors are similar in manufacture to metal film or carbon film
resistors. They are manufactured and rated as power resistors, with the power rating
being the most important characteristic. Power film resistors are available in higher
maximum values than the power wire wound resistors and have a very good
frequency response. They are generally used in applications requiring good frequency
response and/or higher maximum values. Generally, for power applications the
tolerance is wider. The temperature rating is changed so that under full load, the
resistor will not exceed the maximum design temperature. The physical sizes are
larger and, in some cases, the core may be made from a more head conductive
material and other means employed to help radiate heat.
8. PRECISION WIRE WOUND
The precision wire wound resistor is a highly accurate resistor (within 0.005%)
with a very low TCR. A TCR of as little as 3ppm/o C can be achieved. However these
components are too expensive for general use and are normally used in highly
accurate dc applications.
9. HIGH POWER WIRE WOUND

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 These resistors are used for high power applications. Types include vitreous
enamel coated, cement, and aluminum housed wire wound resistors. Resistive
elements are made from a resistive wire that is coiled around a ceramic cylinder.
These are the most durable of the resistors, with high heat dissipation and high
temperature stability. Resistances range from 0.1 Ohm to about 150 kOhm, with
power ratings from around 2 W to as high as 500 W, or more.
11. PHOTORESISTORS AND THERMISTORS

These are special types of resistors that change resistance when heat or light is
applied. Photo-resistors are made from semi-conductive materials, such as
cadmium sulfide. Increasing the light level will decreases the resistance. This
type also called LDR (Light Dependent Resistor). Thermistors are temperature
sensitive resistors. Increasing the temperature will decreases the resistance (in
most cases). This type also called Thermistor NTC (Negative Temperature
Coefficient). The resiprocal type is Thermistor PTC (Positive Temperature
Coefficient). Increasing the temperature will increase its resistance.

12. VARIABLE RESISTORS

Variable resistors provide varying degrees of resistance that can be set with the
turn of a knob. Special kinds of variable resistors include potensiometers, rheostats,
and trimmers. Potensiometers and rheostats are essentially the same thing, but
rheostats are used specially for high power AC electricity, whereas potensiometers
typically are used with lower level DC electricity. Both potensiometers and rheostats
are designed for frequent adjustment. Trimmers, on the other hand, are miniature
potensiometers that are adjusted infrequently and usually come with pins that can be

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inserted into pcb. They are used for fine tuning circuits (eg. : fine tuning a circuit that
goes astray as it ages), and they are usually hidden within a circuits enclosure box.
Variable resistors come with 2 or 3 terminals. There are 2 kinds of taper, ie. : linear
tapered and nonlinear tapered (logarithmic). The 'taper' describes the way in which the
resistance changes as the control knob is twisted. Linear taper usually has coded as 'A'
while nonlinear tapes has coded as 'B'.

Capacitor

A capacitor or condenser is a passive electronic component consisting of a pair of

conductors separated by a dielectric (insulator). When a potential difference (voltage)
exists across the conductors, an electric field is present in the dielectric. This field
stores energy and produces a mechanical force between the conductors. The effect is
greatest when there is a narrow separation between large areas of conductor; hence
capacitor conductors are often called plates.

An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single constant value, capacitance, which is

measured in farads. This is the ratio of the electric charge on each conductor to the
potential difference between them. In practice, the dielectric between the plates passes
a small amount of leakage current. The conductors and leads introduce an equivalent
series resistance and the dielectric has an electric field strength limit resulting in a
breakdown voltage.

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Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits to block the flow of direct current
while allowing alternating current to pass, to filter out interference, to smooth the
output of power supplies, and for many other purposes. They are used in resonant
circuits in radio frequency equipment to select particular frequencies from a signal
with many frequencies.

Types of Capacitors
There are a very large variety of different types of Capacitors available in the market
place and each one has its own set of characteristics and applications from small
delicate trimming capacitors up to large power metal can type capacitors used in high
voltage power correction and smoothing circuits. Like resistors, there are also
variable types of capacitors which allow us to vary their capacitance value for use in
radio or "frequency tuning" type circuits. Either way, capacitors play an important part
in electronic circuits so here are a few of the more "Common" types of capacitors
available.

1. Dielectric

Dielectric Capacitors are usually of the variable type such as used for tuning
transmitters, receivers and transistor radios. They have a set of fixed plates and a set
of moving plates that mesh with the fixed plates and the position of the moving plates
with respect to the fixed plates determines the overall capacitance. The capacitance
is generally at maximum when the plates are fully meshed. High voltage type tuning
capacitors have relatively large spacings or air-gaps between the plates with
breakdown voltages reaching many thousands of volts.

Variable Capacitor Symbols

As well as the continuously variable types, preset types are also available called
Trimmers. These are generally small devices that can be adjusted or "pre-set" to a
particular capacitance with the aid of a screwdriver and are available in very small
capacitances of 100pF or less and are non-polarized.

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2. Film Capacitors

Film Capacitors are the most commonly available of all types of capacitors,
consisting of a relatively large family of capacitors with the difference being in their
dielectric properties. These include polyester (Mylar), polystyrene, polypropylene,
polycarbonate, metallized paper, teflon etc. Film type capacitors are available in
capacitance ranges from 5pF to 100uF depending upon the actual type of capacitor
and its voltage rating. Film capacitors also come in an assortment of shapes and
case styles which include:

• Wrap & Fill (Oval & Round) - where the capacitor is wrapped in a tight
plastic tape and have the ends filled with epoxy to seal them.
•
• Epoxy Case (Rectangular & Round) - where the capacitor is encased in a
moulded plastic shell which is then filled with epoxy.
o
• Metal Hermetically Sealed (Rectangular & Round) - where the capacitor is
encased in a metal tube or can and again sealed with epoxy.

With all the above case styles available in both Axial and Radial Leads.

Examples of film capacitors are the rectangular metallized film and cylindrical film &
foil types as shown below.

Radial Lead Type

Axial Lead Type

The film and foil types of capacitors are made from long thin strips of thin metal foil

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with the dielectric material sandwiched together which are wound into a tight roll and
then sealed in paper or metal tubes. These film types require a much thicker
dielectric film to reduce the risk of tears or punctures in the film, and is therefore
more suited to lower capacitance values and larger case sizes.

3. Ceramic Capacitors

Ceramic Capacitors or Disc Capacitors as they are generally called, are made by
coating two sides of a small porcelain or ceramic disc with silver and are then
stacked together to make a capacitor. For very low capacitance values a single
ceramic disc of about 3-6mm is used. Ceramic capacitors have a high dielectric
constant (High-K) and are available so that relatively high capacitances can be
obtained in a small physical size. They exhibit large non-linear changes in
capacitance against temperature and as a result are used as de-coupling or by-pass
capacitors as they are also non-polarized devices. Ceramic capacitors have values
ranging from a few picofarads to one or two microfarads but their voltage ratings are
generally quite low.

Ceramic types of capacitors generally have a 3-digit code printed onto their body to
identify their capacitance value. For example, 103 would indicate 10 x 103pF which is
equivalent to 10,000 pF or 0.01μF. Likewise, 104 would indicate 10 x 104pF which is
equivalent to 100,000 pF or 0.1μF and so on. Letter codes are sometimes used to
indicate their tolerance value such as: J = 5%, K = 10% or M = 20% etc.

4. Electrolytic Capacitors

Electrolytic Capacitors are generally used when very large capacitance values are
required. Here instead of using a very thin metallic film layer for one of the
electrodes, a semi-liquid electrolyte solution in the form of a jelly or paste is used
which serves as the second electrode (usually the cathode). The dielectric is a very
thin layer of oxide which is grown electro-chemically in production with the thickness
of the film being less than ten microns. This insulating layer is so thin that it is
possible to make large value capacitors of a small size. The majority of electrolytic
types of capacitors are Polarized, that is the voltage applied to the capacitor
terminals must be of the correct polarity as an incorrect polarization will break down
the insulating oxide layer and permanent damage may result.

Electrolytic Capacitor

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1. Aluminium Electrolytic Capacitors

There are basically two types of Aluminium Electrolytic Capacitor, the plain foil
type and the etched foil type. The thickness of the aluminium oxide film and high
breakdown voltage give these capacitors very high capacitance values for their size.
The etched foil type differs from the plain foil type in that the aluminium oxide on the
anode and cathode foils has been chemically etched to increase its surface area and
permittivity. This gives a smaller sized capacitor than a plain foil type of equivalent
value but has the disadvantage of not being able to withstand high AC currents
compared to the plain type. Also their tolerance range is quite large up to 20%.
Etched foil electrolytic's are best used in coupling, DC blocking and by-pass circuits
while plain foil types are better suited as smoothing capacitors in power supplies.
Typical values of capacitance range from 1uF to 47000uF. Aluminium Electrolytic's
are "polarized" devices so reversing the applied voltage on the leads will cause the
insulating layer within the capacitor to be destroyed along with the capacitor, "so be
aware".

2. Tantalum Electrolytic Capacitors

Tantalum Electrolytic Capacitors or Tantalum Beads, are available in both wet

(foil) and dry (solid) electrolytic types with the dry or solid tantalum being the most
common. Solid tantalums use manganese dioxide as their second terminal and are
physically smaller than the equivalent aluminium capacitors. The dielectric properties
of tantalum oxide is also much better than those of aluminium oxide giving a lower
leakage currents and better capacitance stability which makes them suitable for
timing applications. Also tantalum capacitors although polarized, can tolerate being
connected to a reverse voltage much more easily than the Aluminium types but are
rated at much lower working voltages. Typical values of capacitance range from
47nF to 470uF.

Aluminium & Tantalum Electrolytic Capacitor

Diodes

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Example:

Circuit symbol:

Function
Diodes allow electricity to flow in only one
direction. The arrow of the circuit symbol
shows the direction in which the current can
flow. Diodes are the electrical version of a
valve and early diodes were actually called
valves.

Bridge rectifiers
There are several ways of connecting
diodes to make a rectifier to convert AC to
DC. The bridge rectifier is one of them and
it is available in special packages
containing the four diodes required. Bridge
rectifiers are rated by their maximum
current and maximum reverse voltage. They have four leads or terminals: the two DC
outputs are labelled + and -, the two AC inputs are labelled .

The diagram shows the operation of a bridge rectifier as it converts AC to DC.

Notice how alternate pairs of diodes conduct.

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Transformer

A transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to another
through inductively coupled conductors—the transformer's coils. A varying current in
the first or primary winding creates a varying magnetic flux in the transformer's core,
and thus a varying magnetic field through the secondary winding. This varying
magnetic field induces a varying electromotive force (EMF) or "voltage" in the
secondary winding. This effect is called mutual induction.

If a load is connected to the secondary, an electric current will flow in the secondary
winding and electrical energy will be transferred from the primary circuit through the
transformer to the load. In an ideal transformer, the induced voltage in the secondary
winding (VS) is in proportion to the primary voltage (VP), and is given by the ratio of
the number of turns in the secondary (NS) to the number of turns in the primary (NP)
as follows:

By appropriate selection of the ratio of turns, a transformer thus allows an alternating

current (AC) voltage to be "stepped up" by making NS greater than NP, or "stepped
down" by making NS less than NP.

In the vast majority of transformers, the coils are wound around a ferromagnetic core,
air-core transformers being a notable exception.

Transformers come in a range of sizes from a thumbnail-sized coupling transformer

hidden inside a stage microphone to huge units weighing hundreds of tons used to
interconnect portions of national power grids. All operate with the same basic
principles, although the range of designs is wide. While new technologies have
eliminated the need for transformers in some electronic circuits, transformers are still
found in nearly all electronic devices designed for household ("mains") voltage.
Transformers are essential for high voltage power transmission, which makes long
distance transmission economically practical

Basic principles

The transformer is based on two principles: firstly, that an electric current can produce
a magnetic field (electromagnetism) and secondly that a changing magnetic field
within a coil of wire induces a voltage across the ends of the coil (electromagnetic
induction). Changing the current in the primary coil changes the magnetic flux that is
developed. The changing magnetic flux induces a voltage in the secondary coil.

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An ideal transformer

An ideal transformer is shown in the adjacent figure. Current passing

through the primary coil creates a magnetic field. The primary and
secondary coils are wrapped around a core of very high magnetic
permeability, such as iron, so that most of the magnetic flux passes
through both the priTypes

Transformer types.
A wide variety of transformer designs are used for different applications, though they
share several common features. Important common transformer types include:

Autotransformer

An autotransformer has only a single winding with two end terminals, plus a third at
an intermediate tap point. The primary voltage is applied across two of the terminals,
and the secondary voltage taken from one of these and the third terminal. The primary
and secondary circuits therefore have a number of windings turns in common. Since
the volts-per-turn is the same in both windings, each develops a voltage in proportion
to its number of turns. An adjustable autotransformer is made by exposing part of the
winding coils and making the secondary connection through a sliding brush, giving a
variable turns ratio.[ Such a device is often referred to as a varies.

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Polyphase transformers
For more details on this topic, see Three-phase electric power.

Three-phase step-down transformer mounted between two utility poles

For three-phase supplies, a bank of three individual single-phase transformers can be

used, or all three phases can be incorporated as a single three-phase transformer. In
this case, the magnetic circuits are connected together, the core thus containing a
three-phase flow of flux. A number of winding configurations are possible, giving rise
to different attributes and phase shifts. One particular polyphase configuration is the
zigzag transformer, used for grounding and in the suppression of harmonic currents

Leakage transformers

Leakage transformer

A leakage transformer, also called a stray-field transformer, has a significantly higher

leakage inductance than other transformers, sometimes increased by a magnetic
bypass or shunt in its core between primary and secondary, which is sometimes
adjustable with a set screw. This provides a transformer with an inherent current
limitation due to the loose coupling between its primary and the secondary windings.

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The output and input currents are low enough to prevent thermal overload under all
load conditions—even if the secondary is shorted.

Leakage transformers are used for arc welding and high voltage discharge lamps
(neon lamps and cold cathode fluorescent lamps, which are series-connected up to
7.5 kV AC). It acts then both as a voltage transformer and as a magnetic ballast.

Other applications are short-circuit-proof extra-low voltage transformers for toys or

doorbell installations.

Resonant transformers
A resonant transformer is a kind of the leakage transformer. It uses the leakage
inductance of its secondary windings in combination with external capacitors, to
create one or more resonant circuits. Resonant transformers such as the Tesla coil can
generate very high voltages without arcing, and are able to provide much higher
current than electrostatic high-voltage generation machines such as the Van de Graaff
generatorOne of the applications of the resonant transformer is for the CCFL inverter.
Another application of the resonant transformer is to couple between stages of a
superheterodyne receiver, where the selectivity of the receiver is provided by tuned
transformers in the intermediate-frequency amplifiers.

Audio transformers

Audio transformers are those specifically designed for use in audio circuits. They can
be used to block radio frequency interference or the DC component of an audio
signal, to split or combine audio signals, or to provide impedance matching between
high and low impedance circuits, such as between a high impedance tube (valve)
amplifier output and a low impedance loudspeaker, or between a high impedance
instrument output and the low impedance input of a mixing console.

Such transformers were originally designed to connect different telephone systems to

one another while keeping their respective power supplies isolated, and are still
commonly used to interconnect professional audio systems or system components.

Being magnetic devices, audio transformers are susceptible to external magnetic

fields such as those generated by AC current-carrying conductors. "Hum" is a term
commonly used to describe unwanted signals originating from the "mains" power
supply (typically 50 or 60 Hz). Audio transformers used for low-level signals, such as
those from microphones, often include shielding to protect against extraneous
magnetically-coupled signals.

Instrument transformers

Instrument transformers are used for measuring voltage and current in electrical
power systems, and for power system protection and control. where a voltage or
current is too large to be conveniently used by an instrument, it can be scaled down to
a standardized, low value. Instrument transformers isolate measurement, protection

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and control circuitry from the high currents or voltages present on the circuits being
measured or controlled.

Current transformers, designed for placing around conductors

A current transformer is a transformer designed to provide a current in its secondary

coil proportional to the current flowing in its primary coil

Voltage transformers (VTs), also referred to as "potential transformers" (PTs), are

designed to have an accurately-known transformation ratio in both magnitude and
phase, over a range of measuring circuit impedances. A voltage transformer is
intended to present a negligible load to the supply being measured. The low secondary
voltage allows protective relay equipment and measuring instruments to be operated
at lower voltages.

555 timer IC
The 555 Timer IC is an integrated circuit (chip) implementing a variety of timer and
multivibrator applications. The IC was designed by Hans R. Camenzind in 1970 and brought
to market in 1971 by Signetics (later acquired by Philips). The original name was the SE555
(metal can)/NE555 (plastic DIP) and the part was described as "The IC Time Machine. It has
been claimed that the 555 gets its name from the three 5 kΩ resistors used in typical early
implementations, but Hanz Camenzind has stated that the number was arbitrary[ part is still in
wide use, thanks to its ease of use, low price and good stability.

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Depending on the manufacturer, the standard 555 package includes over 20 transistors, 2
diodes and 15 resistors on a silicon chip installed in an 8-pin mini dual-in-line package (DIP-
8). Variants available include the 556 (a 14-pin DIP combining two 555s on one chip), and
the 558 (a 16-pin DIP combining four slightly modified 555s with DIS & THR
connected internally, and TR falling edge sensitive instead of level sensitive).

Ultra-low power versions of the 555 are also available, such as the 7555 and TLC555. The
7555 requires slightly different wiring using fewer external components and less power.

The 555 has three operating modes:

Monostable mode: in this mode, the 555 functions as a "one-shot". Applications
include timers, missing pulse detection, bounce free switches, touch switches,
frequency divider, capacitance measurement, pulse-width modulation (PWM) etc

In the monostable mode, the 555 timer acts as a “one-shot” pulse generator. The pulse
begins when the 555 timer receives a trigger signal. The width of the pulse is
determined by the time constant of an RC network, which consists of a capacitor (C)
and a resistor (R). The pulse ends when the charge on the C equals 2/3 of the supply
voltage. The pulse width can be lengthened or shortened to the need of the specific
application by adjusting the values of R and C.

Astable mode

• Astable - free running mode: the 555 can operate as an

oscillator. Uses include LED and lamp flashers, pulse generation,
logic clocks, tone generation, security alarms, pulse position
modulation, etc. In actable mode, the '555 timer' puts out a
continuous stream of rectangular pulses having a specified frequency.
Resistor R1 is connected between VCC and the discharge pin (pin 7) and
another resistor (R2) is connected between the discharge pin (pin 7),
and the trigger (pin 2) and threshold (pin 6) pins that share a common
node. Hence the capacitor is charged through R1 and R2, and
discharged only through R2, since pin 7 has low impedance to ground

- 23 -
 during output low intervals of the cycle, therefore discharging the

capacitor.
• Bistable mode or Schmitt trigger: the 555 can operate as a
flip-flop, if the DIS pin is not connected and no capacitor is used. Uses include
bounce free latched switches, etc. Monostable mode.

The connection of the pins is as follows:

Pin description

- 24 -
N Nam
Purpose
r. e

1 GND Ground, low level (0 V)

2 TRIG A short pulse high-to-low on the trigger starts the timer

3 OUT During a timing interval, the output stays at +VCC

RESE A timing interval can be interrupted by applying a reset pulse to

4
T low (0 V)

Control voltage allows access to the internal voltage divider (2/3

5 CTRL
VCC)

The threshold at which the interval ends (it ends if the voltage at
6 THR
THR is at least 2/3 VCC)

Connected to a capacitor whose discharge time will influence the

7 DIS
timing interval

V+,
8 The positive supply voltage which must be between 3 and 15 V
VCC

nternal Working of the 555

This is the internal working of the 555 timer.
The chip derives its name from the three R’s
on the top of the image, they all are 5 kΩ.
Hence, the name 555.

- 25 -
Now, let us see how we can set the 555 to work at the desired frequency by
selecting the right combination of resistances & capacitances. Using the convention
as in D1,

From circuit analysis & mathematics, it can be obtained that:

Frequency = 1.44/{(RA + 2RB) * C1}

Also, 555 can produce waves with duty cycle else than the 50 % cycle. The desired
duty cycle can be worked out by using the result:

Duty Cycle = (RA + RB) * 100/ (RA + 2RB)

where duty cycle= Ratio of time period when the output is 1 to

the time period when the output is 0

Logic gate
A logic gate performs a logical operation on one or more logic inputs and produces a single logic
output. The logic normally performed is Boolean logic and is most commonly found in digital
circuits. Logic gates are primarily implemented electronically using diodes or transistors, but
can also be constructed using electromagnetic relays, fluidics, optics, molecules, or even
mechanical elements.

- 26 -
 Logic states
Introduction
True False
Logic gates process signals which represent true or false. Normally
the positive supply voltage +Vs represents true and 0V represents 1 0
false. Other terms which are used for the true and false states are
shown in the table on the right. It is best to be familiar with them High Low
all.Gates are identified by their function: NOT, AND, NAND, OR,
+Vs 0V
NOR, EX-OR and EX-NOR. Capital letters are normally used to
make it clear that the term refers to a logic gate.
On Off

7400
NAND logic
NAND gates are one of the two basic logic gates (along with NOR gates) from which
any other logic gates can be built. Due to this property, NAND and NOR gates are
sometimes called "universal gates". However, contrary to popular belief, modern
integrated circuits are not constructed exclusively from a single type of gate.
Instead, EDA tools are used to convert the description of a logical circuit to a netlist
of complex gates (standard cells) or transistors (full custom approach).

7432

OR gate

- 27 -
The OR gate is a digital logic gate that implements logical disjunction - it behaves according to
the truth table to the right. A HIGH output (1) results if one or both the inputs to the gate are
HIGH (1). If neither input is HIGH, a LOW output (0) results. In another sense, the function of
OR effectively finds the maximum between two binary digits, just as the complementary AND
function finds the minimum.

NOR gate

7402
The NOR gate is a digital logic gate that implements logical NOR - it behaves
according to the truth table to the right. A HIGH output (1) results if both the
inputs to the gate are LOW (0). If one or both input is HIGH (1), a LOW output (0)
results. NOR is the result of the negation of the OR operator. NOR is a functionally
complete operation—combinations of NOR gates can be combined to generate any
other logical function. By contrast, the OR operator is monotonic as it can only
change LOW to HIGH but not vice versa.

In most, but not all, circuit implementations, the negation comes for free
—including CMOS and TTL. In such logic families, the only way to
implement OR is with 2 or more gates, such as a NOR followed by an
inverter.

- 28 -
7404

Inverter (logic gate)

Shift register
In digital circuits, a shift register is a cascade of flip flops, sharing the same clock, which has
the output of any one but the last flip-flop connected to the "data" input of the next one in the
chain, resulting in a circuit that shifts by one position the one-dimensional "bit array" stored in it,
shifting in the data present at its input and shifting out the last bit in the array, when enabled to
do so by a transition of the clock input. More generally, a shift register may be

- 29 -
multidimensional, such that its "data in" input and stage outputs are themselves bit arrays: this is
implemented simply by running several shift registers of the same bit-length in parallel.

Shift registers can have both parallel and serial inputs and outputs. These are often configured as
serial-in, parallel-out (SIPO) or as parallel-in, serial-out (PISO). There are also types that have
both serial and parallel input and types with serial and parallel output. There are also bi-
directional shift registers which allow shifting in both directions: L→R or R→L. The serial
input and last output of a shift register can also be connected together to create a circular shift
register.

Serial-in, serial-out

These are the simplest kind of shift registers. The data string is presented at 'Data In', and is
shifted right one stage each time 'Data Advance' is brought high. At each advance, the bit on the
far left (i.e. 'Data In') is shifted into the first flip-flop's output. The bit on the far right (i.e. 'Data
Out') is shifted out and lost.

Serial-in, parallel-out

This configuration allows conversion from serial to parallel format. Data is input serially, as
described in the SISO section above. Once the data has been input, it may be either read off at
each output simultaneously, or it can be shifted out and replaced.

4-Bit SIPO Shift Register

Parallel-in, serial-out

This configuration has the data input on lines D1 through D4 in parallel format. To write the data
to the register, the Write/Shift control line must be held LOW. To shift the data, the W/S control
line is brought HIGH and the registers are clocked. The arrangement now acts as a PISO shift

- 30 -
register, with D1 as the Data Input. However, as long as the number of clock cycles is not more
than the length of the data-string, the Data Output, Q, will be the parallel data read off in order.

4-Bit PISO Shift Register

Uses

One of the most common uses of a shift register is to convert between serial and parallel
interfaces. This is useful as many circuits work on groups of bits in parallel, but serial interfaces
are simpler to construct. Shift registers can be used as simple delay circuits. Several bi-
directional shift registers could also be connected in parallel for a hardware implementation of a
stack.

Shift registers can be used also as a pulse extenders. Compared to monostable multivibrators the
timing has no dependency on component values, however requires external clock and the timing
accuracy is limited by a granularity of this clock. Example - Ronja Twister, where five 74164
shift registers create the core of the timing logic this way (schematic).

In early computers, shift registers were used to handle data processing: two numbers to be added
were stored in two shift registers and clocked out into an arithmetic and logic unit (ALU) with
the result being fed back to the input of one of the shift registers (the Accumulator) which was
one bit longer since binary addition can only result in an answer that is the same size or one bit
longer.

Many computer languages include instructions to 'shift right' and 'shift left' the data in a register,
effectively dividing by two or multiplying by two for each place shifted.

Very large serial-in serial-out shift registers (thousands of bits in size) were used in a similar
manner to the earlier delay line memory in some devices built in the early 1970s.

Flip-flop
- 31 -
In digital circuits, a flip-flop is a term referring to an electronic circuit (a bistable multivibrator)
that has two stable states and thereby is capable of serving as one bit of memory. Today, the term
flip-flop has come to mostly denote non-transparent (clocked or edge-triggered) devices, while
the simpler transparent ones are often referred to as latches; however, as this distinction is quite
new, the two words are sometimes used interchangeably (see history).

A flip-flop is usually controlled by one or two control signals and/or a gate or clock signal. The
output often includes the complement as well as the normal output. As flip-flops are
implemented electronically, they require power and ground connections.

History

The first electronic flip-flop was invented in 1918 by William Eccles and F. W. Jordan. It was
initially called the Eccles–Jordan trigger circuit and consisted of two active elements (electron
tubes). The name flip-flop was later derived from the sound produced on a speaker connected to
one of the back-coupled amplifiers outputs during the trigger process within the circuit. This
original electronic flip-flop—a simple two-input bistable circuit without any dedicated clock (or
even gate) signal, was transparent, and thus a device that would be labeled as a "latch" in many
circles today.

The flip-flop types discussed below (D, RS, JK, T) were first discussed in a 1954 UCLA course
on computer design by Montgomery Phister,[ and in his book Logical Design of Digital
Computers.[3] The author was at the time working at Hughes Aircraft under Dr. Eldred Nelson,
who had coined the term JK for a flip-flop which changed states when both inputs were

Dual d flip flop

Dual D Flip Flop is a name given to me by a long time ago, but never really used. Recently,
having undergone much change, I decided it was time for a new handle for myself. The name is
based on an Integrated Circuit explained below.

I had worked at a Radio Shack as a kid, after leaving, I still hung out with the friend of mine who
had replaced me. While he was re-stocking the back wall, which had all the electronic
components, he stumbled upon the 7474 and started laughing at the name "Dual D Flip-Flop" he
said. When I asked why it was so funny, he told me this would be a perfect superhero name to go
with his other one of the day "Orval Plax Knockoff". After that, he asked what it did, and so I
tried to explain it to him, similar to how it is described below. After that, he and I called each
other by those two names on occasion.

- 32 -
Quick digital flip-flop class:

First let's look at what a flip-flop is. In digital electronics the flip-flop or bistable multivibrator is
a circuit capable of serving as a one-bit memory. The standard interface to a flip-flop includes
zero, one, or two input signals; a clock signal; and an output signal. And since we are talking
about the 7400 series Integrated Circuit, they also require power and ground connections. Some
flip-flops include a clear input signal, which resets the current output, as is such with the 7474
Dual D type flip-flop.

A 7400 series Integrated Circuit.

Pulsing, otherwise known as "strobing" the clock causes the flip-flop to either change or retain
its output signal, based upon the values of the input signals and the characteristic equation of the
flip-flop. In this case Qnext = D (Not A Smiley Face)

The D ("delay") flip-flop takes one input, which it conveys to the output when the clock is
strobed. Regardless of the current value of the output, it will assume a value 1 if D = 1 when the
flip-flop is strobed or a value 0 if D = 0 when the flip-flop is strobed.

Also the D type flip-flop can also be seen as a "primitive delay" line or "zero-order hold", since
the data is posted at the output one clock cycle after it arrives at the input.

Forgive me if that was too complex or I left something out. My mind is wondering today.

LIGHT DEPENDENT RESISTORS

Photoresistor

- 33 -
The symbol for a photoresistor

A light dependent resistor

The internal components of a photoelectric control for a

typical American streetlight. The photoresistor is facing

- 34 -
rightwards, and controls whether current flows through
the heater which opens the main power contacts. At
night, the heater cools, closing the power contacts,
energizing the street light. The heater/bimetal
mechanism provides a built-in time-delay.

A photoresistor or light dependent resistor or cadmium sulfide (CdS)

cell is a resistor whose resistance decreases with increasing incident
light intensity. It can also be referenced as a photoconductor.

A photoresistor is made of a high resistance semiconductor. If light

falling on the device is of high enough frequency, photons absorbed by
the semiconductor give bound electrons enough energy to jump into the
conduction band. The resulting free electron (and its hole partner)
conduct electricity, thereby lowering resistance.

A photoelectric device can be either intrinsic or extrinsic. An intrinsic

semiconductor has its own charge carriers and is not an efficient
semiconductor, e.g. silicon. In intrinsic devices the only available
electrons are in the valence band, and hence the photon must have
enough energy to excite the electron across the entire bandgap. Extrinsic
devices have impurities, also called dopants, added whose ground state
energy is closer to the conduction band; since the electrons do not have
as far to jump, lower energy photons (i.e., longer wavelengths and lower
frequencies) are sufficient to trigger the device. If a sample of silicon has
some of its atoms replaced by phosphorus atoms (impurities),

Applications
Photoresistors come in many different types. Inexpensive cadmium sulfide cells
can be found in many consumer items such as camera light meters, street lights,
clock radios, alarms, and outdoor clocks.

They are also used in some dynamic compressors together with a small
incandescent lamp or light emitting diode to control gain reduction.

- 35 -
 Lead sulfide (PbS) and indium antimonide (InSb) LDRs (Light Dependent
Resistor) are used for the mid infrared spectral region. Ge:Cu photoconductors are
among the best far-infrared detectors available, and are used for infrared
astronomy and infrared spectroscopy.

LIGHT DEPENDENT RESISTORS

LDRs or Light Dependent Resistors are very

useful especially in light/dark sensor circuits.
Normally the resistance of an LDR is very
high, sometimes as high as 1000 000 ohms,
but when they are illuminated with light
resistance drops dramatically.

The animation opposite shows that when the

torch is turned on, the resistance of the LDR
falls, allowing current to pass through it.

- 36 -
 CHAPTER-3

EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUES

2.1 Printed Circuit Boards (PCB)

Printed circuit board is a piece of art. The performance of an electronic

circuit depends upon the layout and designing of PCB. The general
consideration while preparing artwork is discussed.

2.1.1 Types of Material Used for preparing PCBs

The base materials used for PCB are paper phenolic, Glass epoxy paper
polyester, etc. Paper phenolic is less costly and used in consumer electronic
circuits, paper, phenolic is more resistant to moisture but difficult to machine
and as compared to glass epoxy.

2.1.2 Copper

Copper foil for copper clad is manufactured by process of ion deposition. A

thin film of copper is deposited on to a slowly rotating corrosion resistant
metal cylinder. Its lower is immersed in a copper rich electrolytic playing
bath. As the cylinder rotates in the bath, a thin copper deposit gradually
builds up in form of metal foil. The foil is then gently peeled off from the
cylinder surface.

Properties of copper foil-

- 37 -
Thickness : 35

Thickness tolerance : 5

Purity of electro deposited copper foil : 99.8%

Receptivity at 20 C : 0.1594

2.1.3 Electro chemicals

Ferric chloride, cupric chloride, chromic acid, and alkaline ammonia is some
of the electrochemical enchants used. The choice of enchants should be such
that it should match with the etch resist used.

1. Ferric chloride is recommended for etching small number of boards. It is

not used in high volume production because it cannot be regenerated and it
attacks metal etch resists.

2. Cupric chloride: Recommended for etching in high volume production. It

can be regenerated and saturated enchant can be disposed by supplying it
to chemical industries for further use. It provides etching and causes little
under etching.

2.1.4 Patterning (etching)

The vast majority of printed circuit boards are made by bonding a layer of
copper over the entire substrate, sometimes on both sides, (creating a
"blank PCB") then removing unwanted copper after applying a temporary
mask (eg. by etching), leaving only the desired copper traces. A few PCBs

- 38 -
are made by adding traces to the bare substrate (or a substrate with a very
thin layer of copper) usually by a complex process of multiple electroplating
steps.

2.1.5 Drilling

After completion of painting work and etching, holes of 1mm diameter are
drilled at desired point where we have to fit the components.

2.2 Artwork Rule and Parameters

The prototype circuit is initially tested. Location of components is fixed.

Artwork is the drawing, showing conductor pattern on PCB. After testing the
prototype a rough layout prepared on a good millimeter grid graph paper 1:1
size. Artwork of the circuit 1:1 or 2:1 size is prepared on a good quality graph
paper using black waterproof ink. The artwork may also be prepared on
transparent paper with sticking tapes and patterns.

The following points should be considered before preparing artwork.

1. Resistance of printed conductors

2. Capacitance between conductors

3. Spacing between conductors: for different peak voltage difference

conductors, different spacing should be used. Width of signal supply and
ground lines should be proper. Width of ground line>width of supply
line>width of signal line.

Electromagnetic coupling, capacitance coupling and leaking current between

- 39 -
two signal lines can be reduced by putting ground line in between them. Line
loops are avoided in PCB as it acts as a loop of coil.

For digital circuits, signal lines should be isolated for analog and digital
circuits.

2.2.1 Artwork

For photographic reduction process the artwork should provide maximum

contrast between the portions to be etched away and those to be left. Thus
the artwork should be generated on white sheet with black ink.

A polyester foil can also be used with sticking tapes and prepare artwork but
it is costly, Tracing paper may be used but it is not very stable with
temperature.

Basic methods of preparing artwork are:

1. Ink the drawing. It is cheap method. High quality waterproof ink has to be
used.

2. Using black tapes and sticking patterns.

3. Using red and blue transparent tapes.

2.3 Photographic Film Production

A film negative of annual PCB size is required. The following equipment is

required for photo reduction -

- 40 -
(1) Camera

(2) Lens system with minimum distortion

(3) Light arrangement at the back of the negative to provide contrast of

1000:1

(4) Front light arrangement with a contrast 10:1. The range of network is 2:1
to 4:1.

A special darkroom is required to prepare negative. Room temperature

should be less than 25 C. There should be sufficient circulation of dust free
air. No vibration should reach the camera. The room should be light proof.
Film material used is normally photo-chromatic type. Polyester based with
thickness of 0.1mm. A film cheaper than this is acetate based film
Development time is by the manufacture.

2.4 Preparation of Single Sided PCB

In single sided PCB, the conductor tracks run only on one side of copper clad
board. Thus crossing of conductors is not allowed. Fig. shows the step to be
followed in preparing single sided PCB.

Basic material is selected according to the application. It is mechanically and

anemically cleaned. Then the photo-resist solution is uniformly applied.
Photo-resist is an organic solution, which when exposed to light of proper
wavelength, changes their solubility in the developers. There are two types
of photo-resists-

(1) Negative acting

- 41 -
(2) Positive acting photo-resist.

Negative acting resist is a mixture, which is initially soluble in it's developer

but after exposure to light, it is not soluble. So the unexposed resist is
selectively dissolved and washed away, leaving the desired resist pattern on
copper clad laminate.

Coating of photo-resist is done by

(1) Spray coating.

(2) Roller coating.

2.5 Soldering Fluxes

Flux is a medium used to improve the degree of wetting. The desirable

properties of a flux are:

1. It should provide a liquid cover over the materials and exclude air gap up
to the soldering temperature.

2. It should dissolve any oxide on metal surface.

3. It should be easily displaced from the metal by the molten soldering

operation.

4. Residues should be removable after completing soldering operation.

The fluxes used in soldering electronic circuits are non-corrosive fluxes. The
following points should be considered while selecting flux:

1. Flow promoting properties of flux

2. Solder composition

- 42 -
3. Composition of material to be soldered

4. Surrounding in which soldering is to be carried out

5. Soldering technique

6. Form in which the flux is to be applied

7. Soldering temperature

8. Properties of flux residues

The flux consists of pure water rosin 20% dissolved in isopropane. Activators
are such as glycol acids, ammonium chlorides and organic halides. Adding
activators flow and activators flow and activity is increased without affecting
corrosively.

2.6 Soldering and Soldering Techniques

There are basically two soldering techniques:

(1) Manual soldering with iron

(2) Mass soldering

2.6.1 Soldering with Iron

- 43 -
The surface to be soldering must be cleaned and fluxed. The soldering iron is
switched on and allowed to attain soldering temperature. The soldering in
from of wire is applied near the component to be soldered and heated with
iron. The surfaces to be soldered are filled, iron is removed and the joint is
cooled without disturbing.

By standardization testing and quality control division solder joints are

supposed to:

1. Provide a permanent low resistance path.

2. Make robust mechanical ink between PCB and leads of components.

3. Allow heat flow between components, joining elements and PCB.

4. Retain adequate strength with temperature variation.

The following precaution should be taken while soldering:

- 44 -
1. Use always an iron plated copper core tip for soldering iron.

2. Slightly file the tip with a cut file when it is cold.

3. Use a wet sponge to wipe out dirt from the tip before soldering instead
of shaking the

iron.

4. Tighten the tip screw if necessary before the iron is connected to power
supply.

5. Clean the components leads and copper pads before soldering.

6. Use proper tools for component handling instead of direct handling.

7. Apply solder between component leads, PCB pattern and tip of soldering
iron.

8. Iron should be kept in contact with the joint for 2-3 seconds only instead
of keeping

for very long or very small time.

9. Use optimum quantity of solder so that is small.

10. Use multistoried wires instead of single strand.

11. Remove flux residues from PCB with solvents like isoprophylalchol.

12. Use Sn60 (Sn 60%, Pb 40%) or Sn 63(Sn 63%, Pb 37%)

13. Every time soldering is over, put a little clean solder on the tip.

2.6.2 Soldering

Soldering is a process used for joining metal parts. It is necessary to use

- 45 -
molten metal known as solder. The melting temperature of solder is below
that of the metal joined so that its surface is only wetted without melting.

During soldering, relative positioning of the surfaces to be joined, wetting of

these surfaces with molten solder and cooling time for solidification is
important. For wetting of surface of metal to be joined, it is very necessary
that atoms of solder must come down within atomic distances from the
surface. It is necessary that the surface should be clean, for good electric
contact.

2.6.3 Soldering Alloys

The solder alloy has low melting point and the liquids temperature below the
melting point of pure lead (327 c). The wetting phenomenon is dependent on
tin content. Lead is added to reduce cost. Tin-lead, Tin-antimony, Tin-lead-
antimony etc. are different alloys used.

2.6.4 Desoldering pump

Soldering pump is work on the principal of the vacuum. It is used in de-

soldering of PCBs.

2.6.5 Desoldering

De-soldering is the reverse method of soldering. In this method we use

soldering iron and de-soldering pump. By use of soldering iron we malted the
solder and use of de-soldering pump-malted solder is removing the PCB. This
method is use to remove the component from PCB.

- 46 -
LIGHT-OPERETED CONTROLLER
Using this light operated circuit; you can close or open the
door of your room remotely from your bed.you just have to
focus the torchlight on the light dependent resistor of the
circuit,which you can install inside your room at a suitable
position.
The control unit comprises two timer 555 ICs, NAND gate,
hex inverter &dual D- type positive edge trigger flip flop.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

- 47 -
LAYOUT

LIST OF COMPONENTS

Components Values
VR1, VR2, VR3 ,VR4 47k
R1 ,R2 ,R3 ,R5 1k

- 48 -
R4 100 ohms
C1 1micro,16V
C2, C4 0.01 micro
C3 200 micro,16V
C5 1000 micro,30V
D1, D2, D3,D4 1N4007
IC1,IC2 555
IC3 7400
IC4 74LS194
IC5 7432
IC6 7402
IC7 7404
IC8,IC9 7474,7805
S1 MANUAL SWITCH
S2 RESET SWITCH
Working:-
the astable multivibrator built around timer 555 has a time
period of 1.5 sec.the monostable built around IC2 is
triggered when torch light is focus on LDR.sensetivity
potentiometer VR1 is adjusted toambien light,normally,the
LDR is kept covered to avoid its activation by ambient
light.
When torchlight is focused on the LDR,the monostable is
triggered .the on time of IC2 is adjusted to 15 secby
potentiometer VR4.the outputs at pin3 of astable IC1 and
monostable IC2 are fed in NAND gate N of IC#.the Q0
7Q1 outputs of shift register IC4 are ORed byOR gate N2
7its output of IC4 forms the second input for NOR gate

- 49 -
N3.the output of NOR gate N3 goes to shift right & shift left
serial data inputs of IC4.

COST OF COMPONENT
COST OF PCB Rs 40/-

COMPONENTS Rs 350/-
OTHER COST Rs 160/-

TOTAL COST Rs 550/-

REFERENCES USED:-
www.google.com

www.wikipedia.com

www.electronicsforu.com

www.datasheet4u.com

Handbook of electronics by –Gupta & Kumar

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- 51 -