Repairing

brickwork
Introduction History
Bricks were first used in Scotland by the
Bricks can be defined as small
Romans but their application soon fell into
rectangular blocks of fired clay. They disuse thereafter. Whilst manufacture and
come in a variety of sizes, shapes use began again in the 17th century it was
and colours. They also vary in age with the industrial revolution at the end of
the 18th century that the use of brick really
and quality. A large number of our
came to prominence in Scotland. From as
traditional building stock utilise early as the 18th century Scotland had a
brick in some element of their significant indigenous brick industry with
construction. As such, the conservation many important works such as the Seaton
Brick Works in Aberdeen. The rapid expansion
of the material is important for the
of towns and cities, and the building of
preservation of our built heritage. This large industrial complexes, gave rise to a
INFORM seeks to give information on: huge demand for the material. Continued
improvements in the manufacturing process
led to better quality bricks being produced
• The history of brick in Scotland
and greater levels of production with demand
• Signs of deterioration in brickwork and use remaining high throughout the 20th
century and this is still continuing today.
• Causes of deterioration
• Repair and maintenance of brick
structures
Deterioration of Brickwork Causes of deterioration
As with all elements of a traditional building, Water Ingress
brickwork will deteriorate and decay if not One of the most common and serious problems
properly maintained. Such deterioration can which can affect brickwork is uncontrolled water
be caused by a number of factors and can take ingress. This can be a particular problem on
various forms. The main signs that brickwork is exposed areas of a building such as upper floors
suffering are: and chimney stacks and in the vicinity of leaking
rain water pipes. Although a brick building may
• Surface growth and staining appear sound when viewed from ground level this
may not be the case higher up on the wall face.
• Efflorescence (white powdery residue
Other areas at particular risk are parapets, areas
building up on the wall face)
surrounding down pipes and quoins (brickwork
• Soft, loose or crumbling mortar on the corner of a building). Once water has
begun to penetrate brickwork it can quickly
• Spalling (deterioration of the surface of
spread to affect a large area.
bricks)
• Loose bricks becoming dislodged The following can be causes of water penetration
• Cracks appearing through the bricks or and associated deterioration:
mortar • Rising damp from subsurface moisture
• Windblown rain
If a brick structure begins to exhibit any of these • Condensation caused by lack of ventilation
signs it is important to identify the cause and • Failure of roof systems or rainwater goods
rectify it as soon as possible. This will prevent • Infiltration through failed mortar
the problem from spreading and further damage • Inadequate surface drainage
being caused
• Encroaching vegetation
• Defective copings and flashings or damp proof
courses
Salts application of contaminated mortars or renders.
Salts are a major cause of deterioration. Salt can Brick lined chimney flues are also vulnerable
enter bricks through contaminated water ingress. as sulphates can be introduced when flu gasses
In coastal areas salt can come from the sea and, condense. This is a common defect where a
in winter, the nearby application of road salt is chimney has been sealed without adequate
a constant threat. Salt is damaging because it ventilation.
creates a steady expansion of crystals within the
bricks. This can eventually force the structure The most obvious sign of the presence of salts
of the brick apart. The source of salt can occur is efflorescence. Efflorescence appears as a white
from within the bricks themselves or from the powdery deposit on the brick. In severe
cases a thick build up of white crystals can
form. This illustrates that salts are present
in the construction and are migrating to the
surface. The problem of efflorescence can be
exacerbated by the improper use of cement
mortars during repair. To prevent significant
deposits of efflorescence from causing serious
damage to bricks it needs to be regularly
brushed off the surface using a bristle brush
and the source of water causing the build up
of the deposits to be stopped.

Structural faults
The most common sign of a structural water is allowed to penetrate through the
fault in brickwork is cracking. This can be brickwork and this can lead to instability.
caused by structural movement, unstable Likewise where structural iron or steel
foundations, tree roots or defects in the elements are incorporated in the build, these
original construction. Minor cracking will too can corrode in similar circumstances.
be superficial and restricted to a few isolated Rust can lead to unsightly staining and, if the
bricks but extensive cracking can be an corrosion is serious enough, this can create
indication of a serious problem. Professional instability due to the fact it expands and
advice should be sought from contractors. creates pressure on the surrounding brickwork
sufficient to burst off the wall face.
In minor cases of cracking it will be necessary
to carefully cut out the affected area and re- Frost
point it using a mortar appropriate to the Bricks vary greatly in their ability to withstand
existing structure of the building. In some frost. Porous bricks are more easily penetrated
cases it may be necessary to replace a few by water and consequently have much poorer
fractured bricks rather than fill the crack. frost resistance than denser ones. Frost
damage results as the water expands within
Where bricks are displaced due to structural the brick when it freezes. Where such damage
movement particular note should be taken of occurs it will often be necessary to replace the
any areas where the wall face projects out from affected bricks.
the adjacent build. This will usually indicate
the presence of some structural movement and Original Construction Defects
lead to the creation of ledges on which water Sometimes brick work was poorly constructed
can gather and penetrate the build. and defects inherent in the original
construction can lead to later problems.
There are also a number of structural Typical defects of this type are:
elements which can fail and lead to associated
deterioration. Where timbers have been • Poor bonding between walls or into
embedded in a brick wall (for example timber existing masonry where a brick addition
joists or lintels) these can rot and decay if has been executed.
• Poor quality bricks utilised (this is a Repair and maintenance of
particular problem with later mass brick structures
produced bricks and those manufactured
from colliery shale)
Tackling Decay
• Frog’ turned upside down to reduce Where decay has occurred it will be necessary
mortar requirements. to take action to rectify the damage before this
leads to greater problems. The use of chemical
Vegetation treatments to stabilise brick should only be
Vegetation can be very harmful to brick considered with extreme caution. Whilst
structures if left unattended to. Ivy can cause they may be effective initially, there has
serious damage particularly where some minor been insufficient research carried out on the
decay is already in evidence. This allows the possible long term damage such treatments
growth to gain a foothold on the broken could have. Chemical sealants can trap
surface and penetrate into the wall core. moisture within the brick just as effectively as
Moss is likely to be a sign of a long standing the claims to keep water out.
water penetration problem and will damage
bricks further by encouraging more water to Replacement of bricks
penetrate the build. In some cases it may be necessary to carefully
replace single bricks or small areas of
brickwork particularly where spalling has
occurred. Great care should be taken when
cutting out the affected brickwork not to
cause new damage to the surrounding area.

Replacement bricks should match as closely

as possible the colour, texture and, most
importantly the size of those which they are
replacing. As historic bricks were often not
of a standard size it may be hard to source
suitable replacements. In some cases they
may have to be specially manufactured, and
there are a number of companies who can
still do this. When introducing new bricks it
is inadvisable to use a colour stain to tone in
new bricks with the existing wall. The weather
will do this automatically over time.

Second hand bricks may be available through

salvage yards and other building material
suppliers. Careful inspection of these is
necessary before buying them to ensure they
have not been badly damaged by demolition
or mishandling.
It is possible in some cases to identify the Brickwork can simply be washed down using
manufacturer and date of a brick from the water and a bristle brush to remove some surface
makers stamp put on many bricks at the point of deposits but care should be taken to avoid
manufacture (source information on this can be exposing the brickwork to too much water. To
found in the further reading section). This identity avoid it penetrating into the brick care should
may help in obtaining suitable replacements. also be taken not to be too vigorous in scrubbing
It should also be noted that different types of the face. The use of high pressure hoses is also not
brick are sometimes used in different parts of recommended, as this will force water deep into
the building such as corners. Harder bricks were the structure.
often used on exposed parts of the building
such as cornices with poorer quality soft bricks Decayed pointing
being utilised for walling. It is important when Throughout the life of a brick building there will
considering replacement bricks that all of these always be some loss of the original mortar. This
factors are taken into consideration to ensure that can lead to a need to repoint areas of brickwork
a satisfactory job emerges. although weathered pointing can still function
adequately provided the joints are not totally
Cleaning open.
Cleaning soiled brick buildings should be
undertaken carefully if at all. In the past the use Where re-pointing is necessary the raking out of
of inappropriate cleaning techniques has resulted the old mortar should carefully be carried out
in considerable damage being done. If considered by hand in order to avoid damage to the corners
essential small scale tests should be employed to of bricks. The correct tools such as a thin chisel
assess the effectiveness and likely damage which and pointing tool should be used and in many
could be caused before any large scale work is instances the use of a skilled tradesman will be
carried out. required. Appropriate replacement mortar should
be used. For traditional brickwork this will
most often be lime based although, from the
late Victorian period onwards, cement is likely
to have been used. Cement mortar should not
be used as a replacement for lime mortar as
this removes the ability of the wall to allow
water to escape. Whenever re-pointing is
being undertaken it is important to use the
same mortar type as originally used. It is also
important to note the pointing technique
that was used before the existing pointing
is replaced as changes to this can have a
dramatic effect on the visual appearance and
performance of the structure.

Further reading / contacts

Practical Building Conservation Vol. 2, J & N Historic Scotland Investments and

Ashurst, ISBN 0-291-39746-8 Projects Team:
0131 668 8801: Fax - 0131 668 8788
Brickwork, G. Lynch, ISBN 1-873394-02-0 [email protected]

A Survey of Scottish Brickmarks, G.J. Douglas Historic Scotland Inspectorate:

Listed buildings: 0131 668 8745:
Georgian Group Guide No. 2, Brickwork Fax - 0131 668 8722
[email protected]
Historic Scotland Technical Conservation Ancient monuments: 0131 668 8777:
Research and Education Fax - 0131 668 8765
Conservation Bureau & Technical Enquiry [email protected]
Service, 0131 668 8668
[email protected]

Principal author: Moses Jenkins

Published by Technical Conservation, Research and Education Group, July 2007
Historic Scotland, Longmore House, Salisbury Place, Edinburgh EH91SH
Tel: 0131 668 8638 Fax: 0131 668 8669
www.historic-scotland.gov.uk email: [email protected]