Dudario de Estructuras Comparadas Del Inglés y Español
Dudario de Estructuras Comparadas Del Inglés y Español
Dudario de Estructuras Comparadas Del Inglés y Español
2014
Dudario
Estructuras Comparadas
Giselle Barbera
Prof. Mariano Quinterno
24/10/2014
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Morphology
Concept
Morphology is the study of word structure, word formation, word derivation and word
inflexion.
Morphemes and Lexemes
The lexeme (lexeme) works at a semantic level and is the principal unit in a word,
while the morpheme (morfema) is the smallest unit of meaning.
Morphemes can be classified as follows:
1. Because of their dependence on other units of meaning:
Free (libres): They can function independently as words. This is the case
they change its meaning or class. They can be verbal , adjectival or
nominal .
Derivational (derivativos): They change the category of the word by
SPANISH
Nouns
Person Niña /Niño Girl/Boy
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Derivational morphemes
Suffixes: they are bound and go after the lexeme. They carry the word stress. In
some cases, the suffixes in English and Spanish are very similar. However, in
some other cases, the morphological processes follow the rules of the English
language:
ENGLISH
Suffix Derivation Example
-er verb to noun work er
-ful noun to adjective faith ful
-en adjective to verb fall en
-less noun to adjective heart less
-ness adjective to noun happi ness
-ing verb to noun shoot ing
-ing verb to adjective tir ing
-ly adjective to adverb quiet ly
SPANISH
Suffix Derivation Example
-ear noun to verb agujer ear
-oso/a noun to adjective maravill oso
-mente adjective to adverb alentadoramente
-on changes the noun person casón
Prefixes: they go before the lexeme. In Spanish they are soundless, unlike in
English. In English, also, there is a group of prefixes which do not affect the
lexical category of the word; they are called negative prefixes.
Prefix Derivation Example
mis- verb to verb misinterpret
un- adjective to adjective unconscious
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Interfixes and infixes: Interfixes are added between the prefixes and the
suffixes to avoid cacophony between two sounds and homonymy. They are
soundless and they lack meaning. There are two types of interfixes:
o To avoid hiatus: for example, in Spanish, the interfix c is added between
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The Verb
Definition
The verb is a lexical word which, along with the noun, constitutes one of the key parts in a
sentence and one of the pillars on which discourse is organized. In accordance with María
Marta García Negroni, the verb is the nucleus of the predicate in a sentence:
María compró/estrenó/lució/se probó un vestido azul.
Peter went to the cinema last night.
Verbs hold different categories of number, person, mood, tense, aspect and voice. Its
morphological structure is made up of:
a) A lexeme or root and
b) A group of morphemes, which flex to form the different categories already mentioned
above.
Differences between English and Spanish verbs
It is necessary to point out that English verbs are made up of a set of independent
morphemes, which have meaning when they are in isolation. However, Spanish
language is known to belong to the category of flectional languages, the morphemes of
which (both, tense/aspect morphemes and person/number morphemes) cannot be
separated from the verbal root (unlike English verbs), thus forming a morphological
unit.
Hablo/Hablará/Hablaremos
I am speaking/He or She will speak/We will speak
Non- conjugated/non-finite forms of the verb
They do not indicate tense, person or number
SPANISH
In Spanish they are called verboides. They are made up of the verbal root followed by
their own ending. There are three non-conjugated (or non- finite) forms:
Infinitivo/Infinitive: It is the conventional citation form of the verb (i.e. how it
appears in dictionaries and the form by which the whole paradigm is
represented).
In Spanish, the infinitivo is signaled by the suffix – r after the theme vowel (vocal
temática). The variations produced by the theme vowel allow organizing the
different verbs in three distinct terminations:
o First termination: Formed by the thematic vowel /-a/ followed by
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The other class of the infinitive is the so called infinitivo compuesto, which is
composed of the verb haber in the infinitive mood followed by a verb in past
participle (Haber viajado en crucero fue una de las mejores cosas)
It may function as a verb or as a noun.
After WH-words:
- I don’t know who to consult .
After let and make (only in the passive voice)
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After certain verbs such as: ‘let’, ‘need’, ‘make’, ‘see’; we use the bare infinitive (the infinitive without
‘to’)
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Smoking is prohibited
Difference between Gerund and Present Participle
My passion is playing tennis (Gerund).
My son is playing tennis (Present Participle).
In supplementary propositions:
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When it refers to the direct object on the main sentence with a predicative
function:
- Vieron a Matías corriendo en el recreo.
In absolute constructions:
below)
Semantically, modality expresses the attitude of the speaker in the presence of
the action performed by verbs.
a) Indicative mood will be used in both, English and Spanish, when the action
is considered real or objective.
b) If the action is regarded as a result of an internal process influenced by fear,
desire, doubt, necessity and possibility, subjunctive mood will be used in
both languages.
c) If the action is considered as an order or plea, Imperative mood will be
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process:
Las conversaciones se terminaron sin que hubiera acuerdo
In English, Subjunctive mood may be defined as the one that denotes
condition, hypothesis, possibility, etc. and not as a mood that denotes real
facts.
Aspect of verbs
It is related to the progression or concretion of an action. It relates to the development
of an action.
There are two grammatical aspects:
Perfective: when the action is concluded.
conocer, querer.
Activities or processess: Dynamic events, non limited (ocurre y progresa en el
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Verb classification
a) Transitive and intransitive verbs
Transitive verbs: they need the presence of a direct object, which receives the
action, to make sense.
He conseguido dos entradas para el teatro
I baked some cookies
Intransitive verbs: They do not need a direct object to make sense.
Juan delinque
I laughed/cried
In Spanish, intransitivity is shown through the self-reflexive form “se” (se rompió,
se caerá).
Semantically
b) Regular and irregular verbs
English: regular verbs are formed by the suffix /-ed/ to form the past simple and
past participle.
Irregular verbs do not follow any rule. These verbs suffer changes in the root when
they are conjugated into de past simple and past participle.
Spanish: Los verbos irregulares son aquellos que en su conjugación sufren
alteraciones respecto de los modelos representados por cualquiera de las tres
conjugaciones regulares.2 (Caber: Yo quepo, yo cupe, yo cabré). Pueden afectar al
lexema, a los morfemas o a ambos a la vez.
Personal or impersonal verbs
Spanish: Impersonal verbs in their original sense are conjugated into the third person
of the singular (verbos meteorológicos o climáticos: llueve, nieva, etc.)
English: Impersonal verbs are are expressed through the use of it or they (It snowed
yesterday)
Acontecer, suceder, ocurrir, constar, parecer (terciopersonales)
They are conjugated only into the third person
- Me parece bien.
In English, these kinds of verbs are preceded by it (happen, seem, occur)
- It happened suddenly .
Impersonal sentences with verbs such as seem or look are expressed by a process
called “clefting” (the sentence is formed by a main clause and a subordinate clause to
express a meaning that could be expressed through a simple sentence.
“It seems you are tired” (you are tired)
c) Copulative verbs
2
(García Negroni M. M., 2004)
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Spanish: ser, estar, parecer, resultar (poseen un significado mínimo de forma que
añaden muy poco al sujeto y por ello son casi prescindibles).
- “La casa es azul” (“La casa azul”)
Rigen al predicativo, mutable o sustituible por el pronombre átono lo (“La casa lo es”)
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Modality
Concept
Modality may be defined as a semantic category, which expresses subjectivity into
language. From a semantic point of view, grammatical mood, which indicates modality,
expresses the attitude of the speaker, when they are in the presence of a verbal
action.
Indicative mood: Whether the action is considered as real or objective, this mood will
be used by English as well as Spanish language.
Subjunctive mood: Whether the action is regarded as the result of an internal process
governed by fear, desire, doubt, possibility or necessity, This mood will be used in both
languages.
Imperative mood: Whether the action is regarded as a command or a plea, this mood
will be used in English as well as in Spanish.
Grammatical mood
a) Modality in a sentential level: This kind of modality is related to the different
types of sentences, Such as declarative, imperative, interrogative, desiderative,
exclamation, etc.
b) Verbal modality: It is related to modal verbs.
Classification of modality
The modal verbs have three main functions: epistemic, deontic and alethic
Epistemic: it has to do with whether something is true or not (true and false
facts)
Epistemic modal verbs indicate:
a) Ability:
- Can/can’t : “I can speak English fluently”/ “Julia, take care of my brother, he
can’t swim very well”
- Could : “I couldn’t finish my math’s exam, I’m sure I didn’t pass” (No pude
terminar mi examen de matemáticas, seguro desaprobé)
Beware of could: Could is translated in Spanish as “podía” or “podría” depending on
the context. Never translate it as “pude”.
- Couldn’t: It CAN be translated as “pude”: “I couldn’t finish the report” (no pude
terminar el informe)
b) Logical conclusions
Certainty: Must “I must do my homework for tomorrow or my teacher will be angry”
(debo hacer mi tarea para mañana o mi profesora se va a enojar)
Probability: May “John may be in his office by this time” (Es probable que John esté en
su oficina ahora)
Possibility: Might “my sister might have forgotten her handkerchief at school” (Es
posible que mi hermana se haya olvidado su pañuelo en el colegio)
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Impossibility: Can’t “I tried, but I can’t stand my schoolmate anymore, he’s such an
annoying guy!” (Lo intenté pero no puedo soportar a mi compañero de clases, ¡es muy
molesto!)
Deontic: It is related with what is right and what it isn’t.
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I wish I had been (SUBJ) to the party -> Desearía haber ido (IND) a la
fiesta
Rather: I’d rather she came (SUBJ) -> Preferiría que viniera (SUBJ)
It’s (high) time: It’s high time you left (SUBJ) -> Es hora de que te vayas (SUBJ)
4. Modals
In English, modals are used to convey mood (M), Tense (Tn), and Modality proper
(Mp). Nonetheless, in Spanish, mood and tense are morphologically marked, so
modals are only used to indicate modality proper.
ENGLISH SPANISH
1. Mood (M) ‒‒‒‒‒-
2. Tense (Tn) ‒‒‒‒‒-
3. Modality proper Modality proper
(Mp) (Mp)
a) Mood
a. I demand that he should (M) go.
b. Pido que (se) vaya.
b) Tense
a. He would (Tn) go if you asked him.
b. Él (se) iría si se lo pidieras.
c) Modality Proper
a. He should (Mp: Advisability) leave now.
Debería (Mp: Advisability) irse ahora.
Other ways to convey the Subjunctive in English
1. Connectives
a) Compounds with –ever
Whatever she did (IND) , it was never enough for him.
Hiciera lo que (ella) hiciera (SUBJ) , para él nunca era suficiente.
b) Even if
Even if she went (SUBJ) with us, she should’ve paid the ticket.
Aunque (ella) hubiese ido (SUBJ) con nosotros, tendría que haber pagado el
boleto.
2. Infinitive
This is one of the most ambiguous ways to mark the subjunctive.
Borges went to Switzerland to die there (A).
Borges fue a Suiza para morir allí (A). (If there is no hint to disambiguate, it is
correct to keep the ambiguity in the translation)
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b. ‒‒ b. Uncertainty
c. ‒‒ c. Feelings
a. Volition
And in Tommy’s suggestion (K: volition) that Andy ask (SUBJ) for his solicitor’s
help , there was fair indication of what the detectives would do next.
Y la sugerencia (K: volition) de Tommy de que Andy llamara (SUBJ) a su
abogado indicaba que sería lo próximo que harían los detectives.
b. Uncertainty
You are saying that Mrs. Lambert organized a wedding without any assurance
(K: uncertainty) that there was (IND) a bridegroom?
¿Estás diciendo que la Sra. Lambert organizó una boda sin la seguridad (K:
uncertainty) de que hubiera (SUBJ) novio?
c. Feelings
It is my hope (K: feeling) that you are enjoying (IND) the reception.
Es mi deseo (K: feeling) que estén disfrutando (SUBJ) de la reunión.
3. Noun Clause as Adjectival Complement
ADJECTIVE HEAD
English Spanish
a. Volition (Imposition of will) a. Volition (Imposition of will)
b. ‒‒ b. Uncertainty
c. ‒‒ c. Feelings
a. Volition
I was adamant (K: volition) that he’d be appointed (SUBJ).
Me mantuve firme (K: volition) en que fuera elegido (SUBJ).
b. Uncertainty
Monk was not sure (K: uncertainty) if he had spoken (IND) impulsively .
Monk no estaba seguro (K: uncertainty) de que no hubiera hablado (SUBJ)
impulsivamente.
c. Feelings
I am very happy (K: feeling) that my daughter is marrying (IND) Henry .
Estoy muy contento (K: feeling) de que mi hija se case (SUBJ) con Henry.
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a. Volition
The suggestion (K: volition) was that she accompany (SUBJ) several
government officials to the morgue.
Les deseo (K: feeling) que la estén pasando (SUBJ) de maravilla en Punta del
Este.
When the subject is co-referent in both clauses, we replace the noun clause by an
infinitival phrase in Spanish:
I’m sorry I made you talk about her .
Lamento haberte hecho hablar de ella.
5. Noun Clauses in Extraposition
In this type of clauses, the key is the Complement (C): either the Subjective
Complement (SC), functioning as Real Subject in Extraposition (RSEP); or the Objective
Complement (OC), functioning as Real Direct Object in Extraposition (RDOEP).
SC/OC
English Spanish
a. Point of view: a. Point of view:
1. ‒ 1. present Tm reference
2. future Tm reference 2. future Tm reference
b. Necessity b. Necessity
c. ‒‒ c. Uncertainty
a. Point of view
Your aunt Maud is here. She is a maddening woman and I consider it a just
judgement upon the Liberal Party (K: point of view ‒ future Tm reference) that
she should espouse (SUBJ) its cause. (RDOEP)
Su tía Maud llegó. Es una mujer irritante y considero que es el castigo que se
merece el Partido Liberal (K: point of view – future Tm reference) que ella
abrace (SUBJ) su causa. (RDOEP) (A)
Cf.
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Your aunt Maud is here. She is a maddening woman and I consider it a just
judgement upon the Liberal Party (K: point of view ‒ present Tm reference) that
she should [Emphasis] espouse (IND) its cause. (RDOEP)
Su tía Maud llegó. Es una mujer irritante y considero que es realmente el castigo
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condiciones. (RSEP)
Cf.
(…) mi cliente pedirá la tenencia de su hijo siempre y cuando su demanda de
divorcio llegue a los tribunales. Todavía honestamente espera evitar esta
eventualidad persuadiéndola de regresar al hogar conyugal. Mientras tanto,
cree que el arreglo más justo, apropiado y beneficioso (K: point of view – future
Tm reference) es que Leo sea trasladado (SUBJ) de inmediato a Brook’ s
Preparatory School donde ambos padres podrán visitarlo en igualdad de
condiciones. (SC)
… but,
(…) mi cliente pedirá la tenencia de su hijo siempre y cuando su demanda de
divorcio llegue a los tribunals. Todavía honestamente espera evitar esta
eventualidad persuadiéndola de regresar al hogar conyugal. Mientras tanto,
cree que será el más justo, apropiado y beneficioso (K: point of view – future Tm
reference) si Leo es trasladado (SUBJ in meaning but IND in form) de
inmediato a Brook’s Preparatory School donde ambos padres podrán visitarlo
en igualdad de condiciones. (RSEP) In this case, es trasladado is the correct
option because Spanish language does not allow SI to be followed by the
subjunctive form when the verb in the clause is in the present tense.
c. Uncertainty
In English, the subjunctive mood is not required when the subjective complement (SC)
expresses uncertainty.
David knew then what he had to do although it was possible (K: uncertainty)
that he might (Mp: possibility) never get (IND) Emily to forgive her husband .
David supo entonces qué tenía que hacer aunque sabía que era posible (K:
uncertainty) que nunca pudiera (Mp: possibility) lograr (SUBJ) que Emily
perdonara a su esposo.
In this case, the presence of might in the English sentence conveys Modality Proper,
whereas in Spanish, this feature is conveyed in the verb.
However, there are some cases in which the semantic components of the keys are not
easily identified:
It’s crucial (K: point of view?/necessity?) that you do (IND?/SUBJ?) whatever is
necessary to get yourself to a place where you can take the profile I’m
developing.
Es fundamental (K: necessity/point of view – present/future Tm reference) que
hagas (SUBJ) lo que sea necesario (A) para conseguir un lugar al que puedas
llevar la mascarilla que estoy preparando.
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Please note that this dilemma does not appear in Spanish, given that in this language
both necessity and point of view trigger the subjunctive. As a consequence, the
problem of identifying the keys is shifted to the reader.
Connectives
a. Complementizers
I. That
This is the most typical connective introducing noun clauses.
I believe (that) they have to have long silly names like that because of the
American Kennel Club.
Creo que tienen que tener nombres largos y tontos como ese por el American
Kennel Club.
II. Whether
Why should we care (K: feeling) whether Switzerland returns (IND) what are
often insignificant amounts of money to Jews?
¿Por qué debería importarnos (K: feeling) si Suiza devuelve (IND)/que Suiza
devuelva (SUBJ) lo que a menudo son insignificantes sumas de dinero a los
judíos?
After SI the indicative form must be used. Nonetheless, the mood is semantically
subjunctive.
III. Lest
This connective presents two characteristics:
i. It can only introduce:
noun clauses as DO of verbs containing a semantic feature of fear;
noun clauses in appositions of nouns denoting fear, or depending on verbs
of fear;
noun clauses as adjectival complement of adjectives of fear.
ii. The mood in the clause is always subjunctive.
Lest is always translated into Spanish as Que.
He feared (Vb) lest people should think (SUBJ) him unpractical .
Temía (K: feeling) que la gente lo creyera (SUBJ) poco práctico.
Though subjunctive is required in both languages, in English this is so because the
choice of lest triggers it, while in Spanish the mood is triggered by the feature of the
main verb.
IV. (Such) as (that)
It introduces noun clauses in apposition. It is translated into Spanish as como; tal
como:
You mustn’t let people know shameful things, such as that your hair has fallen
out from chemotherapy .
No debes permitir que la gente se entere de cosas vergonzosas, como que se te
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This connector is equivalent to that, but it intruduces noun clauses as DO when the
main clause is negative.
I’m not sure, my boy, but what if you put it off, in Spanish it’ll be too late.
No estoy seguro, muchacho, de que si lo pospone no será demasiado tarde.
Relative Clauses
In Spanish, the antecedent triggers the subjunctive when it is not specific.
ANTECEDENT
Spanish
non specific
a. Purpose/Hypothetical meaning
The most common connector introducing this kind of clauses is so that/para que.
He hadn’t hurt her, but she wanted to make him think he had so that he would
feel (SUBJ) guilty .
No la había lastimado, no en realidad, pero quería hacerle creer que sí para que
se sintiera (K: +hypothetical: unknown/still to happen) (SUBJ) culpable .
Nevertheless, the absence of any distinctive subjunctive marker, the context may
provide the information for the reader to conclude that the clause introduced by so
that is result.
She drew the last line so that the sketch was (IND) finished (RESULT).
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Pronoun
Concept and Main Notions
From a semantic and functional point of view, the pronoun has been defined as a kind
of word that functions as a substitute of the noun or that defines beings and objects
without naming them.
It is important to take into account that:
a) Pronouns do not always substitute a noun (only personal pronouns include the
participants to the conversation into the discourse).
b) Pronouns per se refer to another element in a textual or situational context.
REFERENCE
Endophoric (textual) Exophoric (situational)
SPANISH
Case Function 1st person 2nd person 3rd person
Nominative Subject Yo Tú/vos Él/ella
Acusative Direct Object Me Te Lo/la (se)
Dative Indirect Object Me Te Le (se)
Prepositional DO/IO/other Mí Ti Él/ella (sí)
Instrumental CC Conmigo Contigo Consigo
instrument/company
modifiers;
They cannot go together with suffixes and preffixes;
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They are referential discoursive elements: they constitute the coherence in the
text by means of anaphoric and cataphoric reference.
Pronoun Morphologic, Semantic and Syntactical Classification
- Semantic classification in Spanish and in English:
Spanish English
Pronombres
personales/Personal Él vendrá pronto. He will arrive soon.
pronouns
Pronombres
Cualquiera puede
indefinidos/Indefinite Anyone can do it.
hacerlo.
pronouns
Pronombres
posesivos/Possesive La casa es mía. The house is mine.
pronouns
Pronombres
demostrativos/Demonstrative Aquella es Lucía. That is Lucy.
pronouns
Pronombres El autor que escribió The autor who/that
relativos/Relative pronouns esta novela. wrote this novel.
Pronombres interrogativos y
exclamativos/Interrogative & ¡Qué bonito! How nice!
Exclamative
Pronombrespronouns
Lo hice yo misma. I did it myself.
reflexivos/Reflexive pronouns
Pronombres
Se miraron el uno al They looked at each
recíprocos/Reciprocal
otro. other.
pronouns
Personal Pronouns
They are the only words which replace the noun. They are semantically bound to the
designation of a being, object or situation. From a morphological point of view, in
Spanish, they admit gender, number, person and case morphemes; in English,
however, they do not admit gender and number morphemes.
SPANISH ENGLISH
Singular Plural Singular Plural
Sujeto Yo Nosotros/nosotras I We
1ra Objeto Me Nos Me Us
persona Mí,
Término Nosotros/nosotras
conmigo
2da Sujeto Tú/vos Vosotros/vosotras You You
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En español, el uso proclítico, la forma apocopada de los posesivos afecta a los que se
refieren a un solo poseedor, salvo en la tercera persona (El abrigo mío = Mi abrigo; La
pileta tuya = Tu pileta). El apocopado acepta variación en número, pero es
genéricamente invariable. En inglés, esta variación ha sido clasificada como forma
adjetiva del pronombre posesivo con características morfológicas propias y ocupa una
posición sintáctica como modificador del sustantivo.
Sistema de los posesivos en español
Formas plenas Formas
apocopadas
Singular Plural Singular plural
Masculino Femenino Masculino Femenino
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Pronombres demostrativos
Son palabras que expresan deixis (referencia) y que dependen de un marco referencial
que es externo al texto. Son empleados para la referencia espacial que rodea al
hablante. En inglés, así como en español, los demostrativos permiten expresar
distancia en el espacio o en el tiempo mediante una gradación que va desde la
cercanía (Este armario/This cupboard) a la lejanía ( Aquel cuadro/That picture). En
español, los demostrativos admiten morfemas de género (masculino, femenino y
neutro) y número, mientras que en inglés solo existen las categorías: cercano singular
(this), cercano plural (these), distante singular (that ) y distante plural (those).
Español Inglés
Singular Plural Singula Plura
r l
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Pronombres enfáticos
Aunque habitualmente se distingue entre relativos e interrogativos o exclamativos, en
realidad son las mismas formas que se distribuyen en dos series: una átona,
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Many English verbs can be used transitively (with DO) or intransitively (without DO)
with the special semantic contrast of “X caused Y to verb” vs. “Y verbed by itself”: Joe
stopped her (caused her to stop) vs. She stopped . The Spanish counterparts to such
verbs generally take se for the intransitive sense. Spanish seems to use a reflexive
when the Subj acts upon itself while English optionally deletes its reflexive.
Reflexive se of emotional reaction: Se alegra mucho de esto. → She’s very happy
about this.
The psych verbs in this group forma large, important set: aburrir(se), alegrar(se),
animar(se), asombrar(se), deprimir(se), enojar(se), etc. When nonreflexive, the cause
of the emotional reaction is cast as the verb’s Subj, and the experiencer is cast as Obj:
Esto les aburre/sorprende.→ This bores/surprise them. When reflexive, such verbs cast
the experiencer as Subj and the cause of the reaction as an optional PP: Ellos se
aburrieron (de la tele) → They got bored ( with TV); Ella se sorprendió (de que vinieras).
→ She was surprised (that you were coming).
Causative se: Juan se operó anoche. → John had an operation last night.
The verbs in this group are few: operarse,bautizarse, retratarse, vacunarse cortarse (el
pelo) , and some others. Se here indicates that the Subj causes something to be done
for or upon himself/herself. Since these verbs are transitive, they can also occur
nonreflexively: el medico operó a Juan.
Passive and impersonal se:
Se cierra la puerta a la una. → The door is closed at 1:00; one closes the door at 1:00.
Se habla español. → Spanish is spoken; one speaks/you speak Spanish.
Passive se differs from impersonal se in several ways. First, many speakers see se cerró
la
puerta as
cerró so passive
la puerta in its force
por el guarda that they
= la puerta fue add an agent
cerrada por elphrase asSecond,
guarda. in true passives:
impersonalse
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se is distinct from passives because it can be used in true passives: se es juzgado por la
posteridad (one is judged by posterity). Third, passive se only accompanies transitive
verbs (intransitive cannot be passivized: *fui venido), in which case it converges with
intransitive se. Impersonal se, in contrast, accompanies either kind of verb transitive or
intransitive, provided that a human subject is implied (*se llueve is odd for the same
reason as *ella llueve):
Se vivía bien en aquel entonces. → One/They lived well back then.
¿Se puede entrar? → Can one enter?
Como se vive, se muere. → One dies as one lives/You die as you live.
Fourth, with passive se the NP is the subject. The verb agrees with it, and this Subj
precedes or follows the verb like any other Subj or is dropped when deemphasized
(Silvia comió/Comió Silvia/Comió).
The more immediate problem is the lack of a single handy English equivalent for
impersonal/passive se. Formal English uses one whereas colloquial usage favors you or
they , which are also possible in Spanish. As an alternative to impersonal se, Spanish
likewise uses uno: es que no se tiene suficiente cuidado = es que uno no tiene suficiente
cuidado.
The true reflexive is distiguished from the passive/impersonal sense by employing
personal a for the latter: Nunca se mtará el tirano. → The tyrant will never kill himself.;
Nunca se matará al tirano. → People will never kill the tyrant .
Prominalizing with clitics:
“Prominalization” is the process whereby NPs are changed into pronouns. In English,
this process does not greatly affect word order, for pronouns occur in the same
positions as other NPs:
Mary gave her phone number to the man who asked her out.
She gave it to him.
In Spanish, though, position depends on the type of pronoun. Traditionally, two sets
are distinguished, the Subj/OP forms and the DO/IO forms:
Set 1: Subj/OP: yo, mí, tú, ti, Ud., él, ella, ello, nosotros (-as), vosotros (-as), Uds., ellos
(-as), sí.
Set 2: DO and IO: me, te, le, lo, la, nos, os, los, les, las, se (all types).
Some of the key contrasts of Spanish clitics with English pronouns are the following:
1) They do not occupy NP positions in surface structure: Vi los animals. *Vi los.
2) They cannot be used apart from a verb: -¿A quién prefieres? -*Te.
3) They cannot be joined by conjunctions: *Te y me vieron. (English: They saw you
and me)
4) They generally do not share verbs: Puede lavarse y vestirse. *Puede lavar y
vestirse.
5) They cannot be emphasized as separate words.
Neutral: He introduced her to you. Te la presentó.
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6) Even when the Obj is “spelled out” as a specific pronoun or when the IO is
named by a full NP, the clitic still accompanies the verb, a phenomenon called
“clitic doubling”:
*(Lo) vi a usted.
Aquellos tipos *(lo) tartan a uno como inferior.
A Sonia *(le) gustan las plantas.
*(Nos) lo dieron a mí y a mi hermana.
*(Le) di los dulces a mi amigo.
An a-phrase is also used to emphasize a DO clitic ( ¿Me escogiste a mí? ¿Lo quieres a
él? ) Consequently, a + NP may represent DO, IO, or a PP that is not an Obj of the verb
at all, and its pronominalization is not obvious from form alone:
DO: atender a Clara→ atenderla; visitar a Clara→ visitarla
IO: hablar a Clara→ hablarle; server a Clara→ servirle
PP: regresar a Clara, regresar a ella; referirse a ella→ referirse a ella
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Nouns
Nouns are the names of people, things or places. Many, but not all, have a plural as
well as a singular form, and frequently they are able to take an article or other
determiner.
They may be classified in the following manner:
I. Proper nouns
Proper nouns include the names of people, countries, months, days, magazines,
animals, holidays, towns, villages, cities, buildings, streets, squares, continents,
geographical names (Mountains, lakes, some names of countries, islands, mountain
ranges, seas, rivers and other geographical features) and the names of other places
with an unique reference.
Proper nouns that take the definite article: Among the geographical names,
English Spanish
A burning coal fell on the countable noun Un tizón cayó en la
rug alfombra
Coal is mined in Wales mass noun En Gales se extrae carbón
Dictionaries usually advise choosing a singular verb when one thinks of the group
collectively and a plural verb when one thinks of the individuals composing that group.
e.g.: The government is / are…
Nouns denoting fish, animals or birds may be used collectively.
Words denoting plants may be used in the singular with a collective sense.
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Some nouns have a collective sense when they function as mass nouns and may
denote a single item when they act as countable nouns.
Gender
Gender is not merely a grammatical expression of sex but may be connected with the
need to differentiate between living and lifeless, big and small, etc. It is not always
evident from the morphology of the word in question but may influence the form of
other words. The distribution of words into different genders is often arbitrary. There
are few distinctions of gender in English and these are usually related to sex. While
English does not normally use suffixes to distinguish gender, Spanish does.
Kinds of gender in the noun
A. Nouns denoting persons may be: B. Nouns denoting non-personal
1. masculine entities may be:
2. feminine 1. higher animal: masculine
3. dual feminine
4. common 2. higher organism
5. collective 3. lower animal
A. 1.
2.
Masculine and feminine nouns
English distinguishes the male from the female sex in nouns by means of using
a completely different stem, composition or an adjunct.
Usually a suffix is added to the masculine form to form its feminine. An
exception to this rule is the word widower , where the suffix is added to the
feminine word to form the masculine.
When a separate word exists for a woman, sometimes it means she holds a
certain position or has a certain occupation and sometimes it means that she is
married to a man who holds that position or occupation. Nowadays the
different laws created to prevent discrimination based on gender promote the
use of gender neuter nouns such as the recently created compound
chairperson instead of chairman or chairwoman.
Completely different words Add a suffix
Masculine Feminine Masculine Feminine
husband wife actor actress
boy girl god goddess
son daughter duke duchess
Feminine endings
-ess Lioness
-ine Heroine
-ina Czarina
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-ette Suffragette
3. Dual gender
This class of nouns has no separate names for one of the sexes. This class
includes many nouns formed from verbs and nationalities and words indicating
the religion or politics of a person. If needed, the sex can be distinguished by
means of adding constructions such as “a lady … / a woman … / a female …”
A. 4. Common gender
This class of nouns lies between personal and non-personal nouns and can take
the pronouns who / he / she / it. The choice depends on the context and the
relationship of the speaker with the noun in question. For example, a man may
refer to his car as she whereas someone else would use the pronoun it . Some
nouns in this class are: baby, car, ship, and nouns denoting pets (dog, cat, etc.).
A. 5. Collective nouns
These nouns may be substituted by either a singular or a plural pronoun and
take a verb in the plural or the singular form, whichever agrees with the
pronoun of choice. E.g.: The government has / have decided to call elections.
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Countable nouns may form the plural, take the indefinite article, take cardinals, be
used with some, be used in the plural with many , be used in the interrogative plural
with how many and be used in the plural without the article to express general ideas
(Flowers bloom in the spring).
MASS NOUNS
Mass nouns do not form a plural unless they may be reclassified as countable nouns
(Would you like a beer? vs Too much beer is bad for you). They may, however, have a
plural sense (furniture).
Mass nouns do not usually take the indefinite article except when they are reclassified
as countable nouns (a glass of water). They are used with some in the singular and may
form phrases with much and interrogatives with how much.
Sometimes, Spanish usage coincides, but often different words are used to express the
two concepts:
English Spanish
gray hairs count noun canas
hair mass noun pelo
Typical partitives
Typical partitives are sometimes exclusive of some nouns.
♦ a glass of
♦ a bottle of
♦ a can of
♦ a slice of
♦ a stick of
♦ a lump of
♦ a blade
♦ a sheet of
♦ a loaf of
♦ a bar of
♦ a slab of
General Partitives
General partitives are not restricted to specific nouns.
♦ a bit of
♦ a piece of
A lot of, not much, a little, a few
A lot of , not much, a little and a few are often used with the verb in the singular when
used with mass nouns:
There is a lot of gold in that mine.
However, countable nouns use them in the plural:
Only a few hours were allowed to me by fate.
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The Genitive
It may indicate that the noun which is inflected possesses the object which follows it
(the man’s son). This is the specifying or possessive genitive.
It may express the class to which the non-inflected noun belongs (lamb’s wool). This is
the classifying or descriptive genitive.
It may indicate that the inflected noun carried out the action expressed by the noun
that follows it (the girl’s refusal). This is the subjective genitive.
It may indicate that the inflected noun is the cause or origin of the noun that follows it
(uncle’s funny story). This is the genitive of origin.
It may indicate that the inflected noun suffers the action expressed by the noun that
follows it (the man’s dismissal). This is the objective genitive
The -s genitive
An apostrophe followed by s is added to singular nouns:
Singular: Jane’s uncle/the girl’s bag/the children’s toys
Plural nouns which do not end in s add only the apostrophe:
Plural: the horses’ owners/the boy s’ holidays
OTHER WORDS THAT TAKE ONLY THE APOSTROPHE
1. Greek or classical names of more than one syllable;
2. Many names which end with the sibilant /z/;
3. In fixed expressions for the sake of euphony;
The semi independent or elliptic genitive
In this construction the headword need not be repeated if it occurs earlier or later in
the sentence: He put his arm through his wife’s
Sometimes the elliptic genitive is placed before the element ellipted: Maureen’s is a
happy family. This construction may be used predicatively with a form of the verb to
be:
Whose is this book? It’s Michael ’s.
The post-genitive or double genitive
This structure combines the inflected genitive with the of construction:
a friend of Tom’s
a relative of my uncle’s
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His mother-in-law’s house
The Duke of Kent ’s residence
Other structures could have two different meanings according to whether one or both
elements carry the -s suffix. In David and Mark’s dogs all the dogs belong to both of
them but in David’s and Mark’s dogs would mean that some dogs belong to David and
some to Mark. In the first case this structure is called group genitive and in the second
example it is called coordinated genitive.
The local genitive
The local genitive is used
1. To denote residence (my mother’s, the Brown’s)
2. With a proper noun to denote a department store, restaurant, church,
hospital, and other buildings or institutions, or added to a saint’s name
(Lyon’s Coffee House, Mc Donald’s, St. Paul’s Cathedral)
With a common noun to denote commercial establishments or places where a
service is rendered (the grocer’s, the chemist’s)
The apostrophe is omitted in the names of some towns named after saints, sometimes
even if a common noun follows the saint’s name. It is also omitted in some cases
where the building or institution has become familiar.
required (The uncle of Peter and Jane, Peter and Jane’s uncle).
♦ Prominence: Sometimes it is used to give prominence to the proper name (The
nouns denoting lower animals and with inanimate nouns except for those
which may also take the -s genitive. Some of these nouns can form
constructions with both the -of genitive and the -s genitive (the surface of the
earth, the function of the brain). Some inanimate nouns only take the -of
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Articles
ENGLISH
Definite Indefinite Ø
The A / an / some
♦ Used with old / given ♦ Used with new ♦ Used with abstract
information or information concepts and
information that has ♦ Most nationalities generalizations
been restated ♦ Professions
♦ generalizations ♦ To talk about the
♦ musical instruments religion or political
♦ geographical names ideology of a person
that imply a group of
something
♦ superlatives
SPANISH
Definite Indefinite Ø
El / la Un(os) / una(s)
♦ Generalizations ♦ The singular form has a ♦ used with noun
♦ Some geographical numerical sense. It complements, unless
names might mean a / an or they’re modified (e.g.
♦ superlatives one Es abogado)
♦ titles ♦ used with noun ♦ in expressions of price,
complements when speed, ratio
they are modified or in ♦ fixed expressions (e.g.
figurative speech (e.g. ¡Qué lástima!)
Es una Buena
profesora)
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El adjetivo
¿Los adjetivos en inglés siempre van antepuestos al sustantivo?
Generalmente sí, pero hay excepciones.
Los adjetivos affected, required, available, suggested, free, imaginable, necessary, open y
visible pueden ir antes o después del sustantivo al que modifican.
Los adjetivos "elect ” (president elect), “incarnate” (devil incarnate), “minor ” (Asia minor) y
“designate” (ambassador designate) siempre deben ir después del sustantivo.
¿Cómo se pueden clasificar los adjetivos?
Attributive: Son los adjetivos que van antes del sustantivo. Le dan un atributo al sustantivo
que modifican: “ A green door ”.
Predicative: Son los adjetivos que van después de un verbo: “She feels ill ”.
Postpositive: Son los adjetivos que van directamente después del sustantivo al que
modifican: “The devil incarnate”.
Gradable & Non-gradable
Gradable: Adjectives or adverbs which can be set on a scale of ‘more’ or ‘less’ in terms of
their qualities, properties, states, conditions, relations, etc. (good, small, easily, nicely).
Gradable adjectives and adverbs can be premodified by degree adverbs (That’s an extremely
good camera.) and can take the comparative and superlative inflections (smaller, smallest),
or be preceded by more or most (more easily, most superior).
Non-gradable: Adjectives or adverbs that cannot be graded on a scale of ‘more’ or ‘less’ in
terms of the property they describe (dead/alive, male/female, truly, main, married). Non-
gradable adjectives and adverbs cannot take the comparative or superlative inflection, nor
can they be preceded or premodified by words like more, most, quite, rather, so, very
(more male, rather dead, very truly, very married are not possible).
¿Cuál es el orden correcto de los adjetivos en inglés?
O S B A SH C O M P
Opinion Size Build Age Shape Color Origin Material Purpose
“These fantastic monumental strong old grey Indian log-carrying elephant.”
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Por ejemplo: Friendly (adj.) -> Friendlily -> In a friendly way. | Silly -> Sillily -> In a silly
manner.
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La ortografía y la puntuación
PERIOD / PUNTO
. At the end of a sentence (a Punto y seguido. Punto y aparte. Punto final.
statement or a command)
. After abbreviations Luego de las abreviaturas.
NEVER in titles, subtitles. NUNCA en títulos o subtítulos.
NEVER after exclamation or NUNCA luego de signos de admiración o de
interrogation marks. pregunta.
NUNCA en las cifras que indican años o número
de página.
NUNCA en las entradas de una enumeración si
son breves (precedidas por números, letras o
guiones).
NUNCA en las frases que sirven de epígrafe.
(!) Números:
12 345 678 (12.345.678)
12.10 / 12:10
12.11
SEMICOLON / PUNTO Y COMA
; Between independent clauses when = Español
ideas are closely connected (when it
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de la ciudad, ni la lengua.”
, = English En lugar del verbo:
“Los niños, en el jardín.”
NEVER between the verb and the Cuando los elementos que conforman la
subject. enumeración forman el sujeto y van
antepuestos al verbo, no se pone coma detrás
del último:
“Los geólogos, los arqueólogos y los
antropólogos deben tener…”
NEVER between the verb and the = Spanish
object.
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No le gusto nada.
Así De modo, de cantidad o de Likewise
Quiero hacerlo así. deseo I´m tempted to do likewise.
Así de moscas.
Así te parta un rayo
Bien De modo o de cantidad Way
Está bien excedido de peso. He is way overweight.
Está bien lejos.
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Preposition
The preposition is considered a key element for the organization of a sentence. It contains
grammatical information as to the relation between words with lexical meaning on their
own.
Characteristics:
1) Functional/linking words: There are “full prepositions” which have lexical meaning
and “empty prepositions” which are merely a link between a word and a
complement.
In Spanish, such distinction is not very clear and mostly depends on the context, still you
could say that: ante, bajo, contra, desde, entre, hacia, hasta, para, por, según, sin, sobre and
tras may have lexical meaning on their own and a, con, de, en and por may be empty
prepositions.
In Spanish, compound prepositions can only change position in some exceptions due to
style. Gracias a Dios = A Dios gracias.
Spatial relations:
- Basic relation: It depends on the position of an object as to the speaker, e.g.
here/there.
- Deictic relation: The position of two or more objects depends on the position of one
of the objects, e.g. x is under y.
- Intrinsic relation: a specific part of an object is used to make a reference, e.g. the
head of the bed is against the wall.
In English, there are two types of spatial prepositions: topological prepositions in which the
relation between two objects is permanent and projective prepositions in which the
relation depends on the point of view of the speaker.
Topological preposition: Coincidence (on, at), interiority (in) and exteriority (out of).
Projective preposition: inferiority (below), superiority (above), anteriority (in front of),
posteriority (behind) and laterality (between).
Simple prepositions
At In On Off
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Expresión de lugar
En Lugar en que se cumple la acción: vivo en Santa Rosa.
A Proximidad o aproximación en el espacio: Voy a Santa Rosa.
De Separación: Vengo de Santa Rosa.
Tras Situación: Está tras la puerta
Entre Situación: Entre las hojas del libro
Hacia Dirección: Va hacia allí.
Por Lugar a través del cual se realiza la acción: Pasea por la calle. Levanta los
pies.
Con Compañía: Quedó con ellos.
Expresión de tiempo
A Momento particular en un espacio de tiempo: A las nueve.
En Unidad de tiempo en toda su expresión: En Navidad.
De Duración o momento indeterminado: De noche.
Por El momento de la acción: por la noche.
Expresión de instrumento
Con Medio o instrumento: Con un cuchillo.
De Expresa autor o causante de un estado: Seguido de un amigo.
A Instrumento: A sangre y fuego.
En Material o cantidad: Pagar en oro.
Expresión de modo
De, a, por, con, en Cuando forman parte de locuciones
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Conjunctions
ENGLISH
Logical connector _________ C ________ _________. C, ________:
C _________, ________ __________. ________, C
Intra-sentential connector Extra-sentential connector
Concession/Contrast Although/Even though/Though he He was tired.
was tired, he decided to go. However/Nonetheless/
Despite the fact that I was tired, Nevertheless/Notwithstanding
(…)/Despite being tired , I decided that , he decided to go.
to go.
I like football, whereas/while my
brother likes tennis
However + ADJ + SUBJ + VERB =
CONTRAST
Addition Both Marta and Luciana like going There are general problems
to the park. regarding safety. In
Not only Marta but also Luciana addition/Furthermore/Moreover/
likes going to the park. Besides/Additionally/On top of
They’ll take my money as well as that/What’s more, there are
my CDs other issues that…
Purpose I went to the bank to/in order to/so
as to/with the aim of/with a view
to cash a cheque for fear of losing
my money.
I went to the bank in order that/so
that I could cash a cheque.
Consequence I was ill, so I missed a class. I was ill. That’s
I was so tired that I stayed home. why/Consequently/As a
It was such a good book that I read result/Hence/Thus/Therefore I
it twice. decided to stay home.
He was so good a student that …
So + ADJ + a/an + NOUN + that
He is too tall to walk through the
door.
He’s not old enough to go to this
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pub.
ADJ + enough
Enough + NOUN
Reason I missed the class
because/since/as/for/given that I
was ill.
Since/As tend to go at the
beginning because they are
discourse markers.
Because of/Owing to/Due to +
NOUN/-ing/the fact that
Conditionals Inversion
- Should you see Peter, (…)
- Were I you, (…)
- Had I seen him, (…)
Provided that the weather is fine,
we'll have a picnic on Saturday.
Unless the weather is fine, we
won’t have that picnic.
I’ll carry an umbrella in case it
rains.
Time I’ll phone you as soon After I came back, he left.
as/when/after/before I arrive. I was doing my homework. After
I won’t phone you until I arrive. that , I watched TV.
She phoned you while you were He entered the room, and then
out he looked around and saw his
She bought some shoes as he did keys.
the shopping.
He died when I was in London.
Place I am happy
wherever/everywhere/where I go
Exemplification He has a sweater like that one. I like fruits. For example/For
I like many fruits, such as apples, instance, apples.
grapes, etc.
Sequencing First/Second/Third/Finally , he
deigned to appear before us.
ESPAÑOL
Tipo de encabezador Función de la
Proposición Incluyente Relacionante proposición
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Noun Clauses
1. Wh- noun clauses
What you say is true.
Where she is, I don’t know. SUBJECT
2. That noun clauses
She said that she was coming.
3. If/whether noun clauses REPORTED SPEECH
She asked me whether I was coming
Clefting (focusing)/Oraciones hendidas
Example: Mary told me the truth at a pub.
It was Mary who told me the truth at a pub.
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Índice
Morphology .................................................................................................................. 2
Nouns ...........................................................................................................................36
Adjectives .....................................................................................................................44
El adverbio....................................................................................................................50
Bibliografía ...................................................................................................................62
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