Cycle

Cell cycle
 The sequence of events that take place from the time of a cell is
produced until it divides .
 The duration of the complete cell cycle can vary greatly among
organisms . Cells in growing embryos can complete their cell cycle
under 20 minutes. The plant cells complete cell cycle in about 10-
30 hours.
 Typically a rapidly dividing mammalian cell will complete it’s a cell
cycle in about 24 hours, but some cells, like those in the human
liver, have cell cycle lasting more than one year.
 The cell cycle consist of many phases: Interphase(G1,S and

G2),Mitosis and cytokinesis.
 Most of the variation in the length of the cell cycle from one
organism or tissue to the next occurs in the G1 phase.
 Cell o en pause in G1 before DNA replica on and inter a res ng
state called G0 phase ,where they may remain for days to years
before resuming cell division .Most of the cells in an animal's body
are in G0 phase .Some ,such as muscle and nerve cells, remain
there permanently ;others,such as liver cells,can resume G1 phase
in response to factors released during injury.
1- Interphase
 A longer period of time during which the cell increases its size and
content and replicates its genetic material during interphase DNA
and its associated proteins appear as dispersed chromatin threads
 But in fact there are 3 phases of interphase:G1(gap 1),S phase and
G2 (gap 2 or postsynthesis phase).
1-Gap 1 (presynthesis):
 The daughter cells formed during mitosis enter the G1 phase.
 In this phase the cells :
 synthesize RNA
 and regulatory protein essential to DNA replication
 and enzymes necessary to carry out these synthetic activities
 and the cell volume, previously reduced to one –half by mitosis, is
restored to its normal size .
 Addi onally ,the nucleoli reestablished during G1 .
 The organelles begin duplicate themselves, a process that
completed by G2.
 In this phase synthesize of certain protein (kinases) that functions
to initiate mitosis.
2-S phase (synthesis):

 Synthesis and replication of DNA,
 all of the nucleo-proteins including the histones are imported and
incorporates into DNA molecule forming the chromatin material,
 the cell now contain twice the normal complement of its DNA. The
amount of DNA present in autosomal and germ cell is diploid
number (2n) and haploid number (1n) respec vely befor (S) phase
,become 4n,2n respec vely in prepara on for cell division.
 Also the cytoplasmic growth processes continuous during this
phase including duplication of centrioles.
3-Gap 2 (post DNA duplica on):
 Synthesis of certain proteins essential to cell division for example:
tubulin (subunit of microtubules is produced in large quantities
and assembled into microtubules, which will form the spindle
fibers during mitosis ).
 Also in this phase occur the production and accumulation of
energy to be utilized for mitosis.
2- Mitosis (M):
 Is the process whereby the cytoplasm and the nucleus of the cell
is divided equally into two identical daughter cells, by two
divisions
 first ,the nuclear material is divided, a process called
karyokinesis,
 followed by division of cytoplasm, called cytokinesis .
 Mitosis take place in somatic , and its divided into n 5 stages:
1-prophase
 The chromatin strands condense or coil tightly to form rod –
shaped or hair pin-shaped bodies called chromosomes .
 When first seen the chromosomes appear as long, thin and
intertwined threads ,this marks the beginning of prophase.
 As prophase continue to coil and become shorter and thicker, in
human cells,46 such structures can be seen; each chromosome
consist of two longitudinal strands known as chromatids .
 The chromatids are separate structures ,held together at
centromere
 the centromere possesses two kinetochores, one attached to
centromere region of each sister chromatid.
 Each sister chromatid contains one of the DNA molecules
replicated during interphase.
 The centrosome divides into 2 regions each half containing a pair
of centrioles moves to each side ,or pole of the cell.
 Microtubules from near the centrioles and project in all directions
,some of microtubules end blindly and are called aster .Others
known as spindle fibers project toward an invisible line called
equator .
 At the end of prophase the nucleoli disappear .
2-prometaphase:
 Is the transition period between prophase and metaphase.
 At the beginning the nuclear lamins are phosphorylated,resulting
in break down and disappearance of the nuclear envelope(the
nuclear envelope and its components reabsorbed in ER) .
 In this phase the chromosomes are arranged randomly
throughout the cytoplasm and microtubules that become
attached to the kinetochores are known as mitotic spindle
microtubules, these spindles assist in migration of the
chromosomes , so that they become oriented into an alignment
with mitotic spindle.
3- Metaphase:
 The two chromatids are still attached at a single centromere,
giving chromosomes an X –shaped appearance .
 These chromosomes become aligned along the equatorial plain of
cell by assist of mitotic spindle microtubules.
 At this stage there are 46 centromeres, each attached to two
sister chromatids
4- Anaphase:
 The sister chromatids separate from each other and migrate toward
the opposite poles of the cell following the direction of spindle
microtubules ,all the chromosomes form V –shape.
 The separation of chromatids signal the beginning of anaphase ,and
by the time anaphase has ended, the chromosomes have reach to
poles of the cell.
 Sometimes during this phase beginning of cytokinesis.
 The movement of chromatids towards the poles explain by many
theories:
1- Movement of chromatids towards the poles is the result of
shortening of microtubules via depolymerization at the
kinetochore end.
2- The microtubules protein (tubulin),actin and myosin appear in
spindle region participate in the process of chromosome
migration to the cell pole.
3- Dynein which found in kinetochores and its thought that these
motor molecules assist chromosome movement along the
microtubules of kinetochore fibers.
5-Telophase
 The migration of each set of chromosomes is complete,
 the nuclear laminas are dephosphorylated and the nuclear
envelope is reformed around each set of sister chromatids which
can now be called chromosomes, since each has its own
centromere.
 The chromosomes soon begin to uncoil and become less distinct
chromatin threads and organized into heterochromatin and
euchromatin of interphase cell.
 The nucleoli of two daughter cells assume the appearance of
interphase nuclei from nucleolus organizing regions .
 During the later portion of telophase, the spindle apparatus is
disassembled as the microtubules are broken down into tubulin
monomers that can be used to construct the cytoskeletons of the
daughter cells.
3- Cytokinesis:
 Cytokinesis begins in anaphase ,continues through telophase,and
ends in the following interphase .
 The first mark of cytokinesis is the formation of cleavage furrow
or invagination of cell membranes which forms mid-way between
the centrioles which is gradually deepens until the daughter cells
are completely separated.
 cleavage furrow ,is a result of a contractile ring ,this ring
composed of primarily of actin and myosin filaments accumulate
in a belt-like shape beneath the plasma membrane, pulls the
plasma membrane inward dividing the cell into 2 halves.
 Cytokinesis is complete when the 2 halves separate to form 2 new
cells.
Controlling of the cell cycle in eukaryotes:

 The cell cycle in eukaryotes is controlled by three principle check
points:
1- Cell growth is assessed at the G1 check point:
Located near the end of G1,just before entry into s phase ,this
check point makes the key decision of whether the cell divides or
not.
2- DNA replication is assessed at the G2 check point :

Occurring at the end of G2 and trigger the start of mitosis
phases.If check point is passed ,the cell initiates the many
molecular process that are involved in mitosis ,ex.:all the
chromosomes are properly attached to the mitotic spindle.
3- Mitosis is assessed at M check point:

Occurring at metaphase, the 3rd check point triggers the exit from
mitosis and beginning of G1,the major growth period of cell cycle.
 There is set of proteins interact at the check point to trigger the
next events in the cycle such as Cyclin-dependent protein kinases
and cyclins.
 Failures of cell cycle regulation can lead to uncontrolled cell growth
and lie at root of cancer.
Functions of Cell Division:

 Reproduction: An amoeba, a single-celled eukaryote, is dividing
into two cells. Each new cell will be an individual organism (LM).
 Growth and development: A sand dollar embryo shortly after the
fertilized egg divided, forming two cells .
 Tissue renewal: These dividing bone marrow cells will give rise to
new blood cells .

Cycle

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Cycle

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Cell cycle

 The cell cycle consist of many phases: Interphase(G1,S and

2-S phase (synthesis):

Controlling of the cell cycle in eukaryotes:

2- DNA replication is assessed at the G2 check point :

3- Mitosis is assessed at M check point:

Functions of Cell Division:

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