Wave Functions: Complex Function Complex Solutions
Wave Functions: Complex Function Complex Solutions
Wave Functions: Complex Function Complex Solutions
In one dimension, wave functions are often denoted by the symbol ψ(x,t). They
are functions of the coordinate x and the time t. But ψ(x,t) is not a real, but
a complex function, the Schrodinger equation does not have real, but complex
solutions.
The wave function of a particle, at a particular time, contains all the information
that anybody at that time can have about the particle. But the wave function
itself has no physical interpretation. It is not measurable. However, the square of
the absolute value of the wave function has a physical interpretation. In one
dimension, we interpret |ψ(x,t)|2 as a probability density, a probability per unit
length of finding the particle at a time t at position x.
The probability of finding the particle at time t in an interval ∆x about the position
x is proportional to |ψ(x,t)|2∆x.
The wave function must be single valued and continuous. The probability of
finding the particle at time t in an interval ∆x must be some number
between 0 and 1.
We must be able to normalize the wave function. We must be able to
choose an arbitrary multiplicative constant in such a way, so that if we sum
up all possible values ∑|ψ(xi,t)|2∆xi we must obtain 1. The total probability
of finding the particle anywhere must be one. (The area under the curve |
ψ(x,t)|2 must be 1.)
Examples:
This is an acceptable wave function. It is single valued and continuous.
Problem:
Solution:
Each particle can be found in a small interval ∆x about any x between -π/2 and
+π/2 with probability (2/π) cos2(x) ∆x. Each particle is just as likely to be found at
x > 0 than at x < 0. The average position is x = 0. The most likely position to find a
particle is also x = 0, because that is where the square of the wave function has its
maximum value.
(a) the lowest five energy levels En = n2π2ħ2/(2mL2), and the corresponding
energy eigenfunctions ψn(x) = (2/L) ½sin(nπx/L). These wave functions look
like standing waves on a string.
(b) the corresponding probability density functions
ψn(x)2 = (2/L) sin2(nπx/L).
In the figure the wave functions and the probability density functions have an
arbitrary magnitude and are shifted by the corresponding electron energy.
Note: The electron is not "smeared out" in the well. We just do not have exact
position information, because energy and position are incompatible observables.
The lowest possible energy of the confined particle is its ground-state energy. All
other possible energies are excited-state energies. A particle can make
transitions between different energy levels when it is interacting with its
environment. If a particle makes a transition from a lower energy level to a
higher energy level, it has to absorb an amount of energy ∆E = E high - Elow from the
outside world. It can absorb a photon with energy hf = ∆E, or it can receive the
required energy from another particle in a collision. If the particle makes a
transition from a higher energy level to a lower energy level, it has to release an
amount of energy ∆E = Ehigh - Elow to the outside world. One way to do this is to
emit a photon of energy hf = ∆E.
Because the energy levels are quantized, the energies of photons involved in
transitions are quantized. The particle in the well can only interact with photons
of certain energies, it can only emit or absorb light of certain colors.
Electrons in
atoms are not confined in a square well, but they are confined. This confinement
leads to energy quantization. If we measure the energy of an electron in an atom,
we can only measure a of a set of discrete values. The energies of the electrons in
atoms are quantized. Atomic spectra reveal this quantization. Light from a hot
filament contains all the colors of the rainbow. But light given off or absorbed by
individual atoms consists of a unique set of colors.
Example 2:
The tunneling probability strongly depends on the barrier's width and height.
Most particles approaching the barrier are reflected, but a few tunnel through the
barrier. The probability P of finding the particle on the other side of the barrier
decreases exponentially as P = exp(-2αd), where d is the width of the barrier and
α = [(2m/ħ2 )(U - E)]½. The tunneling probability is smaller for more massive
particles, for wider barriers, and for higher barriers (as compared to the energy of
the particle).
Problem:
Solution:
The tunneling probability can be expressed as
P = exp(-2αd), where α = [(2m/ħ2 )(U - E)]½ and d = 7*10-10 m.
The mass of the electron is 9.1*10-31 kg and U = 6 eV*1.6*10-19 J/eV = 9.6*10-19 J.
ln(P) = -2αd, α = -ln(0.001)/(2*7*10-10 m) = 4.93*109/m.
E = U - ħ2α2/(2m) = 9.6*10-19 J - (1.054*10-34 Js *4.93*109/m)2/(2*9.1*10-31 kg) =
8.11 x 10-19 J = 5.07 eV.
An electron with E = 5.07 eV has a probability of 0.001 or 0.1% of tunneling
through the 6 eV barrier.
The electron probability density associated with metal atoms at a surface extends
a very small distance above the surface. When a very sharp tip is brought
sufficiently close to such a surface, there is a strong interaction between the
electrons on the surface and that of the tip, and an electric tunneling current
flows when a small voltage is applied. At a separation of a few atomic diameters,
the tunneling current rapidly increases as the distance between the tip and the
surface decreases. This rapid change of tunneling current with distance results in
atomic resolution, if the tip is scanned over the surface to produce an image.