L.R.D.A.

V PUBLIC SCHOOL CUTTACK

CHAPTER-2
SOLUTIONS

1.Solutions are homogeneous mixtures of two or more than two components. The constituents of
a solution cannot be separated byfiltration, settling or centrifugal action. All solutions are
characterised by (i) homogeneity, (ii) absence of settling and (iii) the molecular or ionic state of
sub-division of the components

2.Solvent in a solution is its constituent substance which has the same state of aggregation as
that of the solution. Generally, the component present in greater amount than any or all the other
components is called the solvent. Solvent determines the physical state in which solution exists.
One or more components present in the solution other than solvent are called solutes.

3.Solutions having only two components are called binary solutions. Here each component may be solid,
liquid or in gaseous state.

4.Composition of a solution can be described by expressing its concentration.It can be described qualitatively
and quantitatively.
Qualitative:wether dilute or concentrated.
Quantitative:There are several ways they are:
i)mass percentage(w/w): It is defined as the amount of solute in gram present in 100 gram of the
solution.

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ii). Volume percentage (V/V): It is defined as the volume of solute in mL present in 100 mL solution.

iii) Mass by volume percentage (w/V): It is the mass of solute dissolved in 100 mL of the solution.

iv) Parts per million(ppm):When the solute is present in trace quantities, it is convenient to
express the concentration inparts per million (ppm).lt is defmed as the quantity of the solute in
gram present in 106 gram of the solution.

v)MOLE FRACTION-This method is used when the solution is constituted by mixing two or
more components. It is defined as the ratio of number of moles of one component to the total
number of moles of the solution (i.e., all the components).

vi)Molarity: It is defined as the number of moles of the solute per litre or per dm3 of the solution.

vii)Molality: Molality (m) is defined as the number of moles of the solute per kilogram (kg) of the solvent and
is expressed as

viii)Normality: It is defined as the number of gram equivalents of solute present per litre of
solution. It is denoted by 'N'.

5 Solubility of a Solid in a Liquid (Read the passage below on solubility thoroughly):

Every solid does not dissolve in a given liquid. While sodium chloride and sugar dissolve readily in water,
naphthalene and anthracene do not. On the other hand, naphthalene and anthracene dissolve readily in benzene
but sodium chloride and sugar do not. It is observed that polar solutes dissolve in polar solvents and non polar
solutes in nonpolar solvents. In general, a solute dissolves in a solvent if the intermolecular interactions are

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similar in the two or we may say like dissolves like. When a solid solute is added to the solvent, some solute
dissolves and its concentration increases in solution. This process is known as dissolution. Some solute
particles in solution collide with the solid solute particles and get separated out of solution. This process is
known as crystallisation. A stage is reached when the two processes occur at the same rate. Under such
conditions, number of solute particles going into solution will be equal to the solute particles separating out
and a state of dynamic equilibrium is reached. At this stage the concentration of solute in solution will remain
constant under the given conditions, i.e., temperature and pressure. Similar process is followed when gases are
dissolved in liquid solvents. The following equilibrium exists in solutions:

Such a solution in which no more solute can be dissolved at the same temperature and pressure is called a
saturated solution. An unsaturated solution is one in which more solute can be dissolved at the same
temperature. The solution which is in dynamic equilibriumwith undissolved solute is the saturated
solution and contains the maximum amount of solute dissolved in a given amount of solvent. Thus, the
concentration of solute in such a solution is its solubility.
5.1Effect of temperature:
The solubility of a solid in a liquid is significantly affected by temperature changes. In general, if in a nearly
saturated solution, the dissolution process is endothermic the solubility should increase with rise in
temperature and if it is exothermic the solubility should decrease.
5.2Effect of pressure:
Pressure does not have any significant effect on solubility of solids in liquids. It is so because solids and
liquids are highly incompressible and practically remain unaffected by changes in pressure

6.Solubility of gas in liquid:

Solubility of gases in liquids is greatly affected by pressure and temperature. Solubility of gas in liquid
increases with increase in pressure and decrease in temperature.
7.Henry’s law:
The solubility of a gas in a liquid is directly proportional to the partial pressure of the gas present above the
surface of liquid or solution. solubility of a gas in a liquid solution is a function of partial
pressure of the gas. So henry’s law can also be stated that “the partial pressure of the gas
in vapour phase (p) is proportional to the mole fraction of the gas (x) in the solution”.
Mathematically

Where KH is henry’s law constant . KH is a function of the nature of the gas. that higher the
value of KH at a given pressure, the lower is the solubility of the gas in the liquid. KH values increases with
increase in temperature.
Applications of henry’s law:
 To increase the solubility of CO2 in soft drinks and soda water, the bottle is sealed under high
pressure.
 Scuba divers must cope with high concentrations of dissolved gases while breathing air at high
pressure underwater. Increased pressure increases the solubility of atmospheric gases in blood. When
the divers come towards surface, the pressure gradually decreases. This releases the dissolved gases
and leads to the formation of bubbles of nitrogen in the blood. This blocks capillaries and creates a
medical condition known as bends, which are painful and dangerous to life.To avoid bends, as well
as, the toxic effects of high concentrations of nitrogen in the blood, the tanks used by scuba divers are
filled with air diluted with helium (11.7% helium, 56.2% nitrogen and 32.1% oxygen)
 At high altitudes the partial pressure of oxygen is less than that at the ground level. This leads to low
concentrations of oxygen in the blood and tissues of people living at high altitudes or climbers. Low
blood oxygen causes climbers to become weak and unable to think clearly, symptoms of a condition
known as anoxia

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8..Effect of Temperature:
Solubility of gases in liquids decreases with rise in temperature. When dissolved, the gas molecules are present
in liquid phase and the process of dissolution can be considered similar to condensation and heat is evolved in
this process. As dissolution is an exothermic process, the
solubility should decrease with increase of temperature(according to Le Chatelier’s Principle).

9.Vapour pressure : At a constant temperature, the pressure exerted by the vapours of a liquid on its
surface when they (liquid and its vapours) are in equilibrium, is know as vapour pressure
Raoult’s law states that for a solution of volatile liquids the partial vapour pressure of each component of
the solution is directly proportional to its mole fraction present in solution.In other words he partial
pressure of any volatile constituents of a solution at a constant temperature is equal to the vapour pressure
of pure constituents multiplied by the mole fraction of that constituent in the solution.
P=p0 x
Where p0 is vapour pressure of pure component x is the mole fraction of that constituent in solution.

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Raoult’s law as special case of Henry’s Law:
According to Raoult’s law, the vapour pressure of a volatile component in a given solution is given by pi = xi pi
In the solution of a gas in a liquid, one of the components is so volatile that it exists as a gas and we have
already seen that its solubility is given by Henry’s law which states that p = KH x. If we compare the equations
for Raoult’s law and Henry’s law, it can be seen that the partial pressure of the volatile component or gas is
directly proportional to its mole fraction in solution. Only the proportionality constant KH differs from p1. Thus,
Raoult’s law becomes a special case of Henry’s law in which KH becomes equal to p1

10.Ideal Solutions: Those solutions in which solute-solute (B-B) and solvent-solvent (A-A) interactions
are almost similar to solvent solute (A-B) interactions are called ideal solutions.ideal solutions obey
raoult’s law in all concentrations .No energy is evolved or absorbed(ΔHmix = 0) and no expansion or
contraction on mixing( ΔVmix =0).There is no chemical reaction between solute and solvent and no
association or dissociation of solute molecules
Examples are benzene + toluene. n-hexane + n-heptane, ethyl iodide + ethyl bromide, chlorobenzene +
bromobenzene.

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Diagram below shows positive deviation.

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Diagram below show negative deviation

11.Azeotropic Mixture: A mixture of two liquids which boils at a particular temperature like a pure
liquid and distils over in the same composition is known as constant boiling mixtures. These are formed
by non-ideal solutions.
(i) Minimum boiling azeotropes are formed by those liquid pairs which show positive deviation
from ideal behaviour. Such azeotropes have boiling points lower than either of the
components, e.g., C2H5OH (95.57%) + H2O (4.43%)(by mass).
(ii) Maximum boiling azeotropes are formed by those liquid pain; which show negative
deviation from ideal behaviour. Such azeotropes have boiling points higher than either of the
components. e.g., H2O(20.22O%)+ HCl (79.78%] by mass.

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ii)Elevation in Boiling Point (ΔTb): Boiling point of a liquid is the temperature at which its vapour
pressure becomes equal to the atmospheric pressure. As the vapour pressure of a solution containing a
nonvolatile solute is lower than that of the pure solvent, it boiling point will be higher than that of the
pure solvent as shown in figure. The increase in boiling point is known as elevation in boiling point, ΔT b.

Diagram below shows elevation in boiling point.

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iii)Depression in Freezing Point (ΔTf): Freezing point of a liquid is the temperature at which vapour
pressure of the solvent in its liquid and solid phase become equal. As we know that vapour pressure of
solution containing non-volatile solute is lower than that of pure solvent, solid form gets separated out at
a lower temperature as shown in the figure below

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Kf and Kb can be found out by the following formula

MA is molar mass of the solvent.

iv)Osmosis: It is the phenomenon of spontaneous flow of the solvent molecules through a semipermeable
membrane from pure solvent to solution or from a dilute solution to concentrated solution.
Osmosis may be
(i) Exosmosis: It is outward flow of water or solvent from a cell through semipermeable membrane.
(ii) Endosmosis: It is inward flow of water or solvent from a cell through a semipermeable
membrane.
The hydrostatic pressure developed on the solution which just prevents the osmosis of pure solvent into
the solution through a semipermeable membrane is called osmotic pressure.

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On the basis of osmotic pressure, -the solution can be
(i) Hypertonic solution:A solution is called hypertonic if its osmotic pressure is higher than that of
the solution from which it is separated by a semipermeable membrane. When a plant cell is
placed in a hypertonic solution, the fluid from the plant cell comes out and cell shrinks, this
phenomenon is called plasmolysis.
(ii) Hypotonic solution :A solution is called hypotonic if its osmotic pressure is lower than that of
the solution from which it is separated by a semipermeable membrane.
(iii) Isotonic solution: Two solutions are called isotonic if they exert the same osmotic pressure.
These solutions have same molar concentration. 0.91% solution of pure NaCl is isotonic with
human RBC‟s.

12.Reverse Osmosis : If external pressure greater than osmotic pressure is applied, the flow of solvent
molecules can be made to proceed from solution towards pure solvent, i.e., in reverse direction of
the ordinary osmosis. * Reverse osmosis is used for the desalination of sea water for getting fresh
drinking water.

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