Notes: Ch 1- Solutions

1. 1. Define a solution.
A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more pure substances whose composition can
be varied within certain limits.
A solution consisting of two components (solute & solvent) is called a binary solution.
2. 2. Define the following modes of expressing the concentration of a solution. Which of these modes
are independent of temperature and why?
(i) (i) w/w (mass percentage) (ii) x (mole fraction) (iii) M (Molarity) (iv) m (Molality)
Concentration is the amount of solute dissolved in a particular amount of the solvent or
solution.
(i) i) Mass percentage: It is defined as the mass of solute per 100g of solution.

(ii) ii) Mole fraction: It is the ratio of number of moles of one component to the total number of
(iii) moles present in the solution.
Mole fraction of component A = No. of moles of component A
no of moles of A + no of moles of B

Mole fraction of component B = No. of moles of component B

no of moles of A + no of moles of B

i.e.,
iii) Molarity (M): It is the number of moles of solute dissolved in one litre of the solution.
Molarity is temperature dependent because volume depends on temperature.

Molarity, M = n/V = w2 x 1000

M2 x V(mL)
iv) Molality (m): It is the number of moles of the solute dissolved in one kilogram of the
solvent. Molality = number of moles of solute/ Weight of solvent in kg
m = w2 x 1000
M2 x w1(kg)
where w2 is the mass of the solute and w1 is the mass of the solvent. M2 is the molar mass
of solute.
v) Parts per million (ppm): It is the parts of a component per million (106) parts of the
solution. It is used when a solute is present in trace quantities.
vi) Another unit which is commonly used in medicine and pharmacy is mass by volume
percentage. It is the mass of solute dissolved in 100 mL of the solution.

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 ➢ Mass percentage, ppm, molality and mole fraction do not contain volume component.
They contain weight components. Hence, they are independent of temperature.
3. 3. Define solubility.
It is the maximum amount of substance that can be dissolved in 100 g of the solvent at a specified
temperature.
The solubility of a solid in a liquid depends upon:
(a) the nature of the solute (b) nature of solvent and (c) the temperature of the system
In a nearly saturated solution, if the dissolution process is endothermic (∆solH > 0), the
solubility should increase with rise in temperature and if it is exothermic (∆solH < 0) the
solubility should decrease.
4. 4. Explain the solubility rule “like dissolves like” in terms of intermolecular forces that exist in
solutions?
A substance (solute) dissolves in a solvent if the intermolecular interactions are similar in both
the components; for example, polar solutes dissolve in polar solvents and non-polar solutes in
non-polar solvents thus we can say “like dissolves like”.
5. 5. Sate Henry’s law.

The effect of pressure on the solubility of a gas in a liquid is governed by Henry’s Law.
“The partial pressure of the gas in vapour phase (p) is proportional to the mole fraction of the
gas (x) in the solution” and is expressed as: p = KHX, where KH is Henry’s Law constant.
Characteristics of KH
• Different gases have different KH values at the same temperature. This suggests that KH is a
function of the nature of the gas.
• Higher the value of KH at a given pressure, the lower is the solubility of the gas in the
liquid.
• The solubility of gases increases with decrease of temperature.
Applications of Henry’s law.
• To increase the solubility of CO2 in soft drinks, the soda water bottles are sealed under high
pressure.
• To avoid the toxic effects of high concentration of nitrogen in the blood of the scuba divers
(the painful condition is known as bend), the tanks are filled with air diluted with Helium.
• At high altitude, partial pressure of oxygen is less than that of ground level. This leads to low
concentrations of oxygen in blood and tissue of people living at high altitudes. The low blood
oxygen causes climbers to become weak and unable to think clearly known as anoxia.
6. 6. What is the effect of temperature on solubility of gases in liquid?
As dissolution is an exothermic process, according to Le Chatelier’s principle solubility should
decrease with rise in temperature.
7. 7. What is vapour pressure?
It is the pressure exerted by the vapours above the liquid surface, in equilibrium with the liquid
at a given temperature

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8. 8. State Raoult’s law for the solution containing volatile components.
Raoult’s law states that for a solution of volatile liquids, the partial vapour pressure of each
volatile component in the solution is directly proportional to its mole fraction.
Consider a binary solution of two volatile liquids 1 and 2. If P1 and P2 are the partial vapour
pressures of the two liquids and X1 and X2 are their mole fractions in solution. Then,
P1 = P10 X1 and P2 = P20 X2
Where P10 and P20 are the vapour pressures of the pure components 1 and 2 respectively.
➢ Assuming that vapours of a liquid is behaving like an ideal gas, then according to Dalton’s law
of partial pressure, the total pressure PT is given by PT = P1 + P2
PT = P10 X1 + P20 X2
Limitations:
(i) Applicable only to dilute sol. (ii) Applicable to solutions of only non- electrolyte.
9. 9. Explain ideal solutions with the help of a diagram.
Ideal Solutions
A solution which obeys Raoult’s law at all concentrations and temperatures is known as an
ideal solution.
Liquids having similar nature and structure are likely to form ideal solutions.
e.g., Mixture of methanol and ethanol, Mixture of n- hexane and n-heptane, Mixture of
benzene and toluene.
The plot of vapour pressure and mole fraction of an ideal solution at constant temp. where
component 1 is that of a solvent and 2 is of a solute.

Characteristics of an ideal solution:

➢ Obeys Raoult’s law. i.e., P1 = P10 X1 and P2 = P20 X2
➢ F1–2 = F1–1 = F2–2
➢ ∆solV = 0, i.e., there is no change in volume when an ideal solution is formed.
➢ ∆solH= 0; i.e., heat is neither evolved nor absorbed during the formation of an ideal
solution.
10. Explain non-ideal solutions with the help of diagrams.
Non-ideal Solutions: Those solutions which show deviation from Raoult’s law is called non-
ideal solution.

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 Characteristics of a non-ideal solution
➢ Raoult’s law is not obeyed. i.e., P1 ≠ P10 X1 and P2 ≠ P20 X2
➢ Δmix H ≠ 0
➢ Δmix V ≠ 0
Types of deviations from Raoult’s law:
➢ a) Positive deviations
➢ b) Negative deviations
a) a) Non-ideal solutions showing positive deviation
The solution shows positive deviation from Raoult’s law if its vapour pressure is higher
than that predicted by Raoult’s Law.
➢ In such a case, the solvent – solute interactions are weaker than solvent – solvent or solute –
solute interactions and the observed vapour pressure of each component and the total vapour
pressure are greater than that predicted by Raoult’s law.
Characteristics of a non-ideal solutions showing positive deviation
a) P1 > P10 X1 and P2 > P20 X2
b) F1–2 < F1–1 and F2–2
c) Δmix H > 0, i.e., +ve
d) Δmix V > 0, i.e., +ve
e.g., Ethyl alcohol and water, Acetone and carbon disulphide, Acetone and benzene
b) Non-ideal solution showing negative deviation
The solution shows negative deviation if its vapour pressure is lower than that predicted by
Raoult’s Law.
In such a case, the solvent – solute interactions are stronger than solvent – solvent or solute –
solute interactions and the observed vapour pressure of each component and the total vapour
pressure are lesser than that predicted by Raoult’s law.
Characteristics of a non-ideal solutions showing negative deviation
a) P1 < P10 X1 and P2 < P20 X2
b) F1–2 > F1–1 and F2–2
c) Δmix H < 0, i.e., -ve
d) Δmix V < 0, i.e., -ve
e.g., Nitric acid and water, Chloroform and acetone, Acetic acid and pyridine

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11. Define azeotropes. What are the two types of azeotropes?
Azeotropes are binary mixtures having the same composition in liquid and vapour phase
and boil at a constant temperature (known as constant boiling mixtures).
• These are formed by non-ideal solutions.
• It is not possible to separate the components by fractional distillation.
(i) Minimum boiling azeotropes
• Formed by non-ideal solutions which show positive deviation from Raoult’s law.
• The binary mixtures whose boiling points are lower than either of the two components.
• e.g., C2H5OH (95.5%) + H2O (4.5% by mass).
(ii) Maximum boiling azeotropes
• Formed by non-ideal solutions which show negative deviation from ideal behaviour.
• The binary mixtures whose boiling points are higher than either of the two components.
• e.g., H2O (20.22%) + HCl (79.78%) by mass.
12. What are colligative properties? Give examples.
a) Relative lowering of vapour pressure
The addition of a non-volatile solute to a volatile solvent decreases the escaping tendency of
the solvent molecules from the surface of solutions as some of the surface area is occupied by
non-volatile solutes.
Thus, according to Raoult’s Law, the relative lowering of vapour pressure of a solution is
equal to the mole fraction of the solute.

Relative lowering of vapour pressure =

Where, p1º = vapour pressure of the pure solvent & p1 = vapour pressure of the solvent in the
solution and the lowering of vapour pressure, ∆p = (p10-p1)
• The ratio of the lowering of the vapour pressure of the solvent divided by the vapour
pressure of the pure solvent is called the relative lowering of vapour pressure.
b) Elevation of boiling point
The difference in the boiling point of solution (Tb) and that of pure solvent (Tb0) is called
elevation of boiling point (∆Tb).
Elevation of boiling point, ∆Tb = Tb - Tb0
For a dilute solution, the elevation in boiling point is found to be proportional to the molality of
the solution. Thus,
∆Tb∝ m or ∆Tb= Kb.m
where ‘m’ is the molality and Kb is the molal elevation constant or ebullioscopic constant.
• Unit of Kb is K kg mol-1
• c) The depression in freezing point (∆Tf)
The difference in the freezing point of pure solvent (Tf0) and that of the solution (Tf) is called
depression in freezing point (∆Tf).
Depression in freezing point, ∆Tf = Tf0 - Tf

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 For a dilute solution, the depression in freezing point is found to be proportional to the molality
of the solution. Thus,
∆Tf ∝ m or ∆Tf= Kf. m
where ‘m’ is the molality and Kb is the molal depression constant or cryoscopic constant.
• Unit of Kf is K kg mol-1
• d) Osmotic pressure (π)
• The spontaneous flow of solvent molecules from a dilute solution to a concentrated solution
when the two are separated by a perfect semipermeable membrane is called osmosis.
• Osmotic pressure (π) is the excess pressure which must be applied to the solution to prevent
osmosis.
Mathematically, osmotic pressure is proportional to molarity (C) of the solution at a particular
temperature, T. Thus,
π = CRT = w2 x R x T
M2 x V
where π is the osmotic pressure of the solution, w2 is the mass of solute, V is the volume of the
solution in litres, R is the gas constant, and T is the temperature in Kelvin.
13. Define reverse osmosis. Write one of its applications.
If pressure larger than osmotic pressure is applied to the solution side, the pure solvent flows
out of the solution through the SPM. As the direction of osmosis is reversed by this way, the
process is called reverse osmosis.
Reverse osmosis is used in the desalination of sea water to get pure water.

14. What are hypertonic, hypotonic and isotonic solutions?

➢ Hypertonic solution: A solution having higher osmotic pressure than that of the other solution
from which it is separated by a semipermeable membrane.
➢ Hypotonic solution: A solution having lower osmotic pressure than that of the other solution.
➢ [Water will flow into the cells if placed in this solution and they would swell.]
➢ Isotonic solution: Two solutions having same osmotic pressure at a given temperature are
called isotonic solutions. These solutions have same molar concentration. When such solutions
are separated by a semipermeable membrane, no osmosis occurs between them.
For isotonic solutions, π1 = π2. Also, C1 = C2.
➢ 0.91% solution of pure NaCl is isotonic with human RBC’s. All intravenous injections
must be isotonic with body fluids.

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15. Define Abnormal molar mass and van’t Hoff factor(i).
When the molar mass of a substance determined by using any of the colligative properties
deviate from the theoretically expected molar mass, the substance is said to have abnormal
molar mass. It is due to either association or dissociation of molecules.

Van’t Hoff factor (i)

➢ It is used to express the extent of association or dissociation of solute particles in solution.

➢ It may be defined as the ratio of observed colligative property to the calculated colligative
property.
➢ i.e., i = Normal molar mass
Observed molar mass
Or, i = Observed colligative property
Calculated colligative property

• In case of association, i < 1

• But in case of dissociation, i> 1
• When there is neither association nor dissociation, i = 1

16. Inclusion of van’t Hoff factor, ‘i’, modifies the equations for colligative properties as follows:
Elevation of boiling point, ∆Tb= i Kb m
Depression of freezing point, ∆Tf= i Kf m
Osmotic pressure, π = i CRT

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