University of Duhok

College of Engineering

Mechanical Department

Final report
Heat transfer

Student name: Esam Jasim Ahmed

Course: heat transfer
Instructor: Dr. Kasem Hussein
Date:
 Table of content

Introductio……………………………………………………………1
Chapter 1 ……………………………………………………………..2
Chapter 2 ……………………………………………………………..5
Chapter 3 ……………………………………………………………..8
Chapter 4 ……………………………………………………………..17
Chapter 5 ……………………………………………………………..21
Chapter 6 ……………………………………………………………26
Introduction
Heat transfer : is the term applied to a study in which the details or
mechanisms of the transfer of energy in the form of heat are of primary
concern. Examples of heat transfer are many. Familiar domestic
examples include broiling a turkey, toasting bread, and heating water.
Industrial examples include curing rubber, heat treating stcel forgings,
and dissipating waste heat from a power plant. The analysis of such
problems is the topic of study in this text in other word Hear transfir is
energy in transit, which occurs as a result of a temperature gradient or
difference. This temperature difference is thought of as a driving force
that causes heat to flow. Heat transfer occurs by three basic
mechanisms or modes: conduction , convection , and radiation .

 Conduction : is the transmission of heat through a substance

without perceptible motion of the substance itself. Heat can be
conducted through gases, liquids, and solids.
 Convection : is the term applied to heat transfer due to bulk
movement of a fluid .
 Radiation : is the transfer of energy by electromagnetic radiation
having a defined range of wavelengths .

1
Theory :

Chapter 1

Unsteady-state conduction:

If a solid body is suddenly subjected to a change in environment, some

time must elapse before an equilibrium temperature condition will
prevail in the body. We refer to the equilib- rium condition as the
steady state and calculate the temperature distribution and heat transfer
by methods described in Chapters 2 and 3. In the transient heating or
cooling process that takes place in the interim period before
equilibrium is established, the analysis must be modified to take into
account the change in internal energy of the body with time, and the
boundary conditions must be adjusted to match the physical situation
that is apparent in the unsteady-state heat-transfer problem. Unsteady-
state heat-transfer analysis is obviously of significant practical interest
because of the large number of heating and cooling processes that
must be calculated in industrial applications.

LUMPED-HEAT-CAPACITY SYSTEM

We continue our discussion of transient heat conduction by analyzing

systems that may be considered uniform in temperature. This type of
analysis is called the lumped-heat-capacity method. Such systems are
obviously idealized because a temperature gradient must exist in a
material if heat is to be conducted into or out of the material. In
general, the smaller the physical size of the body, the more realistic
the assumption of a uniform temperature throughout; in the limit a

2
differential volume could be employed as in the derivation of the
general heat-conduction equation.

If a hot steel ball were immersed in a cool pan of water, the lumped-
heat-capacity method of analysis might be used if we could justify an
assumption of uniform ball tem- perature during the cooling process.
Clearly, the temperature distribution in the ball would depend on the
thermal conductivity of the ball material and the heat-transfer
conditions from the surface of the ball to the surrounding fluid (i.e.,
the surface-convection heat- transfer coefficient). We should obtain a
reasonably uniform temperature distribution in the ball if the
resistance to heat transfer by conduction were small compared with
the convection resistance at the surface, so that the major temperature
gradient would occur through the fluid layer at the surface. The
lumped-heat-capacity analysis, then, is one that assumes that the
internal resistance of the body is negligible in comparison with the
external resistance.

-With the applying the first law of thermodynamic with any instant of
time and the equation it is

dT
hA(T-T∞) = -mcp dt

when the

w
h=heat transfer coefficient of the surface ( )
c . m2

A=surface area of the body (m2 ¿

T∞ =the temperature of the atmosphere (K or C or F)

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 T=temperature at any time , m=mass of the body= ρv (Kg)

kg
ρ = the density of the body ( )
m2

And after we derivation that equation it will be

¿^ ¿
(T −T ∞ ) − vcp
=e
(T −T i)

And we have 2 type of solution if the Bi 0.1 we supposed to solve that

equation from the

table and if the Bi 0.1 we supposed to solve that equation from the laws
we have and we had derivation

The Bi law it is

hLc
Bi= k

And as we know that the Lc differs from the outside body like if it was

L R R
Aplate wall= 2 and if it was a Cylinder= 2 and for the Sphere= 3 and for a

L
cube = 6

And the solve for the Bi ≤ 0.1 it will take an equation for if like

(T −T ∞ ) −BIFO
=e
(T −T i)

The Fo it is the fourier number which we can defined as: It is a non-

dimensional group that is frequently used to describe and predict the

4
temperature response of materials subject to heat and continuous cooling.

And for the heat flow rate can be found as

Qmax=mCp(T-T∞ ) as we know m= ρv

Qi=-hA(Ti-T )e−BIFO QL= CpV(Ti-T )(e−BIFO −1)

Chapter 2

Principles of convection (Convection Heat Transfer)

Convection is the mode of heat transfer associated with fluid motion.

If the fluid motion is due to an external motive source such as a fan or
pump, the termforced convection applies. On the other hand, if fluid
motion is due predominantly to the presence of a thermally induced
density gradient, then the term natural convection is appropriate.
Consider as an example an automobile that has been exposed to direct
sunlight for a period of time. The metal body will receive heat by
radiation from the sun. Besides reradiating heat in all directions, the
body loses heat to the surrounding air by natural convection. When the
car is moving, air surrounding the body absorbs heat by a forced-
convection process. We know from experience that, in this case, the
forced convection heat transfer is more effective than the natural
convection process in transferring energy away from the car body. In
our study of convection heat transfer, we wish to model such
processes in a way that is simple and accurate. Let us then begin with
a simple case.

And we have 2 type of the convection

Forced convection

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Natural or Free convection
The Forced convection is a type of transfer in which fluid movement is generated
from an external source. It is one of the methods of heat transfer and allows the
transfer of large quantities of heat energy with high efficiency.

Natural or free convection is the result of fluid movement due to changes in

intensity. The heating process and the hot cooler used to heat the room is one
example of a practical device that conveys the fluid temperature in a free load.

And the convection of heat transfer is expressed by Newtons law of cooling as

Q=hA(Ts-T )

h=convection heat transfer area ( )

As=heat transfer surface area ( )

T =fluid temperature (K or C or F)

Ts=surface temperature

We also know that in physics and mathematics, the dimensions of mathematical

space are determined as the minimum number of coordinates needed to determine
which point is entered, for example if the object is flat, it is 1D, and if the object is
a cylinder, the dimension is 2D

And as we study we know the dimensions of the (density and velocity and the
temperature ….)

And for that think we will know the dimension of the Nu and for Re and Pr

The equation of Nu and for Re and Pr it will be

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Re= Pr= Nu=

Reynold number (Re): Reynolds number is the ratio of viscous forces within the
fluid that is subjected to relative internal movement such as the surrounding
surface inside the tube.

Nusselt number (Nu): The Nusselt number is the ratio of convective to conductive
heat transfer across a boundary.

Prandtl number (Pr): a dimensionless parameter used in calculations of heat

transfer between a moving fluid and a solid body.

Pr=1 for gases

Pr 100 oil

Pr 0.01 liquid

And to solve any equation we must know if the Reynolds number it is laminar or
turbulent and we suppose to know if the body is a flat plate or it is a tube and each
one of that body it have it have it own law

If the body it was a flat plate it will be

-for laminar flow

Nu=0.332 on condition Re and Pr

Nu=0.664 for average Nusselt number

-for turbulent flow

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Nu=0.0292 0.6 Pr 60

Nu=0.0365 average Nusselt number

Nu=0.0365 0.6 Pr 60

And the body it was tube

-laminar flow

Lt=0.05Re Pr D=Lh Pr

-for turbulent

Lh=1.359

Chapter 3

Heat Exchangers:
Heat exchangers is a broad term used in reference to devices designed for
exchanging heat. Most often the heat is transferred from one fluid to another. a
fluid that is discharged from a useful process might contain high energy, and it
may be desired to recover some of the energy that would ordinarily be discarded.
One example of this is in remotely located plants that generate their own electricity
via steam turbines. Condensed steam that is still at a relatively high temperature
might be routed through a small exchanger where it is used to heat water. a
common example of a heat exchanger that dissipates unwanted energy is the
radiator of a car .
The type of heat exchangers are :

A. Double pipe heat exchangers:

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 A double-pipe heat exchanger is illustrated in Figure As indicated, it consists of
one tube within another. One fluid flows through the inner tube. Another fluid
flows through the annulus.

And the flow of fluid in double heat exchanger mayt be:

i.Parallel flow heat exchangers :

In the parallel-flow arrangement, the hot and cold fluids enter at the same end,
flow in the same direction, and leave at the same end.

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ii. counter-flow arrangement :

 In the counter-flow arrangement, the fluids enter at opposite ends, flow in opposite
directions, and leave at opposite ends.

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 B. Cross flow heat exchangers:

Cross-flow exchangers are commonly used in air or gas heating and

cooling applications . An example of such an exchanger is shown in
Figure, where a gas may be forced across a tube bundle, while another
fluid is used inside the tubes for heating or cooling pur- poses. In this
exchanger the gas flowing across the tubes is said to be a mixed stream,
while the fluid in the tubes is said to be unmixed.
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C. Shell and tube heat exchangers:
Shell & tube heat exchangers are very popular and commonly found in
industrial use. This is mainly due to their versatility. A shell and tube
exchanger consists of a shell, tube bundle and two heads or caps at both
ends of the shell. By selecting different configurations of these basic
parts, we can have many different types of shell & tube heat
exchangers.

Condensers and Evaporatores:

We noted earlier that in a boiling or condensation process the fluid

temperature stays essen- tially constant, or the fluid acts as if it had →
infinite specific heat. In these cases Cmin/Cmax 0 and all the heat-
exchanger effectiveness relations approach a single simple equation,
‹ = 1 − e−NTU

12
The equation is shown as the last entry in Table 10-3. For this case,
q = Cmin(Th,inlet − Tc,inlet)[1 − exp(UA/Cmin)]
where
Cmin = m˙ ccc for a condenser (condensing fluid is losing heat)
= m˙ hch for a boiler (boiling fluid is gaining heat)\
As we take in the course one we know that the U it is (the over all heat transfer
coefficient) with means:

R=Rin+Rwall +Rout

R=

U=

And as we know

Q= =A and with knowing that the discharge in and out are same

Qi=Qo

And it will be Q=Qi=Qo

Q=UiAi=UoAo

If Ao=Ai

Fouling factor Rf:

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R= +

Where the Rfi and the Rfo are fouling facters of the inner and outer surface.

the log mean temperature difference (LMTD):

The log mean temperature difference (LMTD) is used to determine the temperature
driving force for heat transfer in flow systems, most notably in heat exchangers.
The LMTD is a logarithmic average of the temperature difference between the hot
and cold streams at each end of the exchanger. The larger the LMTD, the more
heat is transferred. The use of the LMTD arises, straightforwardly, from the
analysis of a heat exchanger with constant flow rate and fluid thermal properties .

After Derivation some equation we will get the equation of the

Q=UA

This equation it is the basic performance for the direct transfer a one type of heat

exchanger and we suppose to find the for a same type

If the flow was the parallel flow

Heat exchanger=dA

U=costand

Assume H.E is insulated

After a lot of derivations we will get

Q=UA this is the performance equation of parallel flow

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 Tm where

1=Thi-Tci and =The - Tce

The Counter flow:

counterflow heat exchanger model will be presented. The objective of the model is

the ability to predict the outlet temperatures of both air and coolant. (sincedirect,
n.d.)

thy are the same special cases of counter flow when

Ti= Te

Effectiveness-NTU method :

The LMTD approach to heat-exchanger analysis is useful when the inlet

and outlet temper- atures are known or are easily determined. The
LMTD is then easily calculated, and the heat flow, surface area, or
overall heat-transfer coefficient may be determined. When the inlet or
exit temperatures are to be evaluated for a given heat exchanger, the
analysis frequently involves an iterative procedure because of the
logarithmic function in the LMTD. In these cases the analysis is
performed more easily by utilizing a method based on the effectiveness
of the heat exchanger in transferring a given amount of heat. The
effectiveness method also offers many advantages for analysis of
problems in which a comparison between various types of heat
exchangers must be made for purposes of selecting the type best suited
to accomplish a particular heat-transfer objective.

We define the heat-exchanger effectiveness as :

actual heat transfer qact

Effectiveness = maximum posible heat transfer = q
max

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For parallel flow :

1−exp ⁡(−NYU ( 1+c ) )

£=
1+ c

For counter flow :

1−exp ⁡(−NYU ( 1−C ))

£ = 1−C exp ⁡(−NYU ( 1−C ) )

Correction facter(F):

It is a measure of the heat exchanger’s departure from the ideal behavior of a

counter flow heat exchanger having the same terminal temperatures. The F-LMTD
method is widely used in heat exchanger analysis, particularly for heat exchanger
selection, (sizing problems) when as a result of the process requirements the
temperatures are known and the size of the heat exchanger is required.

The heat transfer equation take from

q=UAF

The values of the correction facters F are plotted in figers for several kinds of heat
exchangers.when a phase is involved asin condensation or boiling , the fluid
normaly remain in constant temperatures and F=1 The plotted figures of the
correction facter needs to calculate the values

R=

P=

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 Chapter 4

Natural convection ( free convection ) :

Natural, or free, convection is observed as a result of the motion of the fluid due to
density changes arising from the heating process. A hot radiator used for heating a
room is one example of a practical device that transfers heat by free convection.
The movement of the fluid in free convection, whether it is a gas or a liquid, results
from the buoyancy forces imposed on the fluid when its density in the proximity of
the heat-transfer surface is decreased as a result of the heating process. The
buoyancy forces would not be present if the fluid were not acted upon by some
external force field such as gravity, although gravity is not the only type of force
field that can produce the free-convection currents; a fluid enclosed in a rotating
machine is acted upon by a centrifugal force field, and thus could experience free-
convection currents if one or more of the surfaces in contact with the fluid were
heated. The buoyancy forces that give rise to the free-convection currents are
called body forces.

μCp hL L2 T ρ2 gβ
Pr = Nu= Gr=
k k μ2
Ra=Gr Pr
Nu=F ( Ra)=F( Gr Pr)

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1.Vertical flat plate
Consider the vertical flat plate shown in Figure. When the plate is heated, a free-
convection boundary layer is formed, as shown. The velocity profile in this
boundary layer is quite unlike the velocity profile in a forced-convection boundary
layer. At the wall the velocity is zero because of the no-slip condition; it increases
to some maximum value and then decreases to zero at the edge of the boundary
layer since the “free-stream” conditions are at rest in the free-convection system.
The initial boundary-layer development is laminar; but at some distance from the
leading edge, depending on the fluid properties and the temperature difference
between wall and environment, turbulent eddies are formed, and transition to a
turbulent boundary layer begins. Farther up the plate the boundary layer may
become fully turbulent.

The properties are taken at Tf ¿(Tw / T ∞ ) /2

n=0.25 for laminar flow Gr ≤109
n=0.333 for turbulent flow 109≤Gr≤1012

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2.Horizontal flat plate :
The average heat-transfer coefficient from horizontal flat plates is calculated with
Equation. The characteristic dimension for use with these relations has traditionally
[4] been taken as the length of a side for a square, the mean of the two dimensions
for a rectangular surface, and 0.9d for a circular disk. References 52 and 53
indicate that better agreement with experimental data can be achieved by
calculating the characteristic dimension with
A
L= P

Grashof =( gβ ΔTLc 3 /θ2 )

where A is the area and P is the perimeter of the surface. This characteristic
dimension is also applicable to unsymmetrical planforms.
Heating surface upwards
¿

Heating surface down wardes

hL
Nu= =0.27 ¿
k

3.vertical cylinders :
The equations of continuity, momentum, and energy can be written for this
problem. These equations can be reduced to a boundary-layer formulation via an
order-of-magnitude analysis. Here, however, we will merely state equations that
have been derived, based on experimental work. For vertical cylinders with a
constant heat flux.
35 L
D¿
Gr 0.25

It can be approximated to a flat plate .

4.Horizontal cylinder :
Natural convection from a horizontal cylinder has been analyzed. The resultant

19
 (Churchill-Chu Equation) based on experimental results is
Grashof =( gβ ΔTLc 3 /θ2 )
hL
Nu= =0.54 ¿
k
¿

Chapter 5

20
Application :
In this chapter we will slove some example for the previous chapter .

Example (1) \ (Unsteady-state conduction) :

A steel ball [c = 0.46 kJ/kg · ◦C,k = 35 W/m · ◦C] 5.0 cm in diameter and initially
at a uniform temperature of 450◦C is suddenly placed in a environment controlled
in which the temperature is maintained at 100◦C. The convection heat-transfer
coefficient is 10 W/m2 · ◦C. Calculate the time required for the ball to attain a
temperature of 150◦C.

Sol /
h(V / A)
=(10) ¿ ¿
k

T =150∘ C ρ=7800 kg/ m 3 [486 lbm/ft 3 ]

s=100∘ C h=10W /m2 ⋅∘ C[1.76 Btwh⋅ ft 2 ,∘ F]
T 0=450∘ C c=460 Jkg ⋅ ∘ C [0.11 Btu /lbm∘ F]
hA
=(10)4 π ¿ ¿
QcV
¿

Example (2) \ (Convection Heat Transfer) :

21
Sol/

h c =−k f ¿ ¿

−(0.028 W /mK )(−66.7 K /mm)

hc ¿ ×103 mm/ m
(100−20)K
¿ ¿

Example (3) \ (Heat exchanger) :

A hot fluid at 100°C enters a double-pipe heat exchanger and is cooled to 75°C. A
cooler fluid at 5°C enters the exchanger and is warmed to 50°C. Determine the
LMTD for both counterflow and parallel-flow configurations.
Sol /
T 1=100∘ C t 1 =5∘ C
T 2=75∘ C t 2=500 C

Heat exchanger

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 ( T 1−t 2 )−( T 2−t 1 ) ( 100−50 )−( 75−5 )
LMTD= =
T −t
[ ]
ln 1 2
T 2−t 1
ln ( 5070 )
LMTD=59.4 ∘ C (counter flow)

(T 1−t 1)−(T 2 −t 2 ) (100−5)−(75−50)

LMTD= =
ln[(T 1 −t 1 )/(T 2−t 2)] ln ⁡( 95/25)
∘
LMTD=52.4 C ( paralell flow )

Example (4) / (Natural convection (free convection )) :

In the course of designing a furnace, it is necessary to determine the thickness of

wall insulation required. As a first step, the heat transferred to one oven wall must
be calculated. The wall itself is 1 ft tall by 2 ft wide. It is determined that the wall
temperature is roughly a constant and equal to 120°F when the inside air
temperature is 400°F. Determine the heat transferred to the wall.

Sol /

23
 Air near the wall becomes cooler and descends under the action of gravity. For
no air movement, conduction is the primary mode of heat transfer.
Assumptions
Air properties are constant and evaluated at the film temperature of (400 -t
120)/2 = 260°F
= 720"R.
The system is at steady state.
Only natural-convection heat transfer takes place.
Air behaves as an ideal gas.
From Appendix Table D.1 for air at 720"R

k, = 0.01944
p = 0.0551 lbm/ft7 BTU/(hr.ft."R)
L;, = 0.242
BTU/(lbm-OR) a = 1.457 ft2/hr
v = 27.88 x 10-j ftYs Pr = 0.689
Also, because the fluid is a gas (assumed
ideal),
1 1
β= = =0.00116 ¿ ∘ R
T ∞ 120+ 460

The heat transferred is calculated with

q n=h L A(T w −T ∞ )

g s β(T w −T ∞ ) L3
Gr L = =32.2(0.00116)(400−120)¿ ¿
v2
¿

h L L 4 Gr L 1 /4 −dθ 0.009844 1.34 ×108 1.34 ×101 /4 10.505

= ( ) ( )∨¿ η=0 ¿ h L = ( )
kf 3 4 dη I 3 4

h L =1.00 BTU /(hr ⋅ ft 2 ⋅ ∘ R)

q w =1.00(1)(2)(400−120)
q w =558 BTU /hr

24
 h L 0.670 Ra1L/4
NuL = L =0.68+
kf 0.492 9 /16 4 / 9
[1+( ) ]
Pr
3
g x β(T w −T ∞ ) L 9
RaL =Gr L Pr= ≤10
vα
V
0< Pr = <∞
a
T +T
β at ⁡T f = W ∞ for liquids
2

Chapter 6
Desiccation :
You can see that heat transfer happens all around us.  You may
not see it, but it does have a direct impact on our lives. but In
every second of our life we are dealing with heat transfer by
conduction , convection or radiations

Refences :
 Jack Holman - Heat transfer (2001, McGraw-Hill
Science_Engineering_Math).
25
 William S. Janna - Engineering heat transfer (2000, CRC Press)
 [McGraw-Hill Series in Mechanical Engineering] Jack Holman -
Heat Transfer (2009, McGraw-Hill Science_Engineering_Math)
 Frank Kreith, Raj M. Manglik, Mark S. Bohn - Principles of Heat
Transfer, Seventh Edition (2010, CL-Engineering)

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