Axial Theory 1

2.
5 Aerodynamics of wind turbines 27
Thus, considering the flow around an airfoil

V C (2.17)
Re
J
where ‘V’ is the flow velocity, C is the chord length and J is the kinematic viscos-
ity of the fluid. For air, the kinematic viscosity at 20o C is 15 u 10-6 m2/s. For ex-
ample, when an airfoil of chord 0.33 m is placed in a flow of 7 m/s, Re of the flow
is 1.54 u 105. However, in many preliminary calculations, the effect of Re may be
neglected as it has only a second order effect on the lift-drag characteristics.
2.5.2 Aerodynamic theories
Different theories are proposed to analyze the aerodynamics of wind turbines.

These theories give an insight to the behavior of the rotor under varying operating
conditions. Let us discuss some of the fundamental theories among them, applica-
ble to HAWT.
Axial momentum theory

The conventional analysis of HAWT originates from the axial momentum concept
introduced by Rankine, which was further improved by Froudes for marine pro-
pellers. Ideal flow conditions are considered for this analysis. The flow is assumed
to be incompressible and homogeneous. The rotor is considered to be made up of
infinite number of blades. Static pressures far in front and behind the rotor are
considered to be equal to the atmospheric pressure. Frictional drag over the blades
and wake behind the rotor are neglected.
Consider a wind turbine with rotor of area AT, placed in a wind stream as
shown in Fig. 2.15. Let A and A’ be the areas of the sections 1-1, and 2-2 and V
and V’ are the respective wind velocities at these sections.
1 2
PU PD
’
VT V1V
V
A AT ’
A
A1
1 Wind turbine 2
Fig. 2.15. The axial stream tube model

28 2 Basics of wind energy conversion
VT is the velocity at the turbine section. According to the law of conservation of

mass, the mass of air flowing through these sections is equal. Thus:
Ua A V U a AT VT U a AcV c (2.18)
The thrust force experienced by the rotor is due to the difference in momentum of
the incoming and outgoing wind, which is given by
F U a AV 2 U a AcV c2 (2.19)
As A V = A´ V´ = AT VT from (2.18), the thrust can be expressed as
F U a AT VT V V c (2.20)
The thrust can also be represented as the pressure difference in the upstream
and down stream sides of the rotor. Let pU and pD be the pressure at the upstream
and down stream side of the rotor respectively. Hence:
F pU pD AT (2.21)
Applying the Bernoulli’s equation at the sections and considering the assump-
tion that the static pressures at sections 1-1 and 2-2 are equal to the atmospheric
pressure p, we get
Ua V 2 U V 2 (2.22)
p pU a T
2 2
and
Ua V c2 U V 2 (2.23)
p pD a T
2 2
From Eqs. (2.22) and (2.23),
U a (V 2 V c2 ) (2.24)
pU pD
2
Substituting the above expression for (pU –pD) in Eq. (2.21),
U a AT (V 2 V c2 ) (2.25)
F
2
Comparing Eqs. (2.20) and (2.25) we get
V V c (2.26)
VT
2
Thus the velocity of the wind stream at the rotor section is the average of the
velocities at its upstream and downstream sides.
2.5 Aerodynamics of wind turbines 29
At this stage, we introduce a parameter, termed as the axial induction factor into
our analysis. The axial induction factor a indicates the degree with which the wind
velocity at the upstream of the rotor is slowed down by the turbine. Thus
V VT (2.27)
a
V
From Eqs. (2.26) and (2.27),
VT V 1 a (2.28)
and
Vc V 1 2a (2.29)
As we have seen earlier, the power imparted to the wind turbine is due to the
transfer of kinetic energy from the air to the rotor. The mass flow through the rotor
over a unit time is
m U AT VT (2.30)
Hence the power developed by the turbine due to this transfer of kinetic energy is
1 (2.31)
PT Ua AT VT (V 2 V c2 )
2
Substituting for VT and V´ from Eqs. (2.28) and (2.29), we get
1 (2.32)
PT U a AT V 3 4a (1 a )2
2
Comparing Eq. (2.32) with the expression for power coefficient in Eq. (2.8), we
can see that
CP 4a (1 a )2 (2.33)
For Cp to be maximum,
dC p (2.34)
0
da
Thus differentiating Eq. (2.33), equating it to zero and solving, we get a=1/3.
Substituting for a in Eq. (2.33), the maximum theoretical power coefficient of a
horizontal axis wind turbine is 16/27 and the maximum power produced is
1 16 (2.35)
PT MAX U a AT V 3
2 27
This limit for the power coefficient is known as the Betz limit.
30 2 Basics of wind energy conversion
It should be noted that, several assumptions are involved in this analysis. Some
of these may be questionable when we consider the real flow conditions around a
wind turbine. For example, the practical rotor has finite number of blades and the
aerodynamic drag and tip losses cannot be neglected. Further, the flow ahead and
behind the rotor is not completely axial as assumed under the ideal condition.
When the fluid applies torque to the rotor, as a reaction, rotational wake is gener-
ated behind the rotor as shown in Fig. 2.16. This will cause energy loss and reduce
the peak power coefficient.
Considering the tangential flow behind the rotor, we introduce another factor
termed as the tangential induction factor a’ in the analysis such that:
Z (2.36)
a'
2:
Here Z is the induced tangential angular velocity of flow and : is the angular ve-
locity of the rotor. Consider an annular stream tube of thickness dr at a distance r
from the root of the blade as in the figure. Area of this annular element is
A 2 S r dr (2.37)
Hence, the thrust force experienced by the annular element may be expressed as
1 (2.38)
dF 4a (1 a) Ua V 2 2 S rdr
2
Similarly, the torque on the annular element can be given by
1 (2.39)
dT 4a ' (1 a ) U a V 2 S rdr : r r
2
dr
r
Fig. 2.16. Rotational wake behind the rotor

2.5 Aerodynamics of wind turbines 31
dL
dD
:r (1+a1)
D
E
I
W
V (1-a)
Fig. 2.17. An infinitesimal element of the rotor blade
The power developed by the rotor is the product of this annulus torque and an-
gular velocity, integrated over the total blade span. Thus the power is given by
R (2.40)
' 1
P ³ : 4a (1 a) 2
Ua V 2 S rdr : r r
0
and the power coefficient is given by

R (2.41)
2 ' 1
CP
Ua AT V 3
³ : 4a (1 a) 2
Ua V 2 S rdr : r r
0
Blade element theory

Blade element theory was initially proposed by Froude and Taylor. In this ap-
proach it is considered that the blades are made up of a number of strips arranged
in the span wise direction. The strips have infinitesimal thickness. These strips are
aerodynamically independent and do not have any interference between them.
Under this analysis, the lift and drag forces acting over the strip are estimated and
integrated over the total blade span incorporating the velocity terms, to obtain the
torque and power developed by the blade. This is further multiplied by the number
of blades to get the total rotor torque and power. The blade element theory gives
us more understanding on the relationship between the airfoil properties, thrust
experienced by the rotor and the power produced by it.
The velocities and forces acting on an infinitesimal blade element are shown in
Fig. 2.17. The undisturbed wind velocity V is slowed down to (1-a)V as it reaches

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2.

5 Aerodynamics of wind turbines 27

Thus, considering the flow around an airfoil

2.5.2 Aerodynamic theories

Different theories are proposed to analyze the aerodynamics of wind turbines.

Axial momentum theory

Fig. 2.15. The axial stream tube model

VT is the velocity at the turbine section. According to the law of conservation of

As A V = A´ V´ = AT VT from (2.18), the thrust can be expressed as

Fig. 2.16. Rotational wake behind the rotor

Fig. 2.17. An infinitesimal element of the rotor blade

and the power coefficient is given by

Blade element theory

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