Proceedings of The South Afvican Sugar Technologists' Association-March 1966

STEAM TURBINES - THEIR CONSTRUCTION,

SELECTION AND OPERATION
By W. B. JACHENS

Fig. 2 shows the general view of a rotor mounted

on a shaft, Figs. 2a and 2b the side and end elevations.
The first steam engine built by James Watt in the V, is the absolute uniform velocity of the fluid enter-
year 1769 was the advent in substituting the low ing the rotor passage, while V, is the absolute uniform
energy rates produced by wind, water, man and beast velocity leaving the rotor passage. Components of V,
for the higher mechanical power produced by a and V, are conveniently considered in 3 directions,
machine. A further milestone was in the year 1866 i.e. axial, radial and tangential.
when Werner von Siemens invented the principle of
producing electricity from a rotating machine, the
so-called electro-magnetic principle. Coupled to the
Torque T = 5 (Vlt
g
. - . ........... .. ...
R1 R2) 1

steam engine this had the advantage of producing Energy E = T X W = G _ ( V ~ ~ ~ R ~ . W - V ~ ~ . R ~ . W )

g
power centrally and making it available at a large = G_(Vlt * U1 - V2t . U2) ................ 2
number of points. g
The steam engine and also to a latter extent the
diesel engine had a limited capacity in producing This leads to the so-called Euler equation for
power, due to the inherent disadvantages of recipro- turbo machinery.
cating machinery. This led to the introduction of
rotating machinery to produce the steadily increasing If E > 0 i.e. Vlt . - .
ul VZt u2
f l u i d a s i s the case for a turbine
> 0 work i n done 9 the
needs for electricity; already well known in the harnes-
sing of water energy the principle of blading was If E < 0 i.e. Vlt . - .
u1 u2 < 0 work is done the
adopted in the steam and at a later date in the gas f l u i d a s is the case for compressor and fans.
turbines.
Equation 2 may be transformed in terms of blade
I. Theory of Steam Turbines absolute and relative velocities determined from the
physical conditions, i.e. flow area, flow volume and
The steam turbine obtains its motive power from blade angles. We shall consider a 2-dimensional flow
the change of momentum of a jet of steam flowing over as occurs in practically all turbo machinery.
a curved vane. The steam jet, in moving over the
curved surface of the blade, exerts a pressure on the
blade owing to its centrifugal force. This centrifugal
pressure is exerted normal to the blade surface and
acts along the whole length of the blade. This funda-
mental is shown diagrammatically in Fig. 1. The
resultant of these centrifugal pressures, plus the effect
of change of velocity, is the motive force on the
blade.
This introductory paragraph regarding the transfer
of energy from the fluid to the blade can also be
shown mathematically.

FIGURE 3: Zdimensional flow

From Fig. 3--

w12 = v12 + u12 - mlvl cos oc

but V1 cosoc= V i t

thus q vit = + (v; + U12 - w; )

A similar expression can be derived for the rotor

blade exit.

FIGURE I : Pressure o n blade

thus U2 VZt = + (v; + u; + ;w )
 Proceedings of The South African Sugar Technologists' Association-March 1966

FIGURE 2: Rotor mounted

on shaft

FIGURE 2(a): Side elevation FIGURE 2(b): End Elevation

Substituting in Equation 2: of these types only. The main distinction is the manner
. in which the steam is expanded as it passes through
=
ZT [ v - v
2
u
2
2 + 11...... 3. the turbine. In the impulse turbine, the steam is
expanded in nozzles and remains at constant pressure
hi^ ultimate form of the fundamental equation is w6en passing over the blades. In the reactioniurbine,
broken down into 3 components: the steam is continually expanding as it flows over the
blades.
The original steam turbine, the De Laval, was an
impulse turbine having a single-blade wheel. Other
This represents the absolute kinetic energy change impulse turbines are known as Curtis, Zoelly and
in the fluid as it passes through the rotor (velocity Rateau.
head). The reaction turbine was invented by Sir Charles
Parsons and is known as the Parsons turbine.
In all turbines the blade velocity is proportional
This represents the change in static head due to the to the steam velocity passing over the blade. If the
centrifugal effect (axial flow U, = U,). steam is expanded from the boiler pressure to the
exhaust pressure in a single stage, its velocity is
extremely high. If this high velocity is used up on a
single-blade ring, it produces a rotor speed of about
Change in static head due to diffusion or expansion 30,000 r.p.m. which is too high for practical purposes.
process in the flow passages, i.e. area increasing in the There are several methods of overcoming this high
direction of flow, therefore, relative velocity decreases rotor speed, all of which utilise several blade rings.
and static pressure increases. The following are the four principal methods used:
(a) Compounding for velocity. Rings of moving
Types of Turbines blades separated by rings of fixed blades, are
There are two types of steam turbines; impulse and keyed in series' on the turbine shaft, Fig. 4.
reaction. There is a distinct difference in the working The steam is expanded through nozzles from
of these two types, and manufacturers of steam the boiler-to the back-pressure, to a high
turbines usually specialise in the production of one velocity, and is then passd over the first ring
Proceedings of The South African Sugar Technologists' Association-March 1966 115

of moving blades. Only a portion of the high

velocity is absorbed, the remainder being
exhausted on to the next ring of fixed blades,
which change the steam direction without
appreciably altering the velocity. The jet then
passes on to the next ring of moving blades,
the process repeating itself until practically all
the velocity of the jet has been absorbed. It
will be noticed that, due to the pressure re-

-maining constant as the steam passes over the

blades, the turbine is an impulse turbine.

B o i l ~ r steam

FIGURE 5: Compounding for pressure

portion of its total pressure drop. It then passes

over the second ring of moving blades, the
process thereby repeating itself. As the pressure
remains constant during the flow over the
moving blades, the turbine is an impulse
turbine. This method of pressure compounding
is used in Rateau and ZoMly turbines.
(c) Pressure- Velocity Compounding. In this type
of turbine, both of the previous two methods
are utilised. This has the advantage of allowing
a bigger pressure drop in each stage and,
consequently, less stages are necessary, result-
FIGURE 4: Compounding for velocity ing in a shorter turbine for a given pressure
drop. It may be seen that the pressure is con-
stant during each stage; the turbine is, there-
(b) Compounding for pressure. In this type, the fore, an impulse turbine. The method of
'
total pressure drop of the steam does not take pressure-velocity compounding is used in the
place in the first nozzle ring, but is divided up Curtis turbine.
between all the nozzle rings. The steam from
the boiler is passed through the first nozzle ring ( d ) Reaction turbine. In this type there is no
in which it is only partially expanded. It then sudden pressure drop; the pressure drop is
passes over the first moving blade ring where gradual and takes place continuously over the
nearly all of its velocity is absorbed. From this moving and fixed blades. The fixed blades
ring it exhausts into the next nozzle ring and is correspond to nozzles ; they change the direction
again partially expanded; this absorbs a further of the steam and, at the same time, allow it to
116 Proceedings of The Soutli Afvican Sugar Technologists' Association-Marcli 1966

FIGURE 6: Pressure-Velocity Compounding FIGURE 7: Reaction Turbine

expand to a higher velocity. The pressure of the

steam falls as it passes over the moving blades;
the turbine is, therefore, a reaction turbine.

The Thermo-dynamics of the Steam Turbine Elements

Nozzles:
The steam nozzle is a passage of varying cross- In practice, there is a loss in the nozzle, due to
section by means of which the heat energy of steam is friction, of about 10 to 15% of the total heat drop;
converted into kinetic energy. The nozzle is so shaped the effect of this is to reduce the value of u in equation
that it will perform this conversion of energy with the 4.
minimum loss. The flow of steam through a nozzle
may be regarded, in its simplest fonn, as being an Thus: v . u 4 z . .............................. 5

adiabatic expansion. The steam enters the nozzle with The effect of the friction of the nozzle is to reduce
a relatively small velocity and a high initial pressure;
the initial velocity is so small compared with the final the velocity of the steam, and to increase its final
velocity that it may be neglected. dryness or super heat.
Let Is, = total heat of steam entering nozzle. Weight of' Di.rclzarge through Nozzle:
I,, = total heat of steam at any section The adiabatic flow of the steam through the nozzle
considered. may be approximately represented by the equation
v = velocity of steam at section considered pvn = constant
in ft. per sec. where n = 1 .I35 for satura.ted steam.
u = heat drop during expansion. = 1 .3 for super-heated steam.
= Is1 - Is2 Now, the work done during the cycle will be given
Then, assuming a frictionless adiabatic flow and by
considering I lb. of steam,
Gain of kinetic energy = heat drop. a-1 (PI - p2 .23
 Proceedings of The South Afvican Sugar Technologists' Association-March I966 117

Then, gain of kinetic energy=work done during (a) The Simple Impulse Stage:
the cycle The velocity diagram indicates, as shown in
Fig. 8, the velocities involved.
'E

-
v.' 'a,
2g n-1
[q vl P2 v2j
U
'- n.
n-1
"'f' . P2 2' .................... 6

But I
9 vrn ' P2 ;v

Benee: (v )
-- - ..........
1
(1 1
( 1 )
pl
p2
0.
2 ( "1 )
';; 7

Substituting this value in 6 : I

k-vw+ I
lienee I
-
2g

v .JZg
=A*plvl~-!b$;9]
n-l

( n 1 plvl
a) :.I
[.- T]..........
(9)
n-1
li
FIGURE 8: Impulse stage velocity diagram

Notations used:
v, = nozzle jet velocity.
= relative steam velocity at inlet.
-
~ e At = area of OIUEE section of nozzle. W,
V2 velum of 1 lb. of steam a t absolute pressuro p2 v, = absolute steam velocity at exit.

w - weight of s t e m discharged through nozzle per mo.

w, = relative steam velocity at exit.
u = mean peripheral velocity of blades.
Ihen, V = volume of flow per eeo.
V O ~ of
U ~1 lb. of steam -
. .....................
v2
9
oc = nozzle jet angle.
= inlet angle of blade.
p, = outlet angle of blade.
From Equation 7: y = absolute angle of steam'leaving blade.

v2 v1 ( p,
-- 1
n
The useful tangential propelling force in the direction
(- 1 of the' blade motion :
( Pl 1
Ft -&
8
. vw ............................................ ll
Substituting the values of v, and V in 9:
Expression 11 can be expressed in function of
11 A
-I Vl ,". p . p
l and B z .
Vl(P)
( 4 Now:
V,,
Wl 0 0 8 8 ~+ W2 008 pz
( "1)
COBPI
( 1+

- 2
..... 10
Wl
- W2 ~ 0 8 ) )~
1
11 (p2)ii - ( P 2 ) n
(-1
( 5 )
(-1
( " 1 ) "ll Let
-
.
w2
wi
- % ,
w1
(

cos
008
Pi
B/
c O ~ ~ l

rn c
I

The equation 10 can be used to obtain the flow of Thua: vw = 5 COO^^ ( 1 + kb.c)
steam through the turbine because: But: wl CGB = v, c o s d - U

A = cross-sectional area of nozzle.. Thus: V (vl 006OC- u) ( 1 + kb. c )

n = either1.135or1.3.
p, = initial or live steam pressure.
v, = initial or live steam volume per Ib.
p, = discharge or wheel-chamber pressure.
v, = discharge or wheel-chamber volume per lb.

Further relationships as regards nozzles are obtain- thus substituting p and v, in Expression 11
able, i.e. throat pressure for maximum discharge,
but these are nozzle details with which we are not
directly concerned.
To obtain the efficiency of the blading the energy
Theory of Blading: E (see Equation 2) may be divided by the kinetic energy
The most important turbine elements are the of the jet issuing from the nozzle.
blades. The following thermo-dynamic approach is
meant to briefly show the different efficiencies obtain-
able with certain blade combinations, and the impor-
tance of the so-called speed ratio.
118 Proceedi~igsof Tlie Soutli African Sugar Technologists' Association-March 1966

Substituting the value of v, obtained above: Velocity Compound:

Ib
- 2.u.
(
v1 ( COB"-
(
2
!i)
v1 ) ( 1 l $c)
1
To reduce u to
mu
-
1
we require m stages.

Efficiency lower than pressure staging because of

higher residual kinetic energy and friction losses.
= 2 ( p c o e a - p z ) ( r t kbc) ................ 13 Advantage of taking large pressure drop in one
step and thus reducing the pressure and temperature
at which the blades run.
1 dy~.
For maximum b differentiate Equation 13:
~ c o a x -4 p = o Cheaper (shorter) construction.
d~
popt. = = 2 Pressure Compound:
Subetituting in Equation 13: 1
To reduce u to - we require m2 stages.
mu
Lack of simplicity and construction but advantage
of uniform distribution of work am.ong stages, K.E.
= -
cos20c ( 1 + $.c)
1
Aseuming aymmetrio blades ( o
2
- 1 ) and frictionless flow ( If,, = 1 )
loss =- of velocity compound turbine.
m
More expensive construction, thus higher initial cost,
fb nm. cos2 d
2 due to longer turbine (more stages required).
To correct the defects of the Curtis and add the
i.e. for a simple impulse stage or turbine having one qualities of the Rateau, (c) may be used, but in
impulse row of blades, the maximum blade efficiency practice is very seldom found due to the complicated
can be determined at a corresponding speed ratio. design and a relatively low efficiency.
A more common arrangement is to provide on the
Impulse Turbine Staging or Compounding: high pressure side one or more Curtis stages, followed
by Rateau or Reaction staging. The Curtis stages
The simple impulse turbine is limited in its applica- reduce the pressure and temperature of the fluid to a
tion when a large pressure drop is necessary, because
the high nozzle velocities resulting implies high blade
speed with related blade and disc stress problems.
Four already discussed methods are available to
cope with large pressure drops at reasonable blade
speeds. These are:
(a) Compounding for velocity.
(b) Compounding for pressure.
(c) Pressure-velocity compounding.
(d) Reaction turbine.
As determined above for the simple impulse stage,
p opt. can also be theoretically determined for the
blade configuration mentioned under (a) to (d). As the
principle is the'same, only the results shall be stated.
The results are based on the assumption of frictionless
flow.
For a) Po,&. -L. m
e
.
2

A comparison of the above results shall help to 0 0.4 0.0 2 16 2.0

explain certain features of a definite design.
Comparing velocity and pressure staging, i.e. (a) . f=U/V,
and (6) shows the following: FIGURE 9: Impulse-Reaction Comparison
Proceedings of The South Afiican Sugar Technologists' Association-

moderate level with a high proportion of work per The stationary blades and the shaft seals are inserted
stage, and then the more efficient Rateau or Reaction into half split diaphragms which are, in turn, attached
staging absorb the balance of the energy available. to the casing.
Comparing frictionless conditions, the maximum Stationary and moving blades have different
efficiencies for the simple impulse, Curtis and Reaction profiles. They impose a considerable change in
blading are equal; however, when friction is taken direction of the steam flow.
into account, the reaction stage js found to be the Since the steam, as it passes through the turbine,
most efficient,followed by Rateau and Curtis in that is subjected to a heavy rotational motion around the
order. The reason that friction losses are less significant rotor, the steam path at the root and tip of the blades
in the reaction stage lies in the fact that the flow is not uniformly filled with steam.
velocities are lower.
The friction heat generated at the shaft seals, due
Fig. 9(a) shows how F, varies with p for both an to rubbing, is carried off by the leakage steam only.
impulse and reaction turbine. Both types develop
the same force at p = 0, the force dropping to zero at
twice p for the reaction turbine. Reaction
Fig. 9(b) compares blade efficiency for impulse and The rotor is of the so-called solid type. The pressure
reaction turbines for the given conditions. Maximum difference between the inlet side and outlet side of the
efficiency developed at slightly less than p = 1 for the stationary blade is half that of an impulse stage. The
reaction turbine, just twice that for the impulse sealing thus presents less difficulty.
turbine. The rotor of the reaction turbine is rigid, the critical
Developed forces for both turbines are equal at speeds lying above the rated speed. Starting and
their maximum blade efficiencies. shutdown require no special precautionary measures
against excessive vibrations.
The stationary blades are directly inserted into the
11. Selection of Steam Turbines casing.
In the section, Selection of Steam Turbines, t$e Stationary and moving blades have similar profiles.
different types of steam turbine shall be discussed on They impose a smaller change in the direction of the
a more practical level so as to be of use to the works steam flow.
and planning engineer. The steam path is uniformly filled with steam, since
the steam particles pass mainly in axial direction
The Differences between the two most widely used through the turbine, the rotational motion around the
Industrial Steam Turbine types rotor being less.
The two most widely used steam turbine types are The friction heat generated at the seals is carried
the reaction turbine and the pressure-compounded or off by the whole working steam quantity.
Rateau turbine. The high pressure part for both types A few of the above differences between the two
consists of a simple or two-stage velocity-wheel, types of turbine should not propagate any one design,
depending on the live steam conditions at the turbine but should point out inherent differences in con-
entry. The impulse stage, known as the governing struction of both types.
stage, is generally applicable since it alone permits
partial steam admission to the moving wheel. Steam Turbine Selection
Both turbine types have inherent features which
may be termed an advantage or disadvantage, as the In the previous sub-section, the internal character-
case may be. istics of the two most widely applied turbine types or
turbine constructions, were briefly discussed. In this
sub-section, the type of turbine refers not to the
Characteristics of the Two Types internal construction, but to the turbine as a whole
Rateau unit.
The rotor is built as a disc rotor with a slender Four basic types of turbine are available:
shaft. Between the individual discs, inner labyrinths 1. Back-pressure turbines expand the live steam
or seals are arranged on a shaft of small diameter. supplied by the boiler to the pressure at which
Due to the slender rotor construction, the lack of the steam is required for the process. The overall
rigidity causes the critical speed or speeds of the rotor plant efficiency of a back-pressure turbine
to be below the rated speed. In starting up or stopping, exhausting to a process is high, due to the
the rotor must pass through the critical speed ranges. considerable heat losses through the condenser
Although, when running up to speed the critical speed being eliminated. The electric power generated
ranges can be rapidly passed by quick opening of the by the back-pressure turbine is directly propor-
throttle valves, there is no way to accelerate the rate tional to the amount of process steam required.
of speed decrease when shutting down. The measure To avoid the direct relationship between back-
against excessive vibration at the critical speed is to pressure steam and power, the alternator would
provide adequate clearance between diaphragm and have to be connected to the grid, or a by-pass
shaft. valve installed.
120 Proceedings of The South African Sugar Technologists' Association-March 1966

2. Extraction back-pressure turbines are employed 1. Back-Pressure Turbine

where the process steam is used at two different Fig. 10(a) shows the back-pressure turbine incor-
pressure levels. The operating of this type of porated into the steam cycle. Points 1 and 2 signify
turbine is similar to the back-pressure machine, the live steam and the back-pressure steam condition
a high overall plant efficiency being obtainable. respectively. Due to various losses in the turbine, the
Difficulties exist in the control of such a turbine actual work done h, will be less than the isentropic
type, two by-pass valves being necessary to or theoretical work hs. The relationship is called the
maintain the process pressures if the alternator internal efficiency and may be written thus:
is not coupled to the grid.
h,,
3. The condensing turbine is used where process Ti =
steam is not necessary. This turbine has a lower hs
overall efficiency due to the loss of heat in the The heat equivalent of the actual work per lb. of
steam condenser, and it is difficult to obtain steam may be calculated as follows, knowing that 1
cheaper station cost per kilowatt-hour than kW-h = 3,416 B.T.U.
buying electric power, due to the inherent dis-
advantages of a relatively small condensing
turbo-alternator set.
4. The extraction-condensing turbine is used where
the power required is in excess of the process
steam. The efficiency of this type is lower than a For a turbine installation, 1~ and T i can for any
back-pressure turbine due to the partial loss of particular load be considered constant, thus N is
heat in the condenser. However, this turbine has proportional to G, the quantity of process steam used.
the advantage that the power generated is not Knowing G and assuming T~ it is, therefore, possible
proportional to the process steam required and, to calculate the power obtainable~fora specific live
furthermore, power can be obtained whilst the steam condition. If N obtainable is lower than N
process in the factory is shut down. required, the balance can be obtained by coupling the
Using this short introduction, the next logical step alternator to the grid; vice versa, the excess can be
is to describe the different turbine types in a thermo- supplied to the grid.
dynamic language using the Mollier diagram, this When coupled to the grid, the frequency, i.e. the
showing the relationship between the enthalpy drop of turbine speed, is maintained by the grid, the back-
steam and the power obtainable. The turbine shall pressure being maintained by the governor which
also be integrated into a steam cycle, showing the opens or closes the nozzle valves in the live steam
employment of reduction valves and related plant main admitting more or less steam. The steam quantity
material. is thus always adjusted to the requirements of the

live steam main

Entropy
FIGURE IO(a): Steam cycle FIGURE IO(b): Mollier diagram
for the back-pressure turbine
Proceedings of The South Afvican Sugar Technologists' Association-March 1966 121

process, the power being balanced due to the grid Fig. ll(a) shows an extraction back-pressure tur-
connection. bine, Fig. I l(b) the steam expansion in the Mollier
In most cases, the turbine is not coupled to the diagram. Let 7il and y,, be the internal efficiencies
grid, in which case, the governor has to maintain the of the high and low-pressure parts respectively, and
speed, i.e. frequency of the turbine, at a constant level G, and G, the steam flows; then
by adjusting the steam quantity to the power require-
ments. Here, the opposite is true, the power being the N = al. h . + r2.h +fll (Lw)... 15
..-....I...
B2
dominating factor, in which case the pressure of the 916 3416
back-pressure steam is maintained at a constant value
by installing a by-pass and a blow-off valve. Generally, the amount of steam to be supplied to
the process is known, let these amounts be termed
2. Extraction Back-pressure Turbine El and E,.
live s t e a m m a ~ n P.UO: Q, I E~

I Ol = 5 + E2

/5 Substituting in Equation 15 :
r- //
I N = y 4 + y . h 5 . f l l + E2.h
82
.pl
I 916 3416
I -
I
I .E2 ( 5' +?,+h82.y,x;+., .h,.Y,,
737 Jliib
I
The above equation shows that, for definite
I pressure drops and efficiencies, the amount of power
obtainable is proportional to the process steam
2 required.

I
3
z

@
FIGURE I l(a): Steam cycle

Power N
FIGURE 12: Steam consumption diagram

The relationship between the power obtainable

and the steam quantities flowing, is shown in Fig. 12.
This is a strongly simplified diagram, but may be used
to explain the principles involved. Take, for instance,
point 1. This point indicates that maximum power is
obtainable by passing the steam quantity GI through
the high-pressure part, and the quantity GI-E,
through the low-pressure part. At point 2, the maxi-
mum power is still obtainable, the high-pressure steam
flow dropping to G,, the low-pressure steam flow
increasing to (G,4 El); the reduction in live steam
is, therefore, balanced by the increased steam quantity
flowing through the low-pressure part.
En krupy The process pressures are maintained, when the
alternator is coupled to the grid, by the turbine
FIGURE I l(b): Mollier diagram governor receiving impulses from both the extraction
for the extraction back-pressure turbine and the back-pressure line. When the alternator is not
 Proceedings of The South African Sugar Technologists' Association-March 1966

live skeam main .

Enkropy
FlGURE 13(a): Steam cycle FIGURE 13(b) : Mollier diagram
for t h e condensing turbine

coupled to the grid, the turbine governor has to main- be approximately 70 and to approximately 10" F
tain a constant turbine speed, the extraction and greater than the inlet temperature of the cooling water.
back-pressures being maintained at the desired values These results would give a value of H and, knowing
by a system of by-pass and blow-off valves. the approximate expansion line of the steam, the
3. Condensing Turbine exhaust point can be plotted on the Mollier diagram.
Condensing turbines are seldom used in industry With a certain amount of trial and error, the correct
due to the lower efficiency as compared with large expansion end point is obtained. The condenser cool-
power stations. Large power stations use an elaborate ing surface can then be the
system of regenerative feed heating which is not obtainable from suitable heat transfer curves.
possible with a small industrial condensing steam To calculate the power N, the same basic formula
turbine. The steam is expanded to condenser pressure, as derived for the back-pressure turbine can be used:
the pressure of the exhaust steam being dependent on i.e. N = G. he. fl
several factors, as shown in the basic equations given J;lb
below:
Cooling surface A = As against back-pressure turbines where the en-
thalpy drop remains constant at all loads, due to the
Q ts-t, back-pressure being regulated, the enthalpy drop for
- log, - . . . 16 a condensing turbine changes with load. This may be
K t,-to explained by considering Fonnula 17. Assume to, ti,
Where A = cooling surface in ft2. and Q remain substantially constant, then, as W
Q = cooling water quantity in Ibs./hr. decreases with decreasing load, H would increase, i.e.
t, = steam exhaust temperature in " F. the condenser pressure rises as the load decreases.
ti = cooling water inlet temperature in
OF. The regulation of condensing turbines presents no
problem. If coupled to the grid, the governor can be
=
OF. water temperature in used to keep the live steam pressure constant; if
K = heat transfer rate in B.T.U./ft.20F.hr. operated independently, the governor maintains the
Outlet cooling water temperature System frequency.
WH 4. Extraction-condensing Turbine
to=ti+- . . .17 The extraction-condensingturbine is a combination
Q of the back-pressure and condensing types, the for-
where w = steamflow into condenser in 1b/hr.
H = H~~~ by in B . T . u . / ~ ~ . mulas obtained for the latter types may be employed
on the extraction-condensing type.
Generally, in calculating the condenser pressure,
i.e. the value of H, the cooling water inlet temperature n u s power N = ol. "-6 + 4. h .Et ............. 18

t, Q may be assumed to
is known; the relationship of -
--82
916 5416
W
Proceedings of The South Ajrican S ~ ~ g aTeclznologists'
r Association-March 1966

li've s team ma/h.

I

FIGURE 14(a): Steam cycle FIGURE 14(b): Mollier diagram

' for the extraction condensing turbine

The extraction pressure is fixed by the pressure of The universal speed at which large two-pole alterna-
the process steam required, the exhaust pressure tors operate is 3,000 r.p.m. For industrial turbines, an
determined as for the condensing turbine. economic solution has been found in an intermediate
speed, generally ranging between 5,000 and 12,000
The extraction-condensing turbine is widely used, r.p.m., the latter speed being for turbines of small
the principal advantage being that due to the con- output. The reasons are obvious, but shall be enumer-
densing part, the power obtainable is not proportional ated as follows:
to the process steam quantity required. In a factory
where a considerable secondary load exists, or where I . High speeds with the same stage-heat drops
power is required when the process part of the factory result in longer blades of smaller diameter.
is shut down, the condensing part of the extraction- 2. The flow ducts have favourable dimensions.
condensing turbine is able to supply the load. A
typical example is a factory with a large irrigation 3. The peripheral losses are reduced.
load, the latter being secondary. The irrigation load
generally has to be supplied throughout the year.
The relationship between power and steam is
basically identical to that shown in Fig. 12 and shall
not be repeated. The regulation would also be a
repetition of previous explanations and need not be
commented on.

Turbine Reduction Gears

The turbine ratings for industrial power plants lie
between 1,000 and 10,000 kW, the lower and upper
limit depending on the steam conditions. In the
theoretical part of this paper, it has been mentioned
that the large pressure drop in a single-blade ring
would produce a rotor speed of about 30,000 r.p.m.
To decrease this speed, compounding, i.e. employing
a larger number of stages, is necessary. FIGURE 15: Helical spur reduction gear
124 Proceedings of Tire South African Sugar Tecl~nologists'Association-March 1966

4. The peripheral clearance is small and, therefore, have proved themselves, so that a higher reliability
the clearance losses are correspondingly low. may be expected. The problem of obtaining spare
5. The use of lower speed alternators, generally of parts at short notice is non-existent.
1,500 r.p.m., which are cheaper than the two-pole Taking a standard turbine, it. is possibly to classify
type. the turbine parts into three groups:
The reduction gears are generally of the double- 1. Parts which have to be ad.aptcd to the thermo-
helical spur gear type. The turbine arid the reduction dynamic conditions : .
gear are connected by a flexible coupling, the reduction nozzle valves; nozzles and blades of the impulse
gear and the generator by a rigid coupling. Planetary wheel; and reaction or Rateau blading.
gearing is also used; the advantage of co-axial shafts
must be weighed against the complications introduced 2. Parts which are mass produced and may be used
in connection with inspection work. on several standard sizes:
operating cylinder for valve gear; labyrinth-
Turbine Standardisation glands; thrust bearing; bearing pedestal; journal
bearings; main oil pump, shaft driven; emer-
No manufacturer who hopes to offer an economi- gency stop valve; steam strainer; governing
cally competitive and, at the same time, reliable system; and long end-blades for condensing
turbine, can afford to disregard the value of standardi- turbines.
sation. For all types of turbines, a definite range of
standard sizes are designed. Each standard size 3. Parts which are only usable for the standard size
represents a casing size, The size or standard casing considered :
used depends on the steam conditions and the quantity turbine casing with integral steam inlet chamber;
of steam flowing. The power output, for instance, emergency stop valve casing incorporating the
may vary considerably for any one standard casing live steam inlet flange; exhaust casing incorpor-
size. ating the exhaust flange; turbine rotor; and
The advantages are obvious; due to the completed coupling on alternator or reduction gear end.
designs and available drawings, the delivery time The above parts list is by no means complete but it
may be reduced considerably. The standard parts indicates the method of producing a standard turbine.

FIGURE 16(a): Turbine cross-section

126 Proceedings of Tlre Solrtll Africa11 Sirgar Teclrtiologists' Association-Marclz 1966

B: Labyrinth glands D: Bearing pedestal I: End blades

C: Thrust bearing E: Oil-pump casing H: Jo~~rnal

bearing

111. Steam Turbine Operation constant enthalpy process, with an increasing entropy
and a corresponding decrease in available energy.
As in all sections, the wide field of steam turbines This condition is shown in Fig. 17:
has been limited to the most essential features in order
to grasp certain basic features and ideas which may
lead the way to a more intensive study, if necessary.
The same principle has been adhered to in this
section.

Turbine Performance at varying loads

The performance of a turbine when operating at
loads different from the designed or economic load,
depends on the particular method employed for
controlling the supply of steam to the turbine, so that
the speed of rotation will remain sensibly constant,
irrespective of the load. The principal methods of
governing are:
1. Throttle governing.
2. Nozzle governing.
3. By-pass governing.
4. Combination of 2 and 3.

1. Throttle Governing FIGURE 17: Throttling governing

The primary aim is to reduce the mass rate of flow.
Incidental to reducing the mass rate of flow, the steam The relationship between load and steam consum-
experiences an increasing pressure drop across the tion for a turbine governed by throttling is given by
governing valve and, consequently, a throttling or the well known "Willans Line", which is a straight
Proceedings of The South Afvican Sugar Technologists' Association-March 1966

line between no load and most economic load, as shown in Fig. 18:

/ a t no load 111
I

-
0
/
/ I1 I
I

Input o t 0-jlow 0 Full 'load

t o ma intrin rpd -I- Load
FIGURE 18: Willans line diagram

Equation of a straight line G = Go f m.K. The straight line, as indicated for the throttle governing,
specific steam consumption is found by dividing by however, with a considerably better specific steam
K: consumption at part loads. In an actual ,turbine,
nozzle governing must be restricted to the first stage
nozzles for construction reasons, and even here,
groups of nozzles are governed, rather than each
2. Nozzle Governing nozzle. With nozzle governing, the pressure and
temperature entering the fir'st stage nozzles are
Ideal governing would be obtained if all nozzles in constant with load. Fig. 19 and Fig. 20 indicate the
each and every stage in a turbine could be controlled. better specific steam consumption obtainable with
The Willians Line for such a turbine would be a nozzle governing.

Load
FIGURE 19: Steam flow FIGURE 20: steam consumption
 Proceedings of Tlie Soutli Afvican Sugar Tec/inologists' Association-Marcli 1966

Fig. 21 indicates the lines of expansion: Lubrication

The problem of lubrication resolves itself into three
parts which may be enumerated thus:
I . Maintenance of a sufficient supply of oil to the
bearings.
2. Cooling of oil to remove the heat generated in the
bearings and limit the temperature reached by the
oil.
3. Maintenance of the physical properties of the oil
at a sufficiently high standard to ensure safe and
satisfactory lubrication.
Fig. 23 indicates a typical lubrication system for a
turbo-generator.
In all cases, the main oil pump, which is driven
directly from an extension to the turbine shaft,
performs a dual function; it supplies oil both for
- -- - --
lubrication of the bearings and for operating the
governor relays. For the latter, the oil is uncooled.
Entropy The pressure in the relay system is maintained by valve
FIGURE 21: Steam expansion for nozzle governing 5, and that in the lubrication system by valve 11. The
auxiliary oil pump is arranged to supply the full
It is important to note that the absolute press,ure quantity of oil and to start automatically when the
of the steam entering the second stage nozzles is in pressure from the main oil pump fa.lls below a pre-
direct proportion to the mass flow through the turbine. determined value. A further flushing oil pump is
provided for flooding the bearings when starting and
The significant feature of nozzle governing is that , stopping. The oil purifier equipment is generally of
considerably less throttling of steam occurs than if a the centrifugal type and is operated continuously
single valve were used. Fig. 22 shows a typical
arrangement of nozzle valves :

'
FIGURE 23: Turbine lubrication system
FIGURE 22: Nozzle governing w i t h by-pass
I. Drain from bearings 9. Spring-loaded by-pass
3. By-Pass Governing 2. O i l tank valve
This is generally used for the overload valve which 3. O i l strainer 10. Fine strainer
passes the steam directly to the steam chest, thereby 4. Main oil pump I I . L.P. relief valve
by-passing the impulse wheel. The normal amount of 5. Pressure sustaining 12. O i l purifier
nozzle valves up to economical load are used. valve 13. Auxiliary o i l pump
6. O i l t o relay 14. Flushing o i l pump
4. The combination of 2 and 3 has already been 7. O i l coolers 15. Priming connexion
outlined under 3 and may also be seen in Fig. 22. 8. Oil t o bearings
Proceedings of The South Afvican Sugar Technologists' Association-March 1966

FIGURE 24(a): Linkage un-loading FIGURE 24(b): Linkage un-loaded

while the turbine is running, and should haveacapacity of the motion which forces the pilot valve into position
not less than one-tenth of the total quantity of oil in S.l The pilot valve now allows high-pressure oil to
the turbine lubrication system. flow above the power piston, which moves downwards
and closes the regulating valve.
Governors and Governor Gear Fig. 24(b) shows the position of the governor
As a flow-pressure type machine operating at high linkage on completion of unloading. Since M1 is now
speed, the steam turbine is fitted with a rotor having a the fulcrum, the pilot valve returns to its original
very low moment of inertia. This means that its speed position as K moves to K1, thereby shutting off the
responds immediately to any changes in load. The high-pressure oil.
turbine governor whose duty it is to maintain constant The difference in speed between no load and full
speed must, therefore, be sensitive and operate very load referred to the rated speed, is designated as the
rapidly and reliably. proportional range or static regulation of the governor.
Fig. 24(a) shows a ball-type governor acting It is determined by the characteristic of the speeder
through means of a pilot valve and servomotor on the spring.
steam valve. When the load decreases, the speed of A turbine with a normal speed of 3,000 r.p.m.,
the machine increases; the flyballs lift the sleeve M which operates as an isolated unit independent of
to M1. Point K on the connecting rod linking the other prime movers, and which is fitted with a
power piston remains at rest, forming the fulcrum governor having 4 % static regulation runs, for in-

FIGURE.25: Static regulation of speed governor

130 Proceedings of The South African Sl~garTechnologists' Association-March 1966

stance, at 3,060 r.p.m. at no load and 2,940 r.p.m. at load, with the alternator coupled to the grid, it is the
full load in accordance with the continuous line in load that changes, the speed remaining constant.
Fig. 25. If the governor sleeve is additionally loaded, Assuming 4 % steady state regulation, on adjustment
e.g. by further compression of the speeder spring, the of the speed changer by an amount which would
flyweights must produce a greater force in order to correspond to a speed increase of 60 r.p.m. (2%)
maintain the sleeve in its position. This can take place with an isolated unit, the machine which operates at
only with rising speed, as shown by the dotted line in point C, see Fig. 26, with 25 % of full load, now takes
Fig. 25. on additional load and operates at point C1with 75 %
Whereas, with an isolated unit, operation of the of full load.
speed adjusting device changes the speed at constant

FIGURE 26: Loading of the alternator

Many types of governing systems have been The hydraulic governor utilises as regulating
employed. A more modern development is the impulses the pressure difference produced by a small
hydraulic speed governor which eliminates the oil gyro upon a change in the turbine speed. The main
centrifugal balls and their associated linkages. This oil pump itself is not used as impulse transmitter
type is shown in Fig. 27: because of the non-uniform high pressure oil require-
ments of the governing system.

Supervision and Instrumentation

Thermometers for local indication are fitted to all
bearings and to the oil coolers. If necessary, a contact
thermometer for alarm signals can be fitted behind
the oil coolers. All water inlets and outlets at the oil
coolers and condensers are also fitted with thermo-
meters.
A thermometer at the stearn admission section
serves to measure the live steam temperature. The
pressure gauges for steam pressures ahead of and
within the turbine, as well as vacuum gauges for the
condensers, pressure gauges for pressure oil, trip oil,
governor oil and bearing oil, are conveniently arranged
in a pressure gauge pillar. Such a pillar for nine
pressure gauges in shown in Fig. 28:
Measuring devices for monitoring the axial shaft
position are fitted to the bearing pedestals. The
measuring device at the front bearing pedestal serves
to supervise the thrust bearing in order to detect any
wear in good time. The measuring device at the rear
bearing pedestal indicates the axial differential ex-
pansion of shaft and casing. Both measuring devices
are provided with vernier scales for adequate
measuring accuracy.
A condensate drain controller maintains the
t condensate at a constant level. 'This can be read off
FIGURE 27: Hydraulic speed governor on a level gauge.
Proceedings of The Solrtlr African Slrgar Technologists' Association-March 1966 131

Turbine Troubles
The causes of failure naturally divide themselves
into two groups, namely, those inherent in the design
or in the material used in the construction of the
turbine, and those which are related to the operating
conditions. Some of the former are inter-related to
some of the latter; for instance, blade erosion might
be due to unsuitable material or to bad steam
conditions.
The causes of failure inherent in design and
materials of construction may be classified as follows:
(a) Shaft vibration.
(b) Disc vibration.
(c) Blade vibration.
(d) Faults in machining.
(e) Incorrect design of casing, faulty arrangement
of steam pipes, causing distortion of the casing.
(f) Materials of construction.
To discuss each of the above points would be far
beyond the scope of this paper.
IV. Summary
The installation of the industrial turbine in a
factory where both process steam and electrical
power are required in the right proportions, can only
be of economical advantage.
References

'
Lewitt, E. H. (1959). Thermodynamics applied to heat engines.
FIGURE 28: Pressure gauge console Kearton, W. J. (1964). Steam Turbine operation.