Transistor

A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify or switch electronic

signals and electrical power. It is composed of semiconductor material
usually with at least three terminals for connection to an external circuit. A
voltage or current applied to one pair of the transistor's terminals controls
the current through another pair of terminals. Because the controlled
(output) power can be higher than the controlling (input) power, a transistor
can amplify a signal. Today, some transistors are packaged individually, but
many more are found embedded in integrated circuits.

Austro-Hungarian physicist Julius Edgar Lilienfeld proposed the concept of

a field-effect transistor in 1926, but it was not possible to actually construct
a working device at that time.[1] The first working device to be built was a
point-contact transistor invented in 1947 by American physicists John
Bardeen and Walter Brattain while working under William Shockley at Bell Assorted discrete
Labs. They shared the 1956 Nobel Prize in Physics for their achievement.[2] transistors. Packages in
The most widely used transistor is the MOSFET (metal–oxide– order from top to bottom:
TO-3, TO-126, TO-92, SOT-
semiconductor field-effect transistor), also known as the MOS transistor,
23.
which was invented by Mohamed Atalla with Dawon Kahng at Bell Labs in
1959.[3][4][5] The MOSFET was the first truly compact transistor that could
be miniaturised and mass-produced for a wide range
of uses.[6]

Transistors revolutionized the field of electronics, and

paved the way for smaller and cheaper radios,
calculators, and computers, among other things. The
first transistor and the MOSFET are on the list of
IEEE milestones in electronics.[7][8] The MOSFET is
the fundamental building block of modern electronic
devices, and is ubiquitous in modern electronic
systems.[9] An estimated total of 13 sextillion
MOSFETs have been manufactured between 1960 and
2018 (at least 99.9% of all transistors), making the Metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor
(MOSFET), showing gate (G), body (B), source (S)
MOSFET the most widely manufactured device in
and drain (D) terminals. The gate is separated from
history.[10]
the body by an insulating layer (pink).
Most transistors are made from very pure silicon, and
some from germanium, but certain other
semiconductor materials are sometimes used. A transistor may have only one kind of charge carrier, in a
field-effect transistor, or may have two kinds of charge carriers in bipolar junction transistor devices.
Compared with the vacuum tube, transistors are generally smaller, and require less power to operate. Certain
vacuum tubes have advantages over transistors at very high operating frequencies or high operating
voltages. Many types of transistors are made to standardized specifications by multiple manufacturers.

Contents
History
Bipolar transistors
MOSFET (MOS transistor)
Importance
Simplified operation
Transistor as a switch
Transistor as an amplifier
Comparison with vacuum tubes
Advantages
Limitations
Types
Field-effect transistor (FET)
Metal-oxide-semiconductor FET (MOSFET)
Bipolar junction transistor (BJT)
Usage of MOSFETs and BJTs
Other transistor types
Part numbering standards/specifications
Japanese Industrial Standard (JIS)
European Electronic Component Manufacturers Association (EECA)
Joint Electron Device Engineering Council (JEDEC)
Proprietary
Naming problems
Construction
Semiconductor material
Packaging
Flexible transistors
See also
References
Further reading
External links

History
The thermionic triode, a vacuum tube invented in 1907, enabled amplified radio technology and long-
distance telephony. The triode, however, was a fragile device that consumed a substantial amount of power.
In 1909, physicist William Eccles discovered the crystal diode oscillator.[11] Austro-Hungarian physicist
Julius Edgar Lilienfeld filed a patent for a field-effect transistor (FET) in Canada in 1925,[12] which was
intended to be a solid-state replacement for the triode.[13][14] Lilienfeld also filed identical patents in the
United States in 1926[15] and 1928.[16][17] However, Lilienfeld did not publish any research articles about
his devices nor did his patents cite any specific examples of a working prototype. Because the production of
high-quality semiconductor materials was still decades away, Lilienfeld's solid-state amplifier ideas would
not have found practical use in the 1920s and 1930s, even if such a device had been built.[18] In 1934,
German inventor Oskar Heil patented a similar device in Europe.[19]
 Bipolar transistors

From November 17, 1947, to December 23, 1947, John Bardeen and Walter
Brattain at AT&T's Bell Labs in Murray Hill, New Jersey, performed experiments
and observed that when two gold point contacts were applied to a crystal of
germanium, a signal was produced with the output power greater than the
input.[20] Solid State Physics Group leader William Shockley saw the potential in
this, and over the next few months worked to greatly expand the knowledge of
Julius Edgar semiconductors. The term transistor was coined by John R. Pierce as a contraction
Lilienfeld proposed of the term transresistance.[21][22][23] According to Lillian Hoddeson and Vicki
the concept of a field-
Daitch, authors of a biography of John Bardeen, Shockley had proposed that Bell
effect transistor in
Labs' first patent for a transistor should be based on the field-effect and that he be
1925.
named as the inventor. Having unearthed Lilienfeld's patents that went into
obscurity years earlier, lawyers at Bell Labs advised against Shockley's proposal
because the
idea of a field-
effect
transistor that
used an
electric field as
a "grid" was
not new.
Instead, what
Bardeen,
John Bardeen, William Shockley and Brattain, and
Walter Brattain at Bell Labs in 1948. Shockley
They invented the point-contact invented in
transistor in 1947 and bipolar 1947 was the
junction transistor in 1948. first point-
contact
A replica of the first working transistor, a point-
transistor.[18] contact transistor invented in 1947.
In acknowledgement of this accomplishment,
Shockley, Bardeen, and Brattain were jointly awarded
the 1956 Nobel Prize in Physics "for their researches on semiconductors and their discovery of the transistor
effect".[24][25]

Shockley's research team initially attempted to build a field-effect transistor (FET), by trying to modulate
the conductivity of a semiconductor, but was unsuccessful, mainly due to problems with the surface states,
the dangling bond, and the germanium and copper compound materials. In the course of trying to understand
the mysterious reasons behind their failure to build a working FET, this led them instead to invent the
bipolar point-contact and junction transistors.[26][27]

In 1948, the point-contact transistor was independently invented by German physicists Herbert Mataré and
Heinrich Welker while working at the Compagnie des Freins et Signaux, a Westinghouse subsidiary located
in Paris. Mataré had previous experience in developing crystal rectifiers from silicon and germanium in the
German radar effort during World War II. Using this knowledge, he began researching the phenomenon of
"interference" in 1947. By June 1948, witnessing currents flowing through point-contacts, Mataré produced
consistent results using samples of germanium produced by Welker, similar to what Bardeen and Brattain
had accomplished earlier in December 1947. Realizing that Bell Labs' scientists had already invented the
transistor before them, the company rushed to get its "transistron" into production for amplified use in
France's telephone network and filed his first transistor patent application on August 13, 1948.[28][29][30]
 The first bipolar junction transistors were invented by Bell Labs' William
Shockley, which applied for patent (2,569,347) on June 26, 1948. On April 12,
1950, Bell Labs chemists Gordon Teal and Morgan Sparks had successfully
produced a working bipolar NPN junction amplifying germanium transistor. Bell
Labs had announced the discovery of this new "sandwich" transistor in a press
release on July 4, 1951.[31][32]

The first high-frequency

transistor was the surface-
barrier germanium transistor
Herbert Mataré in developed by Philco in 1953,
1950. He capable of operating up to
independently 60 MHz.[33] These were
invented a point- made by etching depressions
contact transistor in into an N-type germanium
June 1948. base from both sides with
jets of Indium(III) sulfate
until it was a few ten-
thousandths of an inch thick. Indium electroplated into
the depressions formed the collector and
emitter.[34][35]

The first "prototype" pocket transistor radio was

shown by INTERMETALL (a company founded by
Herbert Mataré in 1952) at the Internationale
Funkausstellung Düsseldorf between August 29, 1953
and September 6, 1953.[36][37] The first "production" Philco surface-barrier transistor developed and
pocket transistor radio was the Regency TR-1, produced in 1953
released in October 1954. [25] Produced as a joint
venture between the Regency Division of Industrial
Development Engineering Associates, I.D.E.A. and Texas Instruments of Dallas Texas, the TR-1 was
manufactured in Indianapolis, Indiana. It was a near pocket-sized radio featuring 4 transistors and one
germanium diode. The industrial design was outsourced to the Chicago firm of Painter, Teague and Petertil.
It was initially released in one of six different colours: black, ivory, mandarin red, cloud grey, mahogany and
olive green. Other colours were to shortly follow.[38][39][40]

The first "production" all-transistor car radio was developed by Chrysler and Philco corporations and it was
announced in the April 28, 1955 edition of the Wall Street Journal. Chrysler had made the all-transistor car
radio, Mopar model 914HR, available as an option starting in fall 1955 for its new line of 1956 Chrysler and
Imperial cars which first hit the dealership showroom floors on October 21, 1955.[41][42][43]

The Sony TR-63, released in 1957, was the first mass-produced transistor radio, leading to the mass-market
penetration of transistor radios.[44] The TR-63 went on to sell seven million units worldwide by the mid-
1960s.[45] Sony's success with transistor radios led to transistors replacing vacuum tubes as the dominant
electronic technology in the late 1950s.[46]

The first working silicon transistor was developed at Bell Labs on January 26, 1954 by Morris Tanenbaum.
The first commercial silicon transistor was produced by Texas Instruments in 1954. This was the work of
Gordon Teal, an expert in growing crystals of high purity, who had previously worked at Bell
Labs.[47][48][49]

MOSFET (MOS transistor)

 Mohamed Atalla (left) and Dawon Kahng (right) invented the MOSFET (MOS transistor) at Bell Labs in 1959.

Semiconductor companies initially focused on junction transistors in the early years of the semiconductor
industry. However, the junction transistor was a relatively bulky device that was difficult to manufacture on
a mass-production basis, which limited it to a number of specialised applications. Field-effect transistors
(FETs) were theorized as potential alternatives to junction transistors, but researchers could not get FETs to
work properly, largely due to the troublesome surface state barrier that prevented the external electric field
from penetrating into the material.[6]

In the 1950s, Egyptian engineer Mohamed Atalla investigated the surface properties of silicon
semiconductors at Bell Labs, where he proposed a new method of semiconductor device fabrication, coating
a silicon wafer with an insulating layer of silicon oxide so that electricity could reliably penetrate to the
conducting silicon below, overcoming the surface states that prevented electricity from reaching the
semiconducting layer. This is known as surface passivation, a method that became critical to the
semiconductor industry as it later made possible the mass-production of silicon integrated circuits.[50][51] He
presented his findings in 1957.[52] Building on his surface passivation method, he developed the metal–
oxide–semiconductor (MOS) process.[50] He proposed the MOS process could be used to build the first
working silicon FET, which he began working on building with the help of his Korean colleague Dawon
Kahng.[50]

The metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET), also known as the MOS transistor, was
invented by Mohamed Atalla and Dawon Kahng in 1959.[3][4] The MOSFET was the first truly compact
transistor that could be miniaturised and mass-produced for a wide range of uses.[6] With its high
scalability,[53] and much lower power consumption and higher density than bipolar junction transistors,[54]
the MOSFET made it possible to build high-density integrated circuits,[5] allowing the integration of more
than 10,000 transistors in a single IC.[55]

CMOS (complementary MOS) was invented by Chih-Tang Sah and Frank Wanlass at Fairchild
Semiconductor in 1963.[56] The first report of a floating-gate MOSFET was made by Dawon Kahng and
Simon Sze in 1967.[57] A double-gate MOSFET was first demonstrated in 1984 by Electrotechnical
Laboratory researchers Toshihiro Sekigawa and Yutaka Hayashi.[58][59] FinFET (fin field-effect transistor),
a type of 3D non-planar multi-gate MOSFET, originated from the research of Digh Hisamoto and his team
at Hitachi Central Research Laboratory in 1989.[60][61]

Importance
Transistors are the key active components in practically all modern electronics. Many thus consider the
transistor to be one of the greatest inventions of the 20th century.[62]
The MOSFET (metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor), also known as the MOS transistor, is by
far the most widely used transistor, used in applications ranging from computers and electronics[51] to
communications technology such as smartphones.[63] The MOSFET has been considered to be the most
important transistor,[64] possibly the most important invention in electronics,[65] and the birth of modern
electronics.[66] The MOS transistor has been the fundamental building block of modern digital electronics
since the late 20th century, paving the way for the digital age.[9] The US Patent and Trademark Office calls
it a "groundbreaking invention that transformed life and culture around the world".[63] Its importance in
today's society rests on its ability to be mass-produced using a highly automated process (semiconductor
device fabrication) that achieves astonishingly low per-transistor costs.

The invention of the first transistor at Bell Labs was named an IEEE Milestone in 2009.[67] The list of IEEE
Milestones also includes the inventions of the junction transistor in 1948 and the MOSFET in 1959.[68]

Although several companies each produce over a billion individually packaged (known as discrete) MOS
transistors every year,[69] the vast majority of transistors are now produced in integrated circuits (often
shortened to IC, microchips or simply chips), along with diodes, resistors, capacitors and other electronic
components, to produce complete electronic circuits. A logic gate consists of up to about twenty transistors
whereas an advanced microprocessor, as of 2009, can use as many as 3 billion transistors (MOSFETs).[70]
"About 60 million transistors were built in 2002… for [each] man, woman, and child on Earth."[71]

The MOS transistor is the most widely manufactured device in history.[10] As of 2013, billions of transistors
are manufactured every day, nearly all of which are MOSFET devices.[5] Between 1960 and 2018, an
estimated total of 13 sextillion MOS transistors have been manufactured, accounting for at least 99.9% of all
transistors.[10]

The transistor's low cost, flexibility, and reliability have made it a ubiquitous device. Transistorized
mechatronic circuits have replaced electromechanical devices in controlling appliances and machinery. It is
often easier and cheaper to use a standard microcontroller and write a computer program to carry out a
control function than to design an equivalent mechanical system to control that same function.

Simplified operation
A transistor can use a small signal applied between one pair of
its terminals to control a much larger signal at another pair of
terminals. This property is called gain. It can produce a
stronger output signal, a voltage or current, which is
proportional to a weaker input signal and thus, it can act as an
amplifier. Alternatively, the transistor can be used to turn
current on or off in a circuit as an electrically controlled
switch, where the amount of current is determined by other
circuit elements.[72]

There are two types of transistors, which have slight A Darlington transistor opened up so the
differences in how they are used in a circuit. A bipolar actual transistor chip (the small square) can
transistor has terminals labeled base, collector, and emitter. be seen inside. A Darlington transistor is
A small current at the base terminal (that is, flowing between effectively two transistors on the same chip.
One transistor is much larger than the other,
the base and the emitter) can control or switch a much larger
but both are large in comparison to
current between the collector and emitter terminals. For a
transistors in large-scale integration
field-effect transistor, the terminals are labeled gate, source,
because this particular example is intended
and drain, and a voltage at the gate can control a current
for power applications.
between source and drain.[73]
The image represents a typical bipolar transistor in a
circuit. Charge will flow between emitter and collector
terminals depending on the current in the base.
Because internally the base and emitter connections
behave like a semiconductor diode, a voltage drop
develops between base and emitter while the base
current exists. The amount of this voltage depends on
the material the transistor is made from, and is referred
to as VBE.[73]

Transistor as a switch

Transistors are commonly used in digital circuits as

electronic switches which can be either in an "on" or
"off" state, both for high-power applications such as
switched-mode power supplies and for low-power
applications such as logic gates. Important parameters A simple circuit diagram to show the labels of a n–p–
for this application include the current switched, the n bipolar transistor.
voltage handled, and the switching speed,
characterised by the rise and fall times.[73]

In a grounded-emitter transistor circuit, such as the

light-switch circuit shown, as the base voltage rises, the
emitter and collector currents rise exponentially. The
collector voltage drops because of reduced resistance
from collector to emitter. If the voltage difference
between the collector and emitter were zero (or near
zero), the collector current would be limited only by the
load resistance (light bulb) and the supply voltage. This
is called saturation because current is flowing from
collector to emitter freely. When saturated, the switch is
said to be on.[74]
BJT used as an electronic switch, in grounded-
Providing sufficient base drive current is a key problem emitter configuration.
in the use of bipolar transistors as switches. The
transistor provides current gain, allowing a relatively
large current in the collector to be switched by a much smaller current into the base terminal. The ratio of
these currents varies depending on the type of transistor, and even for a particular type, varies depending on
the collector current. In the example light-switch circuit shown, the resistor is chosen to provide enough
base current to ensure the transistor will be saturated.[73]

In a switching circuit, the idea is to simulate, as near as possible, the ideal switch having the properties of
open circuit when off, short circuit when on, and an instantaneous transition between the two states.
Parameters are chosen such that the "off" output is limited to leakage currents too small to affect connected
circuitry, the resistance of the transistor in the "on" state is too small to affect circuitry, and the transition
between the two states is fast enough not to have a detrimental effect.[73]

Transistor as an amplifier
The common-emitter amplifier is designed so that a
small change in voltage (Vin) changes the small current
through the base of the transistor whose current
amplification combined with the properties of the circuit
means that small swings in Vin produce large changes in
Vout.[73]

Various configurations of single transistor amplifier are

possible, with some providing current gain, some
voltage gain, and some both.

From mobile phones to televisions, vast numbers of

products include amplifiers for sound reproduction,
radio transmission, and signal processing. The first
discrete-transistor audio amplifiers barely supplied a
few hundred milliwatts, but power and audio fidelity
gradually increased as better transistors became
available and amplifier architecture evolved.[73]

Modern transistor audio amplifiers of up to a few

Amplifier circuit, common-emitter configuration with
hundred watts are common and relatively inexpensive.
a voltage-divider bias circuit.

Comparison with vacuum tubes

Before transistors were developed, vacuum (electron) tubes (or in the UK "thermionic valves" or just
"valves") were the main active components in electronic equipment.

Advantages

The key advantages that have allowed transistors to replace vacuum tubes in most applications are

No cathode heater (which produces the characteristic orange glow of tubes), reducing power
consumption, eliminating delay as tube heaters warm up, and immune from cathode poisoning
and depletion.
Very small size and weight, reducing equipment size.
Large numbers of extremely small transistors can be manufactured as a single integrated
circuit.
Low operating voltages compatible with batteries of only a few cells.
Circuits with greater energy efficiency are usually possible. For low-power applications (for
example, voltage amplification) in particular, energy consumption can be very much less than
for tubes.
Complementary devices available, providing design flexibility including complementary-
symmetry circuits, not possible with vacuum tubes.
Very low sensitivity to mechanical shock and vibration, providing physical ruggedness and
virtually eliminating shock-induced spurious signals (for example, microphonics in audio
applications).
Not susceptible to breakage of a glass envelope, leakage, outgassing, and other physical
damage.
Limitations

Transistors have the following limitations:

They lack the higher electron mobility afforded by the vacuum of vacuum tubes, which is
desirable for high-power, high-frequency operation — such as that used in over-the-air
television broadcasting.
Transistors and other solid-state devices are susceptible to damage from very brief electrical
and thermal events, including electrostatic discharge in handling. Vacuum tubes are electrically
much more rugged.
They are sensitive to radiation and cosmic rays (special radiation-hardened chips are used for
spacecraft devices).
In audio applications, transistors lack the lower-harmonic distortion — the so-called tube
sound — which is characteristic of vacuum tubes, and is preferred by some.[75]

Types
Transistors are categorized by

Structure: MOSFET (IGFET), BJT, JFET, PNP P-channel

insulated-gate bipolar transistor (IGBT),
"other types".
semiconductor material: the metalloids
germanium (first used in 1947) and silicon
(first used in 1954)—in amorphous,
polycrystalline and monocrystalline form—, NPN N-channel
the compounds gallium arsenide (1966)
and silicon carbide (1997), the alloy silicon-
germanium (1989), the allotrope of carbon
BJT JFET
graphene (research ongoing since 2004),
etc. (see Semiconductor material).
BJT and JFET symbols
Electrical polarity (positive and negative):
n–p–n, p–n–p (BJTs),
n-channel, p-channel
(FETs).
Maximum power P-channel
rating: low, medium,
high.
Maximum operating
frequency: low,
medium, high, radio N-channel
(RF), microwave
frequency (the
maximum effective
frequency of a JFET MOSFET enh MOSFET dep
transistor in a
common-emitter or JFET and MOSFET symbols
common-source
circuit is denoted by the term fT, an abbreviation for transition frequency—the frequency of
transition is the frequency at which the transistor yields unity voltage gain)
Application: switch, general purpose, audio, high voltage, super-beta, matched pair.
 Physical packaging: through-hole metal, through-hole plastic, surface mount, ball grid array,
power modules (see Packaging).
Amplification factor hFE, βF (transistor beta)[76] or gm (transconductance).
temperature: Extreme temperature transistors and traditional temperature transistors (−55°C to
+150°C). Extreme temperature transistors include high-temperature transistors (above
+150°C) and low-temperature transistors (below −55°C). The high-temperature transistors that
operate thermally stable up to 220°C, can be developed by a general strategy of blending
interpenetrating semi-crystalline conjugated polymers and high glass-transition temperature
insulating polymers.[77]

Hence, a particular transistor may be described as silicon, surface-mount, BJT, n–p–n, low-power, high-
frequency switch.

A popular way to remember which symbol represents which type of transistor is to look at the arrow and
how it is arranged. Within an NPN transistor symbol, the arrow will Not Point iN. Conversely, within the
PNP symbol you see that the arrow Points iN Proudly.

Field-effect transistor (FET)

The field-effect transistor, sometimes

called a unipolar transistor, uses either
electrons (in n-channel FET) or holes (in
p-channel FET) for conduction. The
four terminals of the FET are named
source, gate, drain, and body
(substrate). On most FETs, the body is
connected to the source inside the
package, and this will be assumed for
the following description.
Operation of a FET and its Id-Vg curve. At first, when no gate
voltage is applied, there are no inversion electrons in the channel, so
In a FET, the drain-to-source current
the device is turned off. As gate voltage increases, the inversion
flows via a conducting channel that
electron density in the channel increases, current increases, and
connects the source region to the drain
thus the device turns on.
region. The conductivity is varied by the
electric field that is produced when a
voltage is applied between the gate and source terminals, hence the current flowing between the drain and
source is controlled by the voltage applied between the gate and source. As the gate–source voltage (VGS) is
increased, the drain–source current (IDS) increases exponentially for VGS below threshold, and then at a
roughly quadratic rate (IDS ∝ (VGS − VT)2) (where VT is the threshold voltage at which drain current
begins)[78] in the "space-charge-limited" region above threshold. A quadratic behavior is not observed in
modern devices, for example, at the 65 nm technology node.[79]

For low noise at narrow bandwidth the higher input resistance of the FET is advantageous.

FETs are divided into two families: junction FET (JFET) and insulated gate FET (IGFET). The IGFET is
more commonly known as a metal–oxide–semiconductor FET (MOSFET), reflecting its original
construction from layers of metal (the gate), oxide (the insulation), and semiconductor. Unlike IGFETs, the
JFET gate forms a p–n diode with the channel which lies between the source and drain. Functionally, this
makes the n-channel JFET the solid-state equivalent of the vacuum tube triode which, similarly, forms a
diode between its grid and cathode. Also, both devices operate in the depletion mode, they both have a high
input impedance, and they both conduct current under the control of an input voltage.
Metal–semiconductor FETs (MESFETs) are JFETs in which the reverse biased p–n junction is replaced by a
metal–semiconductor junction. These, and the HEMTs (high-electron-mobility transistors, or HFETs), in
which a two-dimensional electron gas with very high carrier mobility is used for charge transport, are
especially suitable for use at very high frequencies (several GHz).

FETs are further divided into depletion-mode and enhancement-mode types, depending on whether the
channel is turned on or off with zero gate-to-source voltage. For enhancement mode, the channel is off at
zero bias, and a gate potential can "enhance" the conduction. For the depletion mode, the channel is on at
zero bias, and a gate potential (of the opposite polarity) can "deplete" the channel, reducing conduction. For
either mode, a more positive gate voltage corresponds to a higher current for n-channel devices and a lower
current for p-channel devices. Nearly all JFETs are depletion-mode because the diode junctions would
forward bias and conduct if they were enhancement-mode devices, while most IGFETs are enhancement-
mode types.

Metal-oxide-semiconductor FET (MOSFET)

The metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET, MOS-FET, or MOS FET), also known as
the metal–oxide–silicon transistor (MOS transistor, or MOS),[5] is a type of field-effect transistor that is
fabricated by the controlled oxidation of a semiconductor, typically silicon. It has an insulated gate, whose
voltage determines the conductivity of the device. This ability to change conductivity with the amount of
applied voltage can be used for amplifying or switching electronic signals. The MOSFET is by far the most
common transistor, and the basic building block of most modern electronics.[9] The MOSFET accounts for
99.9% of all transistors in the world.[10]

Bipolar junction transistor (BJT)

Bipolar transistors are so named because they conduct by using both majority and minority carriers. The
bipolar junction transistor, the first type of transistor to be mass-produced, is a combination of two junction
diodes, and is formed of either a thin layer of p-type semiconductor sandwiched between two n-type
semiconductors (an n–p–n transistor), or a thin layer of n-type semiconductor sandwiched between two p-
type semiconductors (a p–n–p transistor). This construction produces two p–n junctions: a base–emitter
junction and a base–collector junction, separated by a thin region of semiconductor known as the base
region. (Two junction diodes wired together without sharing an intervening semiconducting region will not
make a transistor).

BJTs have three terminals, corresponding to the three layers of semiconductor—an emitter, a base, and a
collector. They are useful in amplifiers because the currents at the emitter and collector are controllable by a
relatively small base current.[80] In an n–p–n transistor operating in the active region, the emitter–base
junction is forward biased (electrons and holes recombine at the junction), and the base-collector junction is
reverse biased (electrons and holes are formed at, and move away from the junction), and electrons are
injected into the base region. Because the base is narrow, most of these electrons will diffuse into the
reverse-biased base–collector junction and be swept into the collector; perhaps one-hundredth of the
electrons will recombine in the base, which is the dominant mechanism in the base current. As well, as the
base is lightly doped (in comparison to the emitter and collector regions), recombination rates are low,
permitting more carriers to diffuse across the base region. By controlling the number of electrons that can
leave the base, the number of electrons entering the collector can be controlled.[80] Collector current is
approximately β (common-emitter current gain) times the base current. It is typically greater than 100 for
small-signal transistors but can be smaller in transistors designed for high-power applications.
Unlike the field-effect transistor (see below), the BJT is a low-input-impedance device. Also, as the base–
emitter voltage (VBE) is increased the base–emitter current and hence the collector–emitter current (ICE)
increase exponentially according to the Shockley diode model and the Ebers-Moll model. Because of this
exponential relationship, the BJT has a higher transconductance than the FET.

Bipolar transistors can be made to conduct by exposure to light, because absorption of photons in the base
region generates a photocurrent that acts as a base current; the collector current is approximately β times the
photocurrent. Devices designed for this purpose have a transparent window in the package and are called
phototransistors.

Usage of MOSFETs and BJTs

The MOSFET is by far the most widely used transistor for both digital circuits as well as analog circuits,[81]
accounting for 99.9% of all transistors in the world.[10] The bipolar junction transistor (BJT) was previously
the most commonly used transistor during the 1950s to 1960s. Even after MOSFETs became widely
available in the 1970s, the BJT remained the transistor of choice for many analog circuits such as amplifiers
because of their greater linearity, up until MOSFET devices (such as power MOSFETs, LDMOS and RF
CMOS) replaced them for most power electronic applications in the 1980s. In integrated circuits, the
desirable properties of MOSFETs allowed them to capture nearly all market share for digital circuits in the
1970s. Discrete MOSFETs (typically power MOSFETs) can be applied in transistor applications, including
analog circuits, voltage regulators, amplifiers, power transmitters and motor drivers.

Other transistor types

Field-effect transistor (FET):
Metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect
transistor (MOSFET), where the gate is
insulated by a shallow layer of insulator
p-type MOS (PMOS)
n-type MOS (NMOS)
complementary MOS (CMOS)
RF CMOS, for power electronics
Multi-gate field-effect transistor (MuGFET)
Transistor symbol created on Portuguese
Fin field-effect transistor (FinFET), pavement in the University of Aveiro.
source/drain region shapes fins on the
silicon surface
GAAFET,Similar to FinFET but nanowires are used instead of fins, the nanowires
are stacked vertically and are surrounded on 4 sides by the gate
MBCFET, variant of GAAFET that uses nanosheets instead of nanowires, made by
Samsung
Thin-film transistor, used in LCD and OLED displays
Floating-gate MOSFET (FGMOS), for non-volatile storage
Power MOSFET, for power electronics
lateral diffused MOS (LDMOS)
Carbon nanotube field-effect transistor (CNFET), where the channel material is replaced by
a carbon nanotube
 Junction gate field-effect transistor (JFET), where the gate is insulated by a reverse-biased
p–n junction
Metal–semiconductor field-effect transistor (MESFET), similar to JFET with a Schottky
junction instead of a p–n junction
High-electron-mobility transistor (HEMT)
Inverted-T field-effect transistor (ITFET)
Fast-reverse epitaxial diode field-effect transistor (FREDFET)
Organic field-effect transistor (OFET), in which the semiconductor is an organic compound
Ballistic transistor (disambiguation)
FETs used to sense environment
Ion-sensitive field-effect transistor (IFSET), to measure ion concentrations in solution,
Electrolyte–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor (EOSFET), neurochip,
Deoxyribonucleic acid field-effect transistor (DNAFET).
Bipolar junction transistor (BJT):
Heterojunction bipolar transistor, up to several hundred GHz, common in modern ultrafast
and RF circuits
Schottky transistor
avalanche transistor
Darlington transistors are two BJTs connected together to provide a high current gain equal
to the product of the current gains of the two transistors
Insulated-gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs) use a medium-power IGFET, similarly connected
to a power BJT, to give a high input impedance. Power diodes are often connected
between certain terminals depending on specific use. IGBTs are particularly suitable for
heavy-duty industrial applications. The ASEA Brown Boveri (ABB) 5SNA2400E170100 ,[82]
intended for three-phase power supplies, houses three n–p–n IGBTs in a case measuring
38 by 140 by 190 mm and weighing 1.5 kg. Each IGBT is rated at 1,700 volts and can
handle 2,400 amperes
Phototransistor.
Emitter-switched bipolar transistor (ESBT) is a monolithic configuration of a high-voltage
bipolar transistor and a low-voltage power MOSFET in cascode topology. It was introduced
by STMicroelectronics in the 2000s,[83] and abandoned a few years later around 2012.[84]
Multiple-emitter transistor, used in transistor–transistor logic and integrated current mirrors
Multiple-base transistor, used to amplify very-low-level signals in noisy environments such
as the pickup of a record player or radio front ends. Effectively, it is a very large number of
transistors in parallel where, at the output, the signal is added constructively, but random
noise is added only stochastically.[85]
Tunnel field-effect transistor, where it switches by modulating quantum tunnelling through a
barrier.
Diffusion transistor, formed by diffusing dopants into semiconductor substrate; can be both
BJT and FET.
Unijunction transistor, can be used as simple pulse generators. It comprise a main body of
either P-type or N-type semiconductor with ohmic contacts at each end (terminals Base1 and
Base2). A junction with the opposite semiconductor type is formed at a point along the length
of the body for the third terminal (Emitter).
Single-electron transistors (SET), consist of a gate island between two tunneling junctions. The
tunneling current is controlled by a voltage applied to the gate through a capacitor.[86]
 Nanofluidic transistor, controls the movement of ions through sub-microscopic, water-filled
channels.[87]
Multigate devices:
Tetrode transistor
Pentode transistor
Trigate transistor (prototype by Intel)
Dual-gate field-effect transistors have a single channel with two gates in cascode, a
configuration optimized for high-frequency amplifiers, mixers, and oscillators.
Junctionless nanowire transistor (JNT), uses a simple nanowire of silicon surrounded by an
electrically isolated "wedding ring" that acts to gate the flow of electrons through the wire.
Vacuum-channel transistor, when in 2012, NASA and the National Nanofab Center in South
Korea were reported to have built a prototype vacuum-channel transistor in only 150
nanometers in size, can be manufactured cheaply using standard silicon semiconductor
processing, can operate at high speeds even in hostile environments, and could consume just
as much power as a standard transistor.[88]
Organic electrochemical transistor.
Solaristor (from solar cell transistor), a two-terminal gate-less self-powered phototransistor.

Part numbering standards/specifications

The types of some transistors can be parsed from the part number. There are three major semiconductor
naming standards. In each, the alphanumeric prefix provides clues to type of the device.

Japanese Industrial Standard (JIS)

The JIS-C-7012 specification for transistor part JIS transistor prefix table
numbers starts with "2S",[89] e.g. 2SD965, but Prefix Type of transistor
sometimes the "2S" prefix is not marked on the package
2SA high-frequency p–n–p BJT
– a 2SD965 might only be marked "D965"; a 2SC1815
might be listed by a supplier as simply "C1815". This 2SB audio-frequency p–n–p BJT
series sometimes has suffixes (such as "R", "O", "BL", 2SC high-frequency n–p–n BJT
standing for "red", "orange", "blue", etc.) to denote
2SD audio-frequency n–p–n BJT
variants, such as tighter hFE (gain) groupings.
2SJ P-channel FET (both JFET and MOSFET)
2SK N-channel FET (both JFET and MOSFET)
European Electronic Component
Manufacturers Association (EECA)

The Pro Electron standard, the European Electronic Component Manufacturers Association part numbering
scheme, begins with two letters: the first gives the semiconductor type (A for germanium, B for silicon, and
C for materials like GaAs); the second letter denotes the intended use (A for diode, C for general-purpose
transistor, etc.). A 3-digit sequence number (or one letter then two digits, for industrial types) follows. With
early devices this indicated the case type. Suffixes may be used, with a letter (e.g. "C" often means high hFE,
such as in: BC549C[90]) or other codes may follow to show gain (e.g. BC327-25) or voltage rating (e.g.
BUK854-800A[91]). The more common prefixes are:
 Pro Electron / EECA transistor prefix table
Prefix
Type and usage Example Equivalent Reference
class
Germanium small-signal AF Datasheet (http://www.weisd.com/store2/NTE
AC AC126 NTE102A
transistor 102A.pdf)
Datasheet (http://www.weisd.com/store2/nte1
AD Germanium AF power transistor AD133 NTE179
79.pdf)
Germanium small-signal RF Datasheet (http://www.weisd.com/store2/nte1
AF AF117 NTE160
transistor 60.pdf)
Datasheet (http://www.weisd.com/store2/nte1
AL Germanium RF power transistor ALZ10 NTE100
00.pdf)
Datasheet (http://www.weisd.com/store2/NTE
AS Germanium switching transistor ASY28 NTE101
101.pdf)
Germanium power switching Datasheet (http://www.weisd.com/store2/nte1
AU AU103 NTE127
transistor 27.pdf)
Silicon, small-signal transistor Datasheet (https://www.mccsemi.com/pdf/Pro
BC BC548 2N3904
("general purpose") ducts/2N3904(TO-92).pdf)
Datasheet (http://www.fairchildsemi.com/ds/B
BD Silicon, power transistor BD139 NTE375
D/BD135.pdf)
Silicon, RF (high frequency) Datasheet (http://www.onsemi.com/pub_link/C
BF BF245 NTE133
BJT or FET ollateral/BF245A-D.PDF)
Silicon, switching transistor Datasheet (http://www.fairchildsemi.com/ds/B
BS BS170 2N7000
(BJT or MOSFET) S/BS170.pdf)
Silicon, high frequency, high Datasheet (http://www.datasheetcatalog.org/d
BL BLW60 NTE325
power (for transmitters) atasheet/philips/BLW60.pdf)
Silicon, high voltage (for CRT Datasheet (http://www.datasheetcatalog.org/d
BU BU2520A NTE2354
horizontal deflection circuits) atasheet/philips/BU2520A.pdf)
Gallium arsenide small-signal Datasheet (https://web.archive.org/web/20150
CF microwave transistor CF739 — 109012745/http://www.kesun.com/pdf/rf%20tr
(MESFET) ansistor/CF739.pdf)
Gallium arsenide microwave Datasheet (http://www.datasheetcatalog.org/d
CL CLY10 —
power transistor (FET) atasheet/siemens/CLY10.pdf)

Joint Electron Device Engineering Council (JEDEC)

The JEDEC EIA370 transistor device numbers usually start with "2N", indicating a three-terminal device
(dual-gate field-effect transistors are four-terminal devices, so begin with 3N), then a 2, 3 or 4-digit
sequential number with no significance as to device properties (although early devices with low numbers
tend to be germanium). For example, 2N3055 is a silicon n–p–n power transistor, 2N1301 is a p–n–p
germanium switching transistor. A letter suffix (such as "A") is sometimes used to indicate a newer variant,
but rarely gain groupings.

Proprietary

Manufacturers of devices may have their own proprietary numbering system, for example CK722. Since
devices are second-sourced, a manufacturer's prefix (like "MPF" in MPF102, which originally would denote
a Motorola FET) now is an unreliable indicator of who made the device. Some proprietary naming schemes
adopt parts of other naming schemes, for example a PN2222A is a (possibly Fairchild Semiconductor)
2N2222A in a plastic case (but a PN108 is a plastic version of a BC108, not a 2N108, while the PN100 is
unrelated to other xx100 devices).

Military part numbers sometimes are assigned their own codes, such as the British Military CV Naming
System.

Manufacturers buying large numbers of similar parts may have them supplied with "house numbers",
identifying a particular purchasing specification and not necessarily a device with a standardized registered
number. For example, an HP part 1854,0053 is a (JEDEC) 2N2218 transistor[92][93] which is also assigned
the CV number: CV7763[94]

Naming problems

With so many independent naming schemes, and the abbreviation of part numbers when printed on the
devices, ambiguity sometimes occurs. For example, two different devices may be marked "J176" (one the
J176 low-power JFET, the other the higher-powered MOSFET 2SJ176).

As older "through-hole" transistors are given surface-mount packaged counterparts, they tend to be assigned
many different part numbers because manufacturers have their own systems to cope with the variety in
pinout arrangements and options for dual or matched n–p–n + p–n–p devices in one pack. So even when the
original device (such as a 2N3904) may have been assigned by a standards authority, and well known by
engineers over the years, the new versions are far from standardized in their naming.

Construction

Semiconductor material
Semiconductor material characteristics
Junction forward Electron mobility Hole mobility Max.
Semiconductor
voltage junction temp.
material m2/(V·s) @ 25 °C m2/(V·s) @ 25 °C
V @ 25 °C °C
Ge 0.27 0.39 0.19 70 to 100
Si 0.71 0.14 0.05 150 to 200
GaAs 1.03 0.85 0.05 150 to 200
Al-Si junction 0.3 — — 150 to 200

The first BJTs were made from germanium (Ge). Silicon (Si) types currently predominate but certain
advanced microwave and high-performance versions now employ the compound semiconductor material
gallium arsenide (GaAs) and the semiconductor alloy silicon germanium (SiGe). Single element
semiconductor material (Ge and Si) is described as elemental.

Rough parameters for the most common semiconductor materials used to make transistors are given in the
adjacent table. These parameters will vary with increase in temperature, electric field, impurity level, strain,
and sundry other factors.

The junction forward voltage is the voltage applied to the emitter–base junction of a BJT in order to make
the base conduct a specified current. The current increases exponentially as the junction forward voltage is
increased. The values given in the table are typical for a current of 1 mA (the same values apply to
semiconductor diodes). The lower the junction forward voltage the better, as this means that less power is
required to "drive" the transistor. The junction forward voltage for a given current decreases with increase in
temperature. For a typical silicon junction the change is −2.1 mV/°C.[95] In some circuits special
compensating elements (sensistors) must be used to compensate for such changes.

The density of mobile carriers in the channel of a MOSFET is a function of the electric field forming the
channel and of various other phenomena such as the impurity level in the channel. Some impurities, called
dopants, are introduced deliberately in making a MOSFET, to control the MOSFET electrical behavior.

The electron mobility and hole mobility columns show the average speed that electrons and holes diffuse
through the semiconductor material with an electric field of 1 volt per meter applied across the material. In
general, the higher the electron mobility the faster the transistor can operate. The table indicates that Ge is a
better material than Si in this respect. However, Ge has four major shortcomings compared to silicon and
gallium arsenide:

1. Its maximum temperature is limited.

2. It has relatively high leakage current.
3. It cannot withstand high voltages.
4. It is less suitable for fabricating integrated circuits.

Because the electron mobility is higher than the hole mobility for all semiconductor materials, a given
bipolar n–p–n transistor tends to be swifter than an equivalent p–n–p transistor. GaAs has the highest
electron mobility of the three semiconductors. It is for this reason that GaAs is used in high-frequency
applications. A relatively recent FET development, the high-electron-mobility transistor (HEMT), has a
heterostructure (junction between different semiconductor materials) of aluminium gallium arsenide
(AlGaAs)-gallium arsenide (GaAs) which has twice the electron mobility of a GaAs-metal barrier junction.
Because of their high speed and low noise, HEMTs are used in satellite receivers working at frequencies
around 12 GHz. HEMTs based on gallium nitride and aluminium gallium nitride (AlGaN/GaN HEMTs)
provide a still higher electron mobility and are being developed for various applications.

'Max. junction temperature' values represent a cross section taken from various manufacturers' data sheets.
This temperature should not be exceeded or the transistor may be damaged.

'Al–Si junction' refers to the high-speed (aluminum–silicon) metal–semiconductor barrier diode, commonly
known as a Schottky diode. This is included in the table because some silicon power IGFETs have a
parasitic reverse Schottky diode formed between the source and drain as part of the fabrication process. This
diode can be a nuisance, but sometimes it is used in the circuit.

Packaging

Discrete transistors can be individually packaged transistors or

unpackaged transistor chips (dice).

Transistors come in many different semiconductor packages (see

image). The two main categories are through-hole (or leaded), and
surface-mount, also known as surface-mount device (SMD). The
ball grid array (BGA) is the latest surface-mount package (currently
Assorted discrete transistors
only for large integrated circuits). It has solder "balls" on the
underside in place of leads. Because they are smaller and have
shorter interconnections, SMDs have better high-frequency characteristics but lower power rating.
Transistor packages are made of glass, metal, ceramic, or plastic.
The package often dictates the power rating and frequency
characteristics. Power transistors have larger packages that can be
clamped to heat sinks for enhanced cooling. Additionally, most
power transistors have the collector or drain physically connected to
the metal enclosure. At the other extreme, some surface-mount
microwave transistors are as small as grains of sand.
Soviet KT315b transistors
Often a given transistor type is available in several packages.
Transistor packages are mainly standardized, but the assignment of a
transistor's functions to the terminals is not: other transistor types can assign other functions to the package's
terminals. Even for the same transistor type the terminal assignment can vary (normally indicated by a suffix
letter to the part number, q.e. BC212L and BC212K).

Nowadays most transistors come in a wide range of SMT packages, in comparison the list of available
through-hole packages is relatively small, here is a short list of the most common through-hole transistors
packages in alphabetical order: ATV, E-line, MRT, HRT, SC-43, SC-72, TO-3, TO-18, TO-39, TO-92, TO-
126, TO220, TO247, TO251, TO262, ZTX851.

Unpackaged transistor chips (die) may be assembled into hybrid devices.[96] The IBM SLT module of the
1960s is one example of such a hybrid circuit module using glass passivated transistor (and diode) die. Other
packaging techniques for discrete transistors as chips include Direct Chip Attach (DCA) and Chip On Board
(COB).[96]

Flexible transistors

Researchers have made several kinds of flexible transistors, including organic field-effect
transistors.[97][98][99] Flexible transistors are useful in some kinds of flexible displays and other flexible
electronics.

See also
Band gap Semiconductor device modeling
Digital electronics Transistor count
Diffused junction transistor Transistor model
Moore's law Transresistance
Optical transistor Very-large-scale integration

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Further reading
Books

Horowitz, Paul & Hill, Winfield (2015). The Art of Electronics (3 ed.). Cambridge University
Press. ISBN 978-0521809269.
Amos SW, James MR (1999). Principles of Transistor Circuits. Butterworth-Heinemann.
ISBN 978-0-7506-4427-3.
Riordan, Michael & Hoddeson, Lillian (1998). Crystal Fire. W.W Norton & Company Limited.
ISBN 978-0-393-31851-7. The invention of the transistor & the birth of the information age
Warnes, Lionel (1998). Analogue and Digital Electronics. Macmillan Press Ltd. ISBN 978-0-
333-65820-8.
The Power Transistor - Temperature and Heat Transfer; 1st Ed; John McWane, Dana Roberts,
Malcom Smith; McGraw-Hill; 82 pages; 1975; ISBN 978-0-07-001729-0. (archive) (https://archive.
org/details/ThePowerTransistor/)
Transistor Circuit Analysis - Theory and Solutions to 235 Problems; 2nd Ed; Alfred Gronner;
Simon and Schuster; 244 pages; 1970. (archive) (https://archive.org/details/TransistorCircuitAnalysis/)
Transistor Physics and Circuits; R.L. Riddle and M.P. Ristenbatt; Prentice-Hall; 1957.

Periodicals

Michael Riordan (2005). "How Europe Missed the Transistor" (https://web.archive.org/web/200

80214002109/http://www.spectrum.ieee.org/print/2155). IEEE Spectrum. 42 (11): 52–57.
 doi:10.1109/MSPEC.2005.1526906 (https://doi.org/10.1109%2FMSPEC.2005.1526906).
Archived from the original (https://spectrum.ieee.org/print/2155) on February 14, 2008.
"Herbert F. Mataré, An Inventor of the Transistor has his moment" (https://web.archive.org/we
b/20090623050755/http://www.mindfully.org/Technology/2003/Transistor-Matare-Inventor24feb
03.htm). The New York Times. February 24, 2003. Archived from the original (http://www.mindf
ully.org/Technology/2003/Transistor-Matare-Inventor24feb03.htm) on June 23, 2009.
Bacon, W. Stevenson (1968). "The Transistor's 20th Anniversary: How Germanium And A Bit
of Wire Changed The World" (https://books.google.com/?id=mykDAAAAMBAJ&printsec=frontc
over). Bonnier Corp.: Popular Science, Retrieved from Google Books 2009-03-22. 192 (6): 80–
84. ISSN 0161-7370 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0161-7370).

Databooks

Discrete Databook (https://archive.org/details/bitsavers_fairchilddldDiscreteDataBook_351227

51); 1985; Fairchild (now ON Semiconductor)
Small-Signal Transistor Databook (https://archive.org/details/MotorolaSmallSignalTransistorDa
taBook1984); 1984; Motorola (now ON Semiconductor)
Discrete Databook (https://archive.org/details/bitsavers_sgsdataBooDevices5ed_46325378);
1982; SGS (now STMicroelectronics)
Discrete Databook (https://archive.org/details/NationalSemiconductorDiscreteDatabook1978);
1978; National Semiconductor (now Texas Instruments)

External links
BBC: Building the digital age (http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/7091190.stm) photo
history of transistors
The Bell Systems Memorial on Transistors (https://web.archive.org/web/20070928041118/htt
p://www.porticus.org/bell/belllabs_transistor.html)
IEEE Global History Network, The Transistor and Portable Electronics (http://www.ieeeghn.org/
wiki/index.php/The_Transistor_and_Portable_Electronics). All about the history of transistors
and integrated circuits.
Transistorized (https://www.pbs.org/transistor/). Historical and technical information from the
Public Broadcasting Service
This Month in Physics History: November 17 to December 23, 1947: Invention of the First
Transistor (http://www.aps.org/publications/apsnews/200011/history.cfm). From the American
Physical Society
50 Years of the Transistor (https://web.archive.org/web/20070714010051/http://www.sciencefri
day.com/pages/1997/Dec/hour1_121297.html). From Science Friday, December 12, 1997

Pinouts

Common transistor pinouts (https://web.archive.org/web/20141030170632/http://hamradio.lakk

i.iki.fi/new/Datasheets/transistor_pinouts/)

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