Chapter-4-AC-DC Converters - 2017

EE2025: Power Electronics
Chapter 4: AC-DC Converters
Chap. 4, Slide - 1
EE2025: Power Electronics – 2017– SK Panda
Learning Objectives and Outcomes
• Learning Objectives:
 Understand basic principles of operation of uncontrolled
AC-DC Converters.
 Understand the classifications of AC-DC Converters.
 Understand the principles of operation of non-isolated
DC-DC converters such as buck, boost and buck-boost
types.
 Understand the basic principles of operation of isolated
DC-DC converter such as forward converter.
 Applications of DC-DC Converters.
• Learning outcome
 You should be able to design a suitable DC-DC converter
for any given application.
Chap. 4, Slide - 2
Introduction
• Most of the power electronics applications such as:
switching dc power supplies, DC & AC motor
drives, require dc voltage which is obtained by
rectifying the utility’s ac supply voltage.
is id
vs ~ vd
Figure 4.1 Block diagram of a rectifier

Chap. 4, Slide - 3
• The input available is sine wave at 50 or 60 Hz
available from utility’s supply.
• Increasingly, inexpensive rectifiers with diodes
are widely used to convert AC to DC in an
uncontrolled manner.
• Power flow is unidirectional can only be from the
ac source side to dc load side.
• No transformer is used on the line side and this
reduces the cost and size of the converter.
• To obtain ripple free dc voltage at the output a
large filter capacitor is used.
• The capacitor gets charged during the peak of
the ac source voltage and therefore draws highly
distorted current from the utility.
Chap. 4, Slide - 4
• Harmonics standards and utility’s guidelines will
restrict the amount of current distortions allowed
into the utility and simple diode rectifiers may not
be allowed in future.
Chap. 4, Slide - 5
• Observations:
 power flow takes place only in one direction i.e.
from the utility source to the load
 due to the presence of the capacitor at the
output input AC current gets highly distorted.
Figure 4.2 Distorted line current in a rectifier circuit
Chap. 4, Slide - 6
Classifications of AC-DC Converters
• The AC-DC converters can be of single-phase or
three-phase types.
• They can also be either half-wave or full-wave
types.
• In full-wave, again it can be either center-tapped
type or bridge type.
• We would mainly discuss single-phase bridge type
converter because of their wide usage.
Chap. 4, Slide - 7
• Diode-bridge rectifiers as shown in Fig. 4.3a in
which power flows only in one direction.
• Switched-mode converters as shown in Fig. 4.3b in
which power flow is bi-directional and line current is
sinusoidal and at unity power factor.
• Thyristor converters as shown in Fig. 4.3c in which
power flow can be bi-directional but line currents
are distorted.
Figure 4.3 Front-end power electronic converter

Chap. 4, Slide - 8
Linear and Nonlinear Loads
• Linear R-L Load
is
 Vs
vs 

Is
(b)
(a)
Figure 4.4 Voltage and current phasors in simple R-L circuit.
P
P  Vs I s cos  PF   cos 
Vs I s
Chap. 4, Slide - 9
P
Is 
Vs  PF
• The power factor, PF is inversely proportional to the
source current, Is and thus utility prefers unity
power factor loads that draw power at min. source
current, Is minimizing power losses in distribution
lines, transformer etc..
Chap. 4, Slide - 10
Nonlinear Loads
• The power electronic converter with diode rectifiers
as the front-end converter draw current with
distorted waveform as shown in Fig. 4.5.
vs
is1 idistortion ( is  is1 )
is
0 t 0 t
1 / 
(b)
T1
(a )
Figure 4.5 Current drawn by power electronic converter with diode-bridge

rectifier at front-end.
idistortion (t )  is (t )  is1 (t ) (4.1)
Chap. 4, Slide - 11
• The rms value of the source current is (t) is given by
1 𝑇1 2
𝐼𝑆 = ‫ 𝑖 ׬‬. 𝑑𝑡 (4.2)
𝑇1 0 𝑠
• From eqn. (4.1) we have
is (t )  is1 (t )  idistortion (t )  2 is1 (t )  idistortion (t ) (4.3)

2 2 2
• In a repetitive waveform, the integral of the product

of two different harmonic components with different
frequencies over the repetition time period, equals
to zero.
‫𝑔 𝑇׬‬ℎ1 𝑡 . 𝑔ℎ2 𝑡 . 𝑑𝑡 = 0 ℎ1 ≠ ℎ2 (4.4)
1
Chap. 4, Slide - 12
• Substituting eqn. (4.3) into (4.2) and using eqn.
(4.4), we have
1 𝑇1 2 1 𝑇1 2
𝐼𝑆 = ‫𝑖 ׬‬ 𝑡 . 𝑑𝑡 + ‫𝑖 ׬‬ 𝑡 . 𝑑𝑡 + 0 (4.5)
𝑇1 0 𝑠1 𝑇1 0 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
2 2
𝐼𝑆 = 𝐼𝑠1 + 𝐼𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (4.6)
1
𝐼𝑆1 = ‫׬‬ 𝑖 2
𝑡 . 𝑑𝑡 (4.7)
𝑇1 𝑇1 𝑠1
1
𝐼𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = ‫׬‬ 𝑖 2
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡 . 𝑑𝑡 (4.8)
𝑇1 𝑇1
Chap. 4, Slide - 13
• A distortion index called the Total Harmonic
Distortion (THD) in percentage is defined as
𝐼𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐼𝑆2 − 𝐼𝑆1

2
% 𝑇𝐻𝐷 = 100 × = 100 × 4.9

𝐼𝑠1 𝐼𝑠1
• The rms value of the distortion component can be

obtained based on the harmonic components
except the fundamental as follows
∞
2
𝐼𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = ෍ 𝐼𝑠ℎ (4.10)
ℎ=2
Chap. 4, Slide - 14
Obtaining Harmonic Components by
Fourier Analysis  
g (t )  G0   gh (t )  G0  ah cos(ht )  bh sin(ht )
h 1 h 1
1 2
G0 
2  0
g (t )  d (t )
1 2

ah  g (t )cos(ht )d (t ) h  1,2,..., 
0
1 2

bh  g (t )sin(ht )d (t ) h  1,2,..., 
0
ah2  bh2 bh

Gh  Gh h Gh  tan h 
2 ah

G  G   Gh2
2
0
h 1
Chap. 4, Slide - 15
Example 4.1
A current, is of square waveform is shown in Fig. 4.4.
Calculate and plot its fundamental frequency
component and its distortion component. What is the
% THD associated with this waveform?
Chap. 4, Slide - 16
• From Fourier Series Analysis the current is can be
expressed as
4 1 1 1
𝑖𝑠 = 𝐼 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔1 𝑡 + sin 3𝜔1 𝑡 + sin 5𝜔1 𝑡 + sin 7𝜔1 𝑡 + ⋯
𝜋 3 5 7
4ൗ
𝜋
𝐼𝑠1 = 𝐼 = 0.9 𝐼
2
𝐼𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝐼𝑆2 − 𝐼𝑆1

2
= 𝐼 2 − 0.9𝐼 2 = 0.436𝐼
𝐼𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 0.436𝐼
% 𝑇𝐻𝐷 = 100 × = 100 × = 48.4%
𝐼𝑠1 0.9𝐼
Chap. 4, Slide - 17
Displacement Power Factor (DPF)
and Power Factor (PF)
• Let us consider the power factor at which power is
drawn by a load with a distorted current waveform
as shown in Fig. 4.5(a).
• It is assumed that the supply voltage is sinusoidal
with an rms value of Vs at a frequency of f1.
• Based on eqn. (4.4), the product of cross-frequency
terms has a zero average value, we have
1 𝑇1 1 𝑇1
𝑃 = න 𝑣𝑠 𝑡 × 𝑖𝑠 𝑡 . 𝑑𝑡 = න 𝑣𝑠 𝑡 × 𝑖𝑠1 𝑡 . 𝑑𝑡 (4.11)
𝑇1 0 𝑇1 0
Chap. 4, Slide - 18
• 1 is the angle by which the fundamental frequency
component is1 lags the supply voltage vs as shown
in Fig. 4.5(a).
𝑃 = 𝑉𝑠 𝐼𝑠1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙1 (4.12)
• Let us introduce another term called Displacement
Power Factor (DPF)
𝐷𝑃𝐹 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙1 (4.13)
𝑃 = 𝑉𝑠 𝐼𝑠1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙1 = 𝑉𝑠 𝐼𝑠1 (𝐷𝑃𝐹) (4.14)

• In the presence of distortions in the current drawn
from the source, the meaning and definition of the
power factor remains the same i.e.
𝑃 𝑉𝑠 𝐼𝑠1 (𝐷𝑃𝐹) 𝐼𝑠1
𝑃𝐹 = = = 𝐷𝑃𝐹 = 𝐷𝐹 × 𝐷𝑃𝐹 (4.15)
𝑉𝑠 𝐼𝑠 𝑉𝑠 𝐼𝑠 𝐼𝑠
Chap. 4, Slide - 19
• For linear loads that draw sinusoidal currents, the
current ratio (Is1/Is) becomes unity and thus we
have PF = DPF.
• Eqn. 4.15 tells us that a high distortion in the
current drawn from the source leads to a lower
power factor even if the DPF is high.
𝐼𝑠1 1
= (4.16)
𝐼𝑠 2
%𝑇𝐻𝐷
1+
100
• Substituting eqn. 4.16 in eqn. 4.15, we have

𝐼𝑠1 1
𝑃𝐹 = 𝐷𝑃𝐹 = 𝐷𝑃𝐹 (4.17)
𝐼𝑠 2
%𝑇𝐻𝐷
1+
100
Chap. 4, Slide - 20
• The effect of THD on the PF is as shown in Fig.
4.6.
• It shows that even if the DPF = 1, a 100% THD
would reduce the PF = 0.7, which is unacceptably
low. 1
0 .9
0 .8
0 .7
PF
DPF 0.6
0 .5
0 .4
0 50 100 150 200 250 300

%THD
Figure 4.6 Relationship between PF/DPF and THD.
Chap. 4, Slide - 21
Deleterious Effects of Harmonic
Distortions and a Poor Power Factor
• Power loss in utility equipment such as distribution
and transmission lines, transformer and generators,
possibly to the point of overloading them.
• The utility voltage waveform will be distorted at the
point-of-common-coupling (PCC) and adversely
affect other linear loads connected, if a significant
amount of load supplied by the utility draws power
by means of distorted currents.
• Harmonic currents can overload the shunt
capacitors used for voltage support and may cause
resonance by the capacitor and inductance of
transmission lines. Chap. 4, Slide - 22
Harmonic Guidelines, IEEE - 519
Odd HarmonicOrder h Total
Harmonic
I SC / I1 h  11 11  h  17 17  h  23 23  h  35 35  h Distortion(%)
 20 4.0 2.0 1.5 0.6 0.3 5.0
20  50 7.0 3.5 2.5 1.0 0.5 8.0
50  100 10.0 4.5 4.0 1.5 0.7 12.0
100  1000 12.0 5.5 5.0 2.0 1.0 15.0
 1000 15.0 7.0 6.0 2.5 1.4 20.0
Zs Zs I sc
 
Vs Vs Short-Circuit Current: I sc
 
(a) (b)
Figure 5-6 (a) Utility supply; (b) short circuit current.
Figure 4.7 (a) Utility supply, (b) short-circuit current.
Chap. 4, Slide - 23
Single-Phase Bridge Rectifier
id iload
Ls is +
Vd
vs ~
Cd
-
Figure 4.8 Single-phase diode bridge rectifier
 Full-wave rectification can also be achieved by a circuit
configuration called as bridge rectifier.
 The utility supply is modeled as a sinusoidal source, vs
together with its internal impedance which is mainly inductive
as Ls.
Chap. 4, Slide - 24
• Initially, we would assume Ls = 0 and the load side may be
replaced either by a resistor or a constant current source
representing a highly inductive load.
id id
P + P +
D1 D3 D1 D3
is is
vs vs Id
~ R ~
D4 D2 D4 D2
N - N -
Figure 4.9 Idealised diode bridge rectifiers with Ls = 0
Chap. 4, Slide - 25
Resistive Load
id
P +
D1 D3
is
vs ~ R
D4 D2
N - iD1,iD2
Figure 4.10 Idealized diode bridge

rectifier with resistive load
iD3,iD4
Figure 4.11 Bridge rectifier voltage

and current waveforms
Chap. 4, Slide - 26
Inductive (R-L) Load
id
P +
D1 D3
is
vs Id
~
D4 D2 iD1,iD2
N -
Figure 4.12: Bridge rectifier circuit
iD3,iD4
with inductive load
Figure 4.13: Bridge rectifier voltage

and current waveforms for XL >> R
Chap. 4, Slide - 27
• During the positive half-cycle when vs > 0 diodes
D1 and D2 are forward-biased and therefore would
conduct and we have
vd or vO  vs and id or iO  is (4.18)
• Similarly, during the negative half-cycle when vs < 0
diodes D3 and D4 are forward-biased and therefore
would conduct and we have
vd or vO  vs and id or iO  is (4.19)
• Thus, at any time the dc side output voltage can be
expressed as: vd (t )  vs (4.20)
• The ac side current, is can be expressed as:
 id if vs  0
is   (4.21)
 id if vs  0
Chap. 4, Slide - 28
• Note in Fig.4.14 that the current transfers from +id
to id or from id to +id at the zero crossover points
are instantaneous due to the assumption that Ls =
0.
Figure 4.14 Bridge rectifier voltage and current waveforms
Chap. 4, Slide - 29
• Assuming vs =  2 Vs sin(t) = Vm sin(t) the
average output voltage is:
1  2 2Vm

VO ( avg .)  2Vs sin(t ) d (t )  2Vs   0.9Vs (4.22)
0  
• By using the definition of rms value and for id(t) = Id we
have 1 T
is ( rms ) 
T 
0
id (t ) 2 dt  I d (4.23)
• By Fourier series analysis of the current, is it can be shown
that (show that a0 = 0, an = 0 and bn = 4Id/n)

4I d
is (t )  
n 1, 3, 5 n
sin(nt )
4I d 2 2I d
for n  1, is1  sin(t )  2 sin(t )  2 I s1 sin(t )
 
2 I s1 2 I s1
is (t )  2 I s1 sin(t )  sin(3t )  sin(5t )   (4.24)
3 5
Chap. 4, Slide - 30
.
Figure 4.15 Line current is in idealized case
• The harmonic components can be represented by

 0 for even n
I sh   I s1 (4.25)
for odd n
 n
Chap. 4, Slide - 31
• As can be seen from Fig.6.10 that vs and is1 are in
phase, displacement p.f. ,DPF = cos 1 = cos 0 =
1, and therefore, the power factor is given by
Vs I s1 cos 1 I s1 2 2 
p.f.   DPF   1.0    0.9   0.9 (4.26)
Vs I s Is   
• The total harmonic distortion (THD) for the full-
wave rectifier circuit is given by
I s  I s1
2 2
THD  100  48.43% (4.27)

I s1
Chap. 4, Slide - 32
• Load voltage can be expressed as a Fourier series
consisting of a dc term and even harmonics as

vd ( t )  VO ( avg .)  
n  2 , 4 , 6 ,
Vn cos(nt ) (4.28)
2Vm 2Vm  1 1 
where VO  and Vn    
   n 1 n 1 
The dc current and the ac current amplitudes at each
frequency can be computed from
VO ( avg .)
Id  (4.29)
R
Vn Vn
In   (4.30)
Z n R  jnL
Chap. 4, Slide - 33
Example 2
The bridge rectifier circuit has an ac source with
Vm = 100V at 60 Hz and a series R-L load with R
= 10 and L = 10mH. Determine, (a) the average
current in the load, (b) estimate the peak-to-peak
variation in the load current based on the first ac
term in the Fourier series, (c) power absorbed by
the load and the power factor of the circuit and (d)
the average and rms current in the diode.
SOLUTION (a) Average load current is
2 (100 )
VO ( avg.) 
IO    6.37 A
R 10
Chap. 4, Slide - 34
(b) Amplitudes of the ac voltages can be determined for n = 2
and 4 as
2(100)  1 1  2(100)  1 1 
V2      42.47V , V      8.49V
  2  1 2  1 4
  4  1 4  1
The amplitudes of the first two ac current terms in the Fourier

series are
42.47 42.47
I2    3.39 A
10  j (2)(377)(0.01) 12.52
8.49 8.49
I4    0.47 A
10  j (4)(377)(0.01) 181 .
It can be seen that I2 has a much larger amplitude than that of
I4 or for higher-order harmonic currents. For all practical
purposes, we will use I2 to estimate the peak-to-peak ripple
current, iO = 2  (3.39) = 6.78A.
Chap. 4, Slide - 35
(c) The power absorbed by the load can be
determined by using the Irms and R.
2 2
 3.39   0.47 
I rms  (6.37)  
2
      6.81 A
 2   2 
Power absorbed by the load is PL  (6.81) 2  10  4638
.W
The rms source current Is(rms) is the same as rms load

current, thus the power factor is given by
P P 4638.
pf    100  0.964
S Vs ( rms )  I s ( rms ) 2
 6.81
(d) Each diode conducts for one-half of the cycle so
I d 6.37 I rms 6.81
I D ( avg .)    319
. A and I D ( rms )    4.82 A
2 2 2 2 Chap. 4, Slide - 36
Effect of Source Inductance, Ls on
Current Commutation
.
Figure 4.16: (a) Single-phase diode rectifier with Ls
• Due to the presence of a finite source inductance Ls, the

transitions of the source side current is from +Id to Id or
vice-versa will not be instantaneous and it will take a finite
time interval as shown in Fig. 4.16(b).
Chap. 4, Slide - 37
.
Figure 4.16: (b) Waveforms
Chap. 4, Slide - 38
• The finite time interval during which the transition of
current takes place is called the current
commutation time and the interval is called current
commutation interval, u.
• During the current commutation interval, u all the
four diodes of the bridge rectifier will conduct
simultaneously thus making vd = 0 as shown in
Fig.4.16(b).
Chap. 4, Slide - 39
• Prior to t = 0, diodes D3 and D4 are conducting
the current Id and is = -Id .
• The current commutation process during the
interval 0 < t < u can be clearly understood
when the circuit of Fig. 4.16(a) is redrawn as
shown below.
Figure 4.16: (c) Single-phase diode rectifier with Ls redrawn to show

current commutation.
Chap. 4, Slide - 40
• As soon as t > 0, vs becomes positive and
therefore diodes D1 and D2 become forward
biased, whereas diodes D3 and D4 are still
conducting.
• The three mesh currents are as shown in Fig.
4.16(c).
• The two commutation currents are being equal
assuming that the diodes are identical.
• Since diodes D3 and D4 are conducting
simultaneously, we have vd = 0. All the four
diodes are conducting simultaneously.
Chap. 4, Slide - 41
• The diode and source currents can be expressed in terms
of the mesh currents as follows:
iD1  iD 2  iu , iD 3  iD 4  I d  iu
is  iD1  iD 4  iu  ( I d  iu )   I d  2iu
• iu builds up from zero to Id at the end of the commutation

interval.
• Thus, at wt = u we have
iD1  iD 2  iu  I d , iD 3  iD 4  0
is  iD1  iD 4  iu  ( I d  iu )   I d  2iu  I d
• During this commutation process the current through Ls

changes from –Id to +Id as shown in Fig. 4.16(b).
Chap. 4, Slide - 42
u  Id
Au   2 Vs sin t d (t )  Ls  dis  2Ls I d (4.31)

0 Id
Au  2Vs (1  cos u )  2Ls I d

2Ls
cos u  1  Id
2V
• The average output voltage Vd is therefore reduced and is
given by
Area Au 2Ls I d
Vd  VO ( avg .)   0.9Vs  (4.32)
 
and the commutation interval u is given by
2Ls
cos (u )  1  I d (4.33)
2Vs
Chap. 4, Slide - 43
R-L-Source Load
.
(a)
Figure 4.17 Rectifier with
R-L source load. (a)
continuous current and
(b)discontinuous current
(b)
Chap. 4, Slide - 44
• Such model can find applications for dc motor
drive as well as battery charger circuits.
• There are two possible modes of operation: (a)
continuous-current mode and (b) discontinuous-
current mode.
• For continuous-current mode one pair of diodes is
always conducting and the voltage across the load
is full-wave rectified sine wave.
• The average dc current (for continuous
conduction) is given by
2Vm
 Vdc
VO  Vdc
IO    (4.34)
R R
Chap. 4, Slide - 45
Three Phase Full Bridge Rectifier Circuit
Fig. 4.18: Three-phase bridge rectifier
 Average output voltage is given by

3
VO  2 VLL  1.35VLL ( 4.35)

where VLL - three-phase line-to-line voltage.
Chap. 4, Slide - 46
Summary
• A rectifier converts AC to DC and power transfer is
from ac source to dc load.
• A large filter capacitor across a resistive load
makes the load voltage nearly constant.
• Single-phase full-wave rectifiers can be of the
bridge or center-tapped transformer type.
• The effect of the source inductance is to delay the
transfer of the source current from one pair of
diodes to other pair and reduce the average dc
output voltage.
Chap. 4, Slide - 47
References
1. Ned Mohan, "Power Electronics A First
Course", John Wiley & Sons. Inc., 2012.
Chapter 5.
Chap. 4, Slide - 48

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EE2025: Power Electronics

Chapter 4: AC-DC Converters

Figure 4.1 Block diagram of a rectifier

Figure 4.2 Distorted line current in a rectifier circuit

Figure 4.3 Front-end power electronic converter

Figure 4.4 Voltage and current phasors in simple R-L circuit.

Figure 4.5 Current drawn by power electronic converter with diode-bridge

idistortion (t )  is (t )  is1 (t ) (4.1)

• From eqn. (4.1) we have

is (t )  is1 (t )  idistortion (t )  2 is1 (t )  idistortion (t ) (4.3)

• In a repetitive waveform, the integral of the product

𝐼𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐼𝑆2 − 𝐼𝑆1

% 𝑇𝐻𝐷 = 100 × = 100 × 4.9

• The rms value of the distortion component can be

ah2  bh2 bh

𝐼𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝐼𝑆2 − 𝐼𝑆1

𝑃 = 𝑉𝑠 𝐼𝑠1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙1 = 𝑉𝑠 𝐼𝑠1 (𝐷𝑃𝐹) (4.14)

• Substituting eqn. 4.16 in eqn. 4.15, we have

0 50 100 150 200 250 300

Figure 4.9 Idealised diode bridge rectifiers with Ls = 0

Figure 4.10 Idealized diode bridge

Figure 4.11 Bridge rectifier voltage

Figure 4.13: Bridge rectifier voltage

Figure 4.14 Bridge rectifier voltage and current waveforms

Figure 4.15 Line current is in idealized case

• The harmonic components can be represented by

THD  100  48.43% (4.27)

The amplitudes of the first two ac current terms in the Fourier

The rms source current Is(rms) is the same as rms load

Figure 4.16: (a) Single-phase diode rectifier with Ls

• Due to the presence of a finite source inductance Ls, the

Figure 4.16: (b) Waveforms

Figure 4.16: (c) Single-phase diode rectifier with Ls redrawn to show

• iu builds up from zero to Id at the end of the commutation

• During this commutation process the current through Ls

Au   2 Vs sin t d (t )  Ls  dis  2Ls I d (4.31)

Au  2Vs (1  cos u )  2Ls I d

Fig. 4.18: Three-phase bridge rectifier

 Average output voltage is given by

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