Equal Protection Clause

consti part 6: equal protection clause
districts authority to levy for public purposes

ORMOC SUGAR CO., INC. vs. TREASURER of ORMOC just & uniform taxes, licenses or fees.
• On the inconsistency between the two
provisions, the Court held in Nin Bay Mining Co
FACTS:
v Municipality of Roxas that Sec 2887 of RAC
has been repealed by Sec 2 of RA 2264
• The Municipal Board of Ormoc City passed • Court therein expressed awareness of the
Ordinance No. 4 imposing “on any and all transcendental effects that municipal
productions of centrifugal sugar milled at the export/import taxes or licenses will have on the
Ormoc Sugar Co., Inc., in Ormoc City a national economy and stated that there was no
municipal tax equivalent to 1% per export sale other alternative ‘til Congress acts to provide
to USA and other foreign countries.” (Section 1) remedial measures to forestall any unfavorable
• Payments for said tax were made, under protest, results.
by Ormoc Sugar Co, Inc (OSCI) totaling
P12,087.50. 2. YES
• OSCI filed a complaint in the CFI of Leyte • Felwa v Salas: The equal protection clause
alleging:
applies only to persons or things identically
1. the ordinance is unconstitutional for being
situated and does not bar a reasonable
violative of the equal protection clause and
classification of the subject of legislation.
the rule of uniformity of taxation
2. it is an export tax forbidden under Sec. 2887 • A classification is reasonable where (1) it is
of the Revised Administrative Code (RAC) based on substantial distinctions which make
3. the tax is neither a production nor a license real differences (2) it is germane to the purpose
tax which Ormoc City is authorized to of the law (3) it applies not only to present
impose under Sec. 15-kk of its charter and conditions but also to future conditions which are
under Sec 2 of RA 2264 (Local Autonomy substantially identical to those of the present (4) it
Act) applies only to those who belong to the same
4. the tax amounts to a customs duty, fee or class
charge in violation of par. 1 of Sec 2 of RA • The questioned ordinance does not meet them,
2264 because the tax is on both the sale and for it taxes only centrifugal sugar produced
export of sugar. and exported by the OSCI and none other.
• CFI upheld the constitutionality of the ordinance • While it its true that at the time of the
and declared the taxing power of defendant ordinance’s enactment the OSCI was the only
chartered city broadened by the Local Autonomy sugar central in Ormoc City, still, the
Act to include all other forms of taxes, licenses classification, to be reasonable, should be in
or fees not excluded in its charter. Thus, this terms applicable to future conditions as well.
appeal.
• The taxing ordinance should not be singular and
exclusive as to exclude any subsequently
ISSUES:
established sugar central, of the same class as
plaintiff, for the coverage of the tax. As it is now,
1. WON defendant Municipal Board has authority
even if later a similar company is set up, it can’t
to levy such an export tax
be subject to the tax because the ordinance
2. WON constitutional limits on the power of
expressly points only to OSCI as the entity to be
taxation, specifically the equal protection clause
levied upon.
and rule of uniformity of taxation were infringed
• OSCI, however, is not entitled to interest on the
RATIO: refund because the taxes were not arbitrarily
collected. At the time of collection, the ordinance
1. YES provided a sufficient basis to preclude
arbitrariness, the same being then presumed
• OSCI questions the authority of the Mun. Board constitutional until declared otherwise.
to levy such an export tax in view of Sec 2887
of the RAC which states: “It shall not be in the HELD:
power of the municipal council to impose a tax
in any form whatever, upon goods & CFI decision REVERSED. Ordinance declared
merchandise carried into the municipality, or UNCONSTITUTIONAL. Defendants ordered to refund the
out of the same, and any attempt to impose an P12,087.50 paid.
import/export tax upon such goods in the guise
of an unreasonable charge for wharfage, use of
bridges or otherwise, shall be void.”
• Subsequently however, Sec 2 of RA 2264 gave
chartered cities, municipalities & municipal
consti 2 all stars 1

grievance. There is no personal or substantial

interest. Provisions can’t be assailed by
DUMLAO vs. COMELEC
taxpayers bec they do not involve expenditure of
public moneys. Petitioners do not seek to
restrain respondent from wasting public funds.
FACTS: Court has discretion as to WON a taxpayer’s suit
• Petitioners are Dumalao (as a candidate), Igot should be entertained
and Salapantan (as taxpayers) 3. Unavoidability of constitutional questions- the
• Dumlao questions constitutionality of BP blg 52 issue of constitutionality must be the very lis
mota presented. Petitioners are actually without
alleging it is discriminatory and contrary to
cause of action.
equal protection and due process insofar as Sec
4 provides for a special disqualification (“any • In the case of a 65-year old elective local official,
retired elective provincial, city, or municipal who has retired from a provincial, city, or
official who has received payment of retirement municipal office, there is reason to disqualify
benefits to which he is entitled under the law him from running for the same office from which
and who shall have been 65 years of age at the he had retired. He ha already declared himself
commencement of the term of office to which he tired and unavailable for the same govt work.
seeks to be elected, shall not be qualified to run Equal protection clause does not forbid all legal
for the same elective local office from which he classification. What is proscribed is a
has retired”) classification which is arbitrary and
• Igot and Salapantan on the other hand assail unreasonable.
the validity of second paragraph of sec 4 • Absent herein is a showing of the clear invalidity
providing for disqualifications of certain of the questioned provision. There must be a
candidates who have cases against them which clear unequivocal breach of the constitution.
are filed but have not yet been decided (“a Unless the conflict with the constitution is clear
judgment of conviction for any of the beyond reasonable doubt, it is within the
aforementioned crimes shall be conclusive competence of he legislature to prescribe
evidence of such fact”) qualifications
• HOWEVER!!! Accdg to Igot and Salapantan,
Held: (yup, held agad. Walang issues!!! Kidding! Non second par of sec 4 “a judgment of conviction for
justiciable kasi siya in a way except sa isa… yun huli) any of the aforementioned crimes shall be
• This case is unacceptable for judicial resolution conclusive evidence of such fact” contravenes
• For one, there is a misjoinder of parties (dumlao the constitutional presumption of innocence.
not related to the latter 2) The court agrees with them.
• Next, there standards to be followed in the • WHEREFORE, 1st par of sec 4 BP blg52= valid,
exercise of function: the portion of the 2nd par of sec 4 providing that
o Existence of appropriate case “the filing of charges for the commission of such
o Personal and substantial interest in crimes before a civil court or military tribunal
raising the constitutional question after preliminary investigation shall be prima
o Plea that the function be exercised at facie evidence of such fact”=null and void
the earliest opportunity (this has been
met by petitioners)
o Necessity that the constitutional
question be passed upon to decide the PEOPLE vs. CAYAT
case
• Explained further…
1. Actual Case and Controversy- judicial review is FACTS:
limited to the determination of actual cases and
controversies. Dumlao has not been adversely Being a member of a non-Christian tribe, the accused,
affected by the application of the assailed Cayat, acquired and had under his possession a bottle of
provisions. There is no petition seeking for his A-1-1 gin, a liquor other than the native wines of his
disqualification (so WTF is his problem?). He’s tribe. This was in violation of Act. No. 1639 (sec 2 and 3).
raising a hypothetical issue and his case is While he admitted to the facts, the pleaded not guilty. He
within the jurisdiction of respondent COMELEC. was found guilty and fined to Php50.
2. Proper Party- person who impugns the validity of
a statute must have a personal and substantial Sec. 2 makes it unlawful for any Philippine non-
interest in the case such that he has sustained, Christian native to buy or possess any alcoholic beverage
or will sustain, direct injury as a result of its or liquor other than the “so-called” native wines and
enforcement. Neither Igot nor Salapantan has liquors that they have been made accustomed to. It is
been alleged to have been adversely affected by then the duty of the police or any authorized agent to
the operation of the statutory provisions they seize and destroy the liquor.
assail as unconstitutional. Theirs is a general

Sec. 3 fines a violator of not more than Php200 or

imprisoning them of as term not exceeding 6 months. Also noted by the court is that due process does not
always accord notice and hearing. Property may be
Cayat now challenges the constitutionality of the Act for seized by the government in 3 circumstances:
being:
1) in payment of taxes
1) discriminatory and denies equal protection of 2) when used in violation of law
the laws 3) when property causes a corpus delicti
2) violative of due process
3) an improper exercise of police power In this case, the third circumstance is present.
ISSUE 4) In discussing police power, the court states

that the Act serves a purpose, that of peace
1) Whether or not Act. No. 1639 satisfies the and order. In discussing whether the means
requirements of proper classification are reasonable, the courts merely stated that
2) Whether or not Act. No. 1639 is violative of the this is in the realm of the legislative.
due process clause
3) Whether or not it is an improper exercise of
police power ICHONG vs. HERNANDEZ
HELD
FACTS:
1) Yes it does.
2) No it is not. 1. The Legislature passed R.A. 1180 (An Act to
3) No it is not. Regulate the Retail Business). Its purpose was to
prevent persons who are not citizens of the Phil.
RATIO from having a stranglehold upon the people’s
economic life.
1) So as to qualify under the equal protection of laws,
the law in question must satisfy the requirements of • a prohibition against aliens and against
proper classification. These are: associations, partnerships, or
corporations the capital of which are not
1) must rest on substantial distinctions wholly owned by Filipinos, from
2) must be germane to the purposes of the law engaging directly or indirectly in the
3) must not be limited to existing conditions only retail trade
4) must apply equally to all members of the same
class • aliens actually engaged in the retail
According to the court, the classification is real and business on May 15, 1954 are allowed
substantial, as the term “non-Christian tribes” refers, to continue their business, unless their
not to religious belief, but to geography and to the level licenses are forfeited in accordance with
of civilization (remember Rubi v. Provincial Board of law, until their death or voluntary
Mindoro). retirement. In case of juridical persons,
ten years after the approval of the Act or
Secondly, it has a clear purpose. The prohibition of until the expiration of term.
possessing alcoholic beverages other than local wines is
designed to insure peace and order in the tribes, as free • Citizens and juridical entities of the
use of those prohibited beverages often led to
United States were exempted form this
lawlessness and crimes.
Act.
Thirdly, it is not limited as it is intended to apply for all
• provision for the forfeiture of licenses to
times as long as those conditions exist. This is due to the
engage in the retail business for
fact that the process of civilization is a slow process.
violation of the laws on nationalization,
economic control weights and measures
Lastly, it applies equally to all members of the class.
and labor and other laws relating to
trade, commerce and industry.
2) Due process means:
1) there shall be a law prescribed in harmony with • provision against the establishment or
the general powers of the legislative department opening by aliens actually engaged in
2) it shall be reasonable in its operation the retail business of additional stores
3) it shall be enforced according to the regular or branches of retail business
methods of procedure
4) it shall be applicable alike to all citizens of the
state or a class
2. Lao Ichong, in his own behalf and behalf of other State, and the State cannot rely on him/her
alien residents, corporations and partnerships in times of crisis or emergency.
affected by the Act, filed an action to declare it
unconstitutional for the ff: reasons: 6. While the citizen holds his life, his person
and his property subject to the needs of the
• it denies to alien residents the equal country, the alien may become the potential
protection of the laws and deprives enemy of the State.
them of their liberty and property
without due process 7. The alien retailer has shown such utter
• the subject of the Act is not expressed in disregard for his customers and the people
the title on whom he makes his profit. Through the
• the Act violates international and treaty illegitimate use of pernicious designs and
obligations practices, the alien now enjoys a
• the provisions of the Act against the monopolistic control on the nation’s
economy endangering the national security
transmission by aliens of their retail
in times of crisis and emergency.
business thru hereditary succession
IMPT. ISSUE:
WON the Act deprives the aliens of the equal KOREMATSU vs. U.S.
protection of the laws.
HELD:
December 18, 1944
The law is a valid exercise of police MR. JUSTICE BLACK delivered the opinion of theCourt.
power and it does not deny the aliens the equal
protection of the laws. There are real and actual, FACTS
positive and fundamental differences between an
alien and a citizen, which fully justify the The petitioner, an American citizen of Japanese descent,
legislative classification adopted. was convicted in a federal district court for remaining in
San Leandro, California, a "Military Area," contrary to
Civilian Exclusion Order No. 34 of the Commanding
RATIO: General of the Western Command, U.S. Army, which
directed that after May 9, 1942, all persons of Japanese
1. The equal protection clause does not ancestry should be excluded from that area. No question
demand absolute equality among residents. was raised as to petitioner's loyalty to the United States.
It merely requires that all persons shall be The Circuit Court of Appeals affirmed, and the
treated alike, under like circumstances and importance of the constitutional question involved
conditions both as to privileges conferred caused the court to grant certiorari.
and liabilities enforced.
Prosecution of the petitioner begun by information
2. The classification is actual, real and charging violation of an Act of Congress, of March 21,
reasonable, and all persons of one class are 1942, , which provides that
treated alike. ". . . whoever shall enter, remain in, leave, or commit any
act in any military area or military zone prescribed, under
3. The difference in status between citizens the authority of an Executive order of the President, by the
and aliens constitutes a basis for reasonable Secretary of War, or by any military commander
classification in the exercise of police power. designated by the Secretary of War, contrary to the
restrictions applicable to any such area or zone or contrary
4. Official statistics point out to the ever- to the order of the Secretary of War or any such military
increasing dominance and control by alien of commander, shall, if it appears that he knew or should
the retail trade. It is this domination and have known of the existence and extent of the restrictions
control that is the legislature’s target in the or order and that his act was in violation thereof, be guilty
enactment of the Act. of a misdemeanor and upon conviction shall be liable to a
fine of not to exceed $ 5,000 or to imprisonment for not
5. The mere fact of alienage is the root cause of more than one year, or both, for each offense."
the distinction between the alien and the
national as a trader. The alien is naturally Exclusion Order No. 34, which the petitioner violated,
lacking in that spirit of loyalty and was one of a number of military orders and
enthusiasm for the Phil. where he proclamations, all of which were substantially based
temporarily stays and makes his living. The upon Executive Order No. 9066. That order, issued after
alien owes no allegiance or loyalty to the we were at war with Japan, declared that "the successful
prosecution of the war requires every possible protection

against espionage and against sabotage to national- Petitioner urges that when Order No. 34 was
defense material, national-defense premises, and promulgated, all danger of Japanese invasion of the West
national-defense utilities. . . ." Coast had disappeared. The court rejects the argument.
ISSUE Here, as in the Hirabayashi case, the court cannot

reject as unfounded the judgment of the military
WON the President and Congress went beyond their war authorities and of Congress that there were disloyal
powers by implementing exclusion and restricting the members of that population, whose number and
rights of Americans of Japanese descent strength could not be precisely and quickly
ascertained. We cannot say that the war-making
HOLDING branches of the Government did not have ground for
believing that in a critical hour such persons could
No, ruling affirmed. The Court sided with the not readily be isolated and separately dealt with, and
government and held that the need to protect against constituted a menace to the national defense and
espionage outweighed Korematsu's rights. Compulsory safety, which demanded that prompt and adequate
exclusion, though constitutionally suspect, is justified in measures be taken to guard against it."
circumstances of "emergency and peril."
Like curfew, exclusion of those of Japanese origin was
RATIO deemed necessary because of the presence of an
unascertained number of disloyal members of the
Validity of Law group, most of whom we have no doubt were loyal to
this country. It was because we could not reject the
In Hirabayashi v. United States, 320 U.S. 81, we finding of the military authorities that it was impossible
sustained a conviction obtained for violation of the to bring about an immediate segregation of the disloyal
curfew order. The Hirabayashi conviction and this one from the loyal that we sustained the validity of the
thus rest on the same 1942 Congressional Act and the curfew order as applying to the whole group. In the
same basic executive and military orders, all of which instant case, temporary exclusion of the entire group
orders were aimed at the twin dangers of espionage and was rested by the military on the same ground. The
sabotage. judgment that exclusion of the whole group was for
the same reason a military imperative answers the
The 1942 Act was attacked in the Hirabayashi case as contention that the exclusion was in the nature of
an unconstitutional delegation of power; it was group punishment based on antagonism to those of
contended that the curfew order and other orders on Japanese origin. That there were members of the group
which it rested were beyond the war powers of the who retained loyalties to Japan has been confirmed by
Congress, the military authorities and of the President, investigations made subsequent to the exclusion.
as Commander in Chief of the Army; and finally that to Approximately five thousand American citizens of
apply the curfew order against none but citizens of Japanese ancestry refused to swear unqualified
Japanese ancestry amounted to a constitutionally allegiance to the United States and to renounce
prohibited discrimination solely on account of race. To allegiance to the Japanese Emperor, and several
these questions, we gave the serious consideration thousand evacuees requested repatriation to Japan.
which their importance justified. We upheld the
curfew order as an exercise of the power of the “Conflict of Order” contention
government to take steps necessary to prevent
espionage and sabotage in an area threatened by It is argued that on May 30, 1942, the date the petitioner
Japanese attack. was charged with remaining in the prohibited area, there
were conflicting orders outstanding, forbidding him both
In the light of the principles we announced in the to leave the area and to remain there.
Hirabayashi case, we are unable to conclude that it
was beyond the war power of Congress and the The only order in effect touching the petitioner's being in
Executive to exclude those of Japanese ancestry the area on May 30, 1942, the date specified in the
from the West Coast war area at the time they did. information against him, was the May 3 order which
True, exclusion from the area in which one's home is prohibited his remaining there, and it was that same
located is a far greater deprivation than constant order, which he stipulated in his trial that he had
confinement to the home from 8 p.m. to 6 a.m. Nothing violated, knowing of its existence. There is therefore no
short of apprehension by the proper military authorities basis for the argument that on May 30, 1942, he was
of the gravest imminent danger to the public safety can subject to punishment, under the March 27 and May 3
constitutionally justify either. But exclusion from a orders, whether he remained in or left the area.
threatened area, no less than curfew, has a definite
and close relationship to the prevention of espionage “Inseparability of orders” contention
and sabotage. The military authorities, charged with
the primary responsibility of defending our shores, It is argued that the validity of the exclusion order
concluded that curfew provided inadequate cannot be considered apart from the orders requiring
protection and ordered exclusion. him, to report and to remain in an assembly or
relocation center. The contention is that we must treat
these separate orders as one and inseparable; if the calm perspective of hindsight -- now say that at
detention in the assembly or relocation center would that time these actions were unjustified.
have illegally deprived the petitioner of his liberty, the
exclusion order and his conviction under it cannot
stand.
PLESSY vs. FERGUSON
Had petitioner here left the prohibited area and gone to
an assembly center the court cannot say either as a BROWN, J.
matter of fact or law that his presence in that center
would have resulted in his detention in a relocation FACTS:
center. This is made clear when we analyze the
requirements of the separate provisions of the separate This case centers on the constitutionality of an act of the
orders. These separate requirements were that those of general assembly of the state of Louisiana, passed in
Japanese ancestry (1) depart from the area; (2) report to 1890, providing for separate railway carriages for the
and temporarily remain in an assembly center; (3) go white and colored races. The petitioner was a citizen of
under military control to a relocation center there to the United States and a resident of the State of
remain for an indeterminate period until released Louisiana, of mixed descent (7/8 Caucasian, 1/8
conditionally or unconditionally by the military African). On June 7, 1892 he paid for a first class ticket
authorities. Each of these requirements, it will be noted, on the East Louisiana Railway from New Orleans to
imposed distinct duties in connection with the separate Covington. Upon entering the passenger train he sat in a
steps in a complete evacuation program. vacant seat reserved for white passengers. Despite this,
the petitioner was required by the conductor to transfer
Since the petitioner has not been convicted of failing to the seats assigned to colored passengers. When the
to report or to remain in an assembly or relocation petitioner refused he was forcibly ejected from the said
center, we cannot in this case determine the validity coach and was charged with violating the assailed
of those separate provisions of the order. It is Louisiana statute.
sufficient here for us to pass upon the order which The constitutionality of this act is attacked upon the
petitioner violated. ground that it conflicts both with the 13th Amendment
of the Constitution, abolishing slavery, and the 14th
The power to exclude includes the power to do it by Amendment, which prohibits certain restrictive
force if necessary. And any forcible measure must legislation on the part of the states.
necessarily entail some degree of detention or
restraint whatever method of removal is selected. ISSUES/HELD:
But whichever view is taken, it results in holding
that the order under which petitioner was convicted
was valid.
1. W/O Not the statute is unconstitutional for being in
conflict with the 13th Amendment, abolishing slavery?
Conclusion
NO
It is said that we are dealing here with the case of
2. W/O Not the statute is unconstitutional for being in
imprisonment of a citizen in a concentration camp
conflict with the 14th Amendment, which prohibits
solely because of his ancestry, without evidence or
certain restrictive legislation in part of the States? NO
inquiry concerning his loyalty and good disposition
towards the United States. Regardless of the true
RATIO:
nature of the assembly and relocation centers , we
are dealing specifically with nothing but an exclusion
order. To cast this case into outlines of racial
prejudice, without reference to the real military 1. A statute which implies merely a legal distinction
dangers which were presented, merely confuses the between the white and colored races, has no
issue. tendency to destroy the legal equality of the two
races, or re-establish a state of involuntary
Korematsu was not excluded from the Military Area servitude. The object of the amendment was
because of hostility to him or his race. He was undoubtedly to enforce the absolute equality of the
excluded because we are at war with the Japanese two races before the law, but in the nature of things
Empire, because the properly constituted military it could not have been intended to abolish
authorities feared an invasion of our West Coast and distinctions based upon color, or to enforce social,
felt constrained to take proper security measures, as distinguished from political, equality, or a
because they decided that the military urgency of commingling of the two races upon terms
the situation demanded that all citizens of Japanese unsatisfactory to either. Laws permitting, and even
ancestry be segregated from the West Coast requiring their separation in places where they are
temporarily, and finally, because Congress, reposing liable to be brought into contact do not necessarily
its confidence in this time of war in our military imply the inferiority of either race to the other, and
leaders determined that they should have the power have been generally, if not universally, recognized as
to do just this. We cannot -- by availing ourselves of within the competency of the state legislatures in the
exercise of their police power. It is claimed by the and to place in a condition of legal inferiority a large
plaintiff in error that, in any mixed community, the body of American citizens, now constituting a part of the
reputation of belonging to the dominant race, in this political community, called the people of the United
instance the white race is property, in the same States, for whom and by whom, through representatives,
sense that a right of action, or of inheritance, is our government is administered. Such a system is
property. Conceding this to be so for the purposes of inconsistent with the guarantee given by the
this case, we are unable to see how this statute Constitution of each state of a republican form of
deprives him of, or in any way affects his right to, government, and may be stricken down by Congressional
such property. If he be a white man and assigned to action, or by the courts in the discharge of their solemn
a colored coach, he may have his action for damages duty to maintain the supreme law of the land, anything
against the company for being deprived of his so- in the constitution or laws of any state to the contrary
called property. Upon the other hand, if he be a notwithstanding.
colored man and be, so assigned, he has been
deprived of no property, since he is not lawfully
entitled to the reputation of being a white man..
2. So far, then. as a conflict with the 14 th Amendment

is concerned, the case reduces itself to the
question whether the statute of Louisiana is a UNIVERSITY of CALIFORNIA vs. BAKKE
reasonable regulation, and with respect to this
there must necessarily be a large discretion on the
part of the legislature. In determining the question (June 28, 1978)
of reasonableness it is at liberty to act with Ponente: J. Powell
reference to the established usages, customs, and
traditions of the people, and with a view to the FACTS:
promotion of their comfort, and the preservation of
the public peace and good order. Gauged by this The Medical School of the Univ of California had 2
standard, we cannot say that a law which admissions programs for an entering class of 100
authorizes or even requires the separation of the students. Under the regular admissions program,
two races in public conveyances is unreasonable candidates who had an undergrad GPA below 2.5 (on a
or more obnoxious to the 14th Amendment than scale of 4.0) were summarily rejected. Applicants who
the acts of Congress requiring separate schools for pass this requirement undergo an interview (rated on a
colored children in the District of Columbia, the scale of 1 to 100 per interviewer), which composed their
constitutionality of which does not seem to have respective “benchmark scores” based on the interviewers’
been questioned, or the corresponding acts of state summaries, overall GPA, science courses GPA, Medical
legislatures. College Admission Test (MCAT), letters of
If the two races are to meet on terms of social recommendation, extracurricular activities and other
equality wit must be the result of natural affinities, biographical data.
a mutual appreciation of each other's merits and a
voluntary consent of individuals. Legislation is A separate committee, a majority of whom were members
powerless to eradicate racial instincts or to abolish of minority groups, composed the special admissions
distinctions based upon physical differences, and program. Under it, applicants were asked to indicate in
the attempt to do so can only result in their application forms if they wished to be considered as
accentuating the difficulties of the present “economically and/or educationally disadvantaged”
situation. If one race be inferior to the other applicants/members of a minority group (blacks,
socially, the Constitution of the United States Chicanos, Asians, American Indians). If an applicant was
cannot put them upon the same plane. found to be “disadvantaged,” he would be rated in the
same manner as the one employed by the general
admissions committee. However, they did not have to
DISSENT: meet the 2.5 grade point cutoff and were not ranked
Justice HARLAN against candidates in the general admissions process.
No disadvantaged whites were admitted under the
I am of opinion that the statute of Louisiana is special program, though many applied.
inconsistent with the personal liberty of citizens, white
and black, in that state, and hostile to both the spirit Respondent, a white male, applied in 1973 and 1974, in
and letter of the Constitution of the United States. If both years being considered only under the general
laws of like character should be enacted in the several admissions program. Though he had a 468 out of 500
states of the Union, the effect would be in the highest score in 1973, he was rejected since no late general
degree mischievous. Slavery as an institution tolerated applicants with scores less than 470 were being
by law would, it is true, have disappeared from our accepted. At the time, 4 special admission slots were still
country, but there would remain a power in the states, unfilled. In 1974 respondent applied early, and though
by sinister legislation, to interfere with the full he had a score of 549 out of 600, he was again rejected.
enjoyment of the blessings of freedom; to regulate civil
rights, common to all citizens, upon the basis of race;
In both years, special applicants were admitted with that white people take for granted.” In view of the clear
significantly lower scores than respondent’s. legislative intent, Title VI must be held to proscribe only
After his 2nd rejection, respondent filed this action for those racial classifications that would violate the Equal
mandatory, injunctive, and declaratory relief to compel Protection Clause or the 5th Amendment.
his admission, alleging that the special admissions
program operated to exclude him on the basis of his 2.
race in violation of the Equal Protection Clause of the Application of Judicial Scrutiny
14th Amendment, a provision of the California Consti, Parties disagree as to the level of judicial scrutiny to be
and 601 of Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. applied to the special admissions program; but it is
undisputed that it makes a classification based on race
The trial court found that the special program operated and ethnic background. Nevertheless, petitioner argues
as a racial quota because minority applicants in that that the court below erred in applying strict scrutiny to
program were rated only against one another, and 16 the program bec white males, such as respondent, are
places out 100 were reserved for them. Declaring that not a “discrete and insular minority” requiring
petitioner could not take race into account in making extraordinary protection from the majoritarian political
admissions decisions, the program was held to violate process. This rationale, however, has not been invoked
the Federal and State Constis and Title VI. Respondent’s in decisions as a prerequisite to subjecting racial
admission was not ordered, however, for lack of proof distinctions to strict scrutiny. Nor has this Court held
that he would have been admitted but for the special that discreteness and insularity constitute necessary
program. preconditions to a holding that a particular classification
is invidious. They are subject to stringent examination
The California SC, applying a strict-scrutiny standard, regardless of these characteristics.
concluded that the special admission program was not
the least intrusive means of achieving the goals of the 14th Amendment: Equal Protection Clause
admittedly compelling interests of integrating the • Yick Wo v Hopkins: “The guarantees of equal
medical profession and increasing the number of doctors protection are universal in their application to all
willing to serve minority patients. Petitioner’s special persons within the territorial jurisdiction, without
admissions program was held to violate the Equal regard to any differences of race, of color, or of
Protection Clause. Since petitioner could not satisfy its nationality; and the equal protection of the laws is a
burden of demonstrating that respondent, absent the pledge of the protection of equal laws.”
special program, would not have been admitted, the
court ordered respondent’s admission.
• Although the framers conceived of its primary
function as bridging the vast distance bet members
of the Negro race and the white “majority,” the
ISSUES  HELD:
Amendment itself was framed in universal terms,
without reference to color, ethnic origin, or condition
1. WON a right of action for private parties exists under prior to servitude. There is no principled basis for
Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964  YES deciding which groups would merit “heightened
2. WON the special admissions program is necessary judicial solicitude” and which would not. Nothing in
and appropriate in realizing petitioner’s goal of the Consti supports the notion that individuals may
diversifying its student body  NO be asked to suffer otherwise impermissible burdens
in order to enhance the societal standing of their
3. WON petitioner could satisfy its burden of proving
ethnic groups.
that respondent would not have been admitted even
if there had been no special admissions program  Purposes and Means
NO PURPOSE:
1. Reducing the historic deficit of traditionally
RATIO: disfavored minorities in medical schools and in the
profession
1. 601 of Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964: 2. Countering the effects of societal discrimination
“No person in the US shall, on the ground of race, 3. Increasing the number of physicians who will
color, or national origin, be excluded from practice in communities currently underserved
participation in, be denied the benefits of, or be 4. Obtaining the educational benefits that flow from an
subjected to discrimination under any program or ethnically diverse student body
activity receiving Federal financial assistance.” MEANS: special admissions program
The problem confronting Congress was discrimination Court, holding that the means is not essential in
against Negro citizens at the hands of recipients of realizing the purposes:
federal moneys. Proponents of the bill detailed the plight 1. Preferring members of any one group for no reason
of Negroes seeking equal treatment in federally funded other than race or ethnic origin is discrimination for
programs. The purpose of Title VI was “to insure that its own sake.
Federal funds are spent in accordance with the Consti 2. The State certainly has a legitimate and substantial
and the moral sense of the Nation” and “to give fellow interest in ameliorating or eliminating where
citizens – Negroes – the same rights and opportunities feasible, the disabling effects of identified
discrimination. However, the Court has never all pertinent elements of diversity (i.e. exceptional
approved a classification that aids persons perceived personal talents, unique work or service experience,
as members of relatively victimized groups at the leadership potential, maturity, demonstrated
expense of other innocent individuals in the absence compassion, ability to communicate with the poor, etc)
of judicial, legislative, or administrative findings of in light of the particular qualifications of each applicant,
constitutional or statutory violations. Without such and place them in the same footing for consideration,
findings, it cannot be said that the gov’t has any although not necessarily according them the same
greater interest in helping 1 individual than in weight. This kind of program treats each applicant as an
refraining from harming another. individual in the admissions process.
3. There is no evidence on record indicating that
petitioner’s special admissions program is either In sum, the petitioner’s special admissions program
needed or geared to promote such goal. There are involves the use of an explicit racial classification never
more precise and reliable ways to identify applicants before countenanced by this Court. The fatal flaw in
who are genuinely interested in the medical petitioner’s preferential program is its disregard of
problems of minorities than by race. There is no individual rights as guaranteed by the 14th Amendment.
empirical data to demonstrate that any one race is Such rights are not absolute; but when a State’s
more selflessly socially oriented or by contrast that distribution of benefits or imposition of burdens hinges
another is more selfishly acquisitive. on ancestry or the color of one’s skin, that individual is
4. Academic freedom has long been viewed as a special entitled to a demonstration that the challenged
concern of the 1st Amendment. The freedom of a classification is necessary to promote a substantial state
university to make its own judgments as to interest. Petitioner has failed to carry this burden;
education includes the selection of its student body. hence, its special admissions program is constitutionally
Four essential freedoms: (1) who may teach, (2) what deemed invalid. However, the State has a substantial
may be taught, (3) how it shall be taught, and (4) interest that legitimately may be served by a properly
who may be admitted. It is true that the contribution devised admissions program involving the consideration
of diversity is substantial, with the Court making a of race and ethnic origin. Thus, California SC’s judgment
specific reference to legal education: enjoining petitioner from taking race into account is
“The law school, the proving ground for legal reversed.
learning and practice, cannot be effective in
isolation from the individuals and institutions 3. Petitioner has conceded that it could not carry its
with which the law interacts. Few students and burden of proving that, but for the existence of its
no one who has practiced law would choose to unlawful special admissions program, respondent
study in an academic vacuum, removed from the still would not have been admitted. Hence, he is
interplay of ideas and the exchange of views with entitled to injunction and should be admitted there.
which the law is concerned.”
HOWEVER, ethnic diversity is only one element JJ. Brennan, White, Marshall, and Blackmun;
in a range of factors a university properly may concurring and dissenting.
consider in attaining the goal of a heterogeneous Gov’t may take race into account when it acts not to
student body. Although a university must have demean or insult any racial group, but to remedy
wide discretion in making the sensitive disadvantages cast on minorities by past racial
judgments as to who should be admitted, prejudice, at least when appropriate findings have been
constitutional limitations protecting individuals made by judicial, legislative, or administrative bodies
may not be disregarded. with competence to act in this area.
Racial classification = Diversity?

It is not an interest in simple ethnic diversity, in which a
specified percentage of the student body is in effect GRATZ vs. BOLLINGER/ GRUTTER vs. BOLLINGER
guaranteed to be members of selected groups, with the
remaining percentage an undifferentiated aggregation of Grutter v Bollinger, 02-241 (June 2003)
students. The diversity that furthers a compelling
state interest encompasses a far broader array of O'Connor, J.
qualifications and characteristics of which racial or NATURE: certiorari to the US CA
ethnic origin is but a single though important
element. Petitioner’s special program, focused solely on FACTS: The University of Michigan Law School (Law
ethnic diversity, would hinder rather than further School), one of the Nation's top law schools, follows an
attainment of genuine diversity. The assignment of a official admissions policy that seeks to achieve student
fixed number of places to a minority group is not a body diversity through compliance with Regents of Univ.
necessary means towards that end. Race or ethnic of Cal. v. Bakke. Focusing on students' academic ability
background may be deemed a “plus” in a particular coupled with a flexible assessment of their talents,
applicant’s file, yet it does not insulate the individual experiences, and potential, the policy requires
from comparison with all the other candidates for the admissions officials to evaluate each applicant based on
available seats. An admissions program should operate all the information available in the file, including a
in such a way that would be flexible enough to consider personal statement, letters of recommendation, an essay

describing how the applicant will contribute to Law percentage, or range of numbers or percentages that
School life and diversity, and the applicant's constitute critical mass.
undergraduate grade point average (GPA) and Law - the policy did not purport to remedy past
School Admissions Test (LSAT) score. Additionally, discrimination, but rather to include students who may
officials must look beyond grades and scores to so-called bring to the Law School a perspective different from that
"soft variables," such as recommenders' enthusiasm, the of members of groups which have not been the victims of
quality of the undergraduate institution and the such discrimination
applicant's essay, and the areas and difficulty of - the Law School actually gives substantial weight to
undergraduate course selection. The policy does not diversity factors besides race
define diversity solely in terms of racial and ethnic - the university policy of promoting diversity constitutes
status and does not restrict the types of diversity a "compelling interest"
contributions eligible for "substantial weight," but it does
reaffirm the Law School's commitment to diversity with ISSUES:
special reference to the inclusion of African-American,
Hispanic, and Native-American students, who otherwise 1. Whether or not diversity is a compelling interest that
might not be represented in the student body in can justify the narrowly tailored use of race in selecting
meaningful numbers. By enrolling a "critical mass" of applicants for admission to public universities
underrepresented minority students, the policy seeks to
ensure their ability to contribute to the Law School's 2. Whether or not the narrowly-tailored use of race in
character and to the legal profession. admissions decisions to further a compelling interest in
When the Law School denied admission to petitioner obtaining the educational benefits of a diverse student
Grutter, a white Michigan resident with a 3.8 GPA and body is prohibited by the Equal Protection Clause (14th
161 LSAT score, she filed this suit, alleging that Amend)
respondents had discriminated against her on the basis
of race in violation of the 14th Amendment, Title VI of the HELD:
Civil Rights Act of 1964, and 42 U. S. C. §1981; that she
was rejected because the Law School uses race as a 1. YES. In the landmark Bakke case, this Court reviewed
"predominant" factor, giving applicants belonging to a medical school's racial set-aside program that reserved
certain minority groups a significantly greater chance of 16 out of 100 seats for members of certain minority
admission than students with similar credentials from groups. The decision produced six separate opinions,
disfavored racial groups; and that respondents had no none of which commanded a majority. Four Justices
compelling interest to justify that use of race. The would have upheld the program on the ground that the
District Court found the Law School's use of race as an government can use race to remedy disadvantages cast
admissions factor unlawful. The Sixth Circuit of the CA on minorities by past racial prejudice. Four other
reversed, holding that Justice Powell's opinion in Bakke Justices would have struck the program down on
was binding precedent establishing diversity as a statutory grounds. Justice Powell, announcing the
compelling state interest, and that the Law School's use Court's judgment, provided a fifth vote not only for
of race was narrowly tailored because race was merely a invalidating the program, but also for reversing the state
"potential 'plus' factor" and because the Law School's court's injunction against any use of race whatsoever. In
program was virtually identical to the Harvard a part of his opinion that was joined by no other Justice,
admissions program described approvingly by Justice Justice Powell expressed his view that attaining a diverse
Powell and appended to his Bakke opinion. student body was the only interest asserted by the
university that survived scrutiny. Grounding his
Pettioner (Barbara Grutter) : analysis in the academic freedom that "long has been
- respondents discriminated against her on the basis of viewed as a special concern of the First Amendment,
race in violation of the 14th Amendment; Title VI of the Justice Powell emphasized that the " 'nation's future
Civil Rights Act of 1964, 78 Stat. 252, 42 U. S. C. §2000d; depends upon leaders trained through wide exposure' to
and Rev. Stat. §1977, as amended, 42 U. S. C. §1981 the ideas and mores of students as diverse as this
- her application was rejected because the Law School Nation." However, he also emphasized that "it is not an
uses race as a "predominant" factor, giving applicants interest in simple ethnic diversity, in which a specified
who belong to certain minority groups "a significantly percentage of the student body is in effect guaranteed to
greater chance of admission than students with similar be members of selected ethnic groups," that can justify
credentials from disfavored racial groups." using race.Rather, "the diversity that furthers a
- respondents "had no compelling interest to justify their compelling state interest encompasses a far broader
use of race in the admissions process" array of qualifications and characteristics of which racial
Respondents (Lee Bollinger, former Law School dean, or ethnic origin is but a single though important
present UMich pres; jeffrey Lehman, Law School dean; element." Since Bakke, Justice Powell's opinion has
Denis Shield, Admissions Director): been the touchstone for constitutional analysis of race-
-there was no directive to admit a fixed/particular conscious admissions policies. Public and private
percentage or number of minority students, but rather to universities across the Nation have modeled their own
consider an applicant's race along with all other factors admissions programs on Justice Powell's views. Courts,
- 'critical mass' " means " 'meaningful numbers' " or " however, have struggled to discern whether Justice
'meaningful representation,'; there is no number, Powell's diversity rationale is binding precedent. The

Court finds it unnecessary to decide this issue because "insulat[e] each category of applicants with certain
the Court endorses Justice Powell's view that student desired qualifications from competition with all other
body diversity is a compelling state interest in the applicants." Bakke. Instead, it may consider race or
context of university admissions. ethnicity only as a " 'plus' in a particular applicant's file";
i.e., it must be "flexible enough to consider all pertinent
2. NO. The Law School's narrowly tailored use of race in elements of diversity in light of the particular
admissions decisions to further a compelling interest in qualifications of each applicant, and to place them on
obtaining the educational benefits that flow from a the same footing for consideration, although not
diverse student body is not prohibited by the Equal necessarily according them the same weight." It follows
Protection Clause, Title VI, or §1981 that universities cannot establish quotas for members of
a. All government racial classifications must be certain racial or ethnic groups or put them on separate
analyzed by a reviewing court under strict scrutiny. admissions tracks. The Law School's admissions
Adarand Constructors, Inc. v. Peña. But not all such uses program, like the Harvard plan approved by Justice
are invalidated by strict scrutiny. Race-based action Powell, satisfies these requirements. Moreover, the
necessary to further a compelling governmental interest program is flexible enough to ensure that each applicant
does not violate the Equal Protection Clause so long as it is evaluated as an individual and not in a way that
is narrowly tailored to further that interest. Shaw v. makes race or ethnicity the defining feature of the
Hunt. Context matters when reviewing such action. application. The Law School engages in a highly
Gomillion v. Lightfoot. Not every decision influenced by individualized, holistic review of each applicant's file,
race is equally objectionable, and strict scrutiny is giving serious consideration to all the ways an applicant
designed to provide a framework for carefully examining might contribute to a diverse educational environment.
the importance and the sincerity of the government's There is no policy, either de jure or de facto, of automatic
reasons for using race in a particular context. acceptance or rejection based on any single "soft"
b. The Court endorses Justice Powell's view that variable. Gratz v. Bollinger. Also, the program adequately
student body diversity is a compelling state interest that ensures that all factors that may contribute to diversity
can justify using race in university admissions. The are meaningfully considered alongside race. Moreover,
Court defers to the Law School's educational judgment the Law School frequently accepts nonminority
that diversity is essential to its educational mission. The applicants with grades and test scores lower than
Court's scrutiny of that interest is no less strict for underrepresented minority applicants (and other
taking into account complex educational judgments in nonminority applicants) who are rejected. The Court
an area that lies primarily within the university's rejects the argument that the Law School should have
expertise. Attaining a diverse student body is at the used other race-neutral means to obtain the educational
heart of the Law School's proper institutional mission, benefits of student body diversity, e.g., a lottery system
and its "good faith" is "presumed" absent "a showing to or decreasing the emphasis on GPA and LSAT scores.
the contrary." Enrolling a "critical mass" of minority Narrow tailoring does not require exhaustion of every
students simply to assure some specified percentage of a conceivable race-neutral alternative or mandate that a
particular group merely because of its race or ethnic university choose between maintaining a reputation for
origin would be patently unconstitutional. But the Law excellence or fulfilling a commitment to provide
School defines its critical mass concept by reference to educational opportunities to members of all racial
the substantial, important, and laudable educational groups. Wygant v. Jackson Bd. of Ed. The Court is
benefits that diversity is designed to produce, including satisfied that the Law School adequately considered the
cross-racial understanding and the breaking down of available alternatives. The Court is also satisfied that, in
racial stereotypes. The Law School's claim is further the context of individualized consideration of the
bolstered by numerous expert studies and reports possible diversity contributions of each applicant, the
showing that such diversity promotes learning outcomes Law School's race-conscious admissions program does
and better prepares students for an increasingly diverse not unduly harm nonminority applicants. Finally, race-
workforce, for society, and for the legal profession. Major conscious admissions policies must be limited in time.
American businesses have made clear that the skills The Court takes the Law School at its word that it would
needed in today's increasingly global marketplace can like nothing better than to find a race-neutral
only be developed through exposure to widely diverse admissions formula and will terminate its use of racial
people, cultures, ideas, and viewpoints. High-ranking preferences as soon as practicable. The Court expects
retired officers and civilian military leaders assert that a that 25 years from now, the use of racial preferences will
highly qualified, racially diverse officer corps is essential no longer be necessary to further the interest approved
to national security. Moreover, because universities, and today.
in particular, law schools, represent the training ground c. Because the Law School's use of race in
for a large number of the Nation's leaders, Sweatt v. admissions decisions is not prohibited by Equal
Painter, the path to leadership must be visibly open to Protection Clause, petitioner's statutory claims based on
talented and qualified individuals of every race and Title VI and §1981 also fail.
ethnicity. Thus, the Law School has a compelling
interest in attaining a diverse student body. US CA decision affirmed.
(d) The Law School's admissions program bears the
hallmarks of a narrowly tailored plan. To be narrowly
tailored, a race-conscious admissions program cannot

ISSUE:
WON a female, duly qualified in respect of age,
character, and learning, claim, under the fourteenth
amendment, the privilege of earning a livelihood by
practicing at the bar of a judicial court.
DECISION:
Yes, judgement reversed
BRADWELL vs. ILLINOIS
RATIO:
I. Constitutional amendment:
FACTS: Original: A citizen emigrating from one state to

another carried with him, not the privileges and
Mrs. Myra Bradwell, after obtaining the requisite immunities he enjoyed in his native state, but was
qualifications, applied the the judges of the Supreme entitles, in the state of his adoption, to such
Court of Illinois for a license to practice law. privileges and immunities as were enjoyed by the
class of citizens to which he belonged by the laws of
This was accompanied by an affidavit claiming that she such adopted state.
was born in Vermont and was formerly a citizen of that
state. However, she is now both a citizen of the United 14th Amendment: It executes itself in every state of
States and the state of Illinois after residing in Chicago the union. It contains a class of privileges that a
for many years. According to the Chicago statute, no state may not abridge.
individual is allowed to practice law without obtaining a
license from two justices of the state supreme court. Question: Does admission to the bar belong to that
class of privileges which a state may not abridge, or
The Supreme Court refused to issue Bradwell a license that class of political rights as to which a state may
for the reason that her marital status would prevent her discriminate between its citizens?
from being bound by her express or implied contracts
which the law upholds between attorney and client. - Court believes that the practice of law is a
privilege which belong to a citizen of the United
In providing its decision, the State Supreme Court relied States.
on an existing state statute prohibiting persons from
practicing law without a license obtained from two Cases:
Supreme Court justices. Furthermore, the issuance of a Cummings vs. Missouri: all men have certain
license requires a certificate of good moral character inalienable rights. In the pursuit of happiness all
provided by any county court. Other rules of admission avocations, all honors, all positions, are alike open to
are left to the discretion of the members of the Supreme every one, and that in the protection of these rights all
Court. are equal before the law
This discretion is subject to two limitations: Ex Parte Garland: Attorneys and counselors are officers
1) The terms of admission must promote the of the court and not of the United states. They are not
proper administration of justice appointed in the manner prescribed by the Constitution.
2) The court should not admit any persons or class Therefore, they must be admitted as such by its order,
of persons who are not intended by the upon evidence of their possessing sufficient legal
legislature to be admitted, even though their learning and fair private character.
exclusion is not expressly required by the
statute. Conclusion: The profession of the law, like the clerical
profession and that of medicine, is an advocation open to
The court concentrated on the second limitation, every citizen of the United States. The legislature may
contemplating that admitting women to engage in the prescribe qualifications but may not discriminate a class
practice of law would be exercising authority conferred to of citizens from admission to the bar.
them in a manner different from what the legislature
intended. It argued that at the time of the establishment II. Difficulty of clients in enforcing the
of this statute, the U.S. had adopted the Common Law contracts they might make with her because
system of England in which female attorneys were of her being a married woman and on the
unknown. God designed the sexes to occupy different ground of her sex.
spheres of action, and that it belonged to men to make,
apply, and execute the laws, was regarded as an almost - This kind of malpractice may be punishable by
axiomatic truth. fine, imprisonment, or expulsion from the bar.
Her clients would not be compelled to resort to
Mrs. Bradwell, brought this case to the Federal Supreme actions at law against her.
Court.
JUSTICE MILLER, DISSENTING: RATIO:
In regard to that amendment counsel for plaintiff claims (The Fourteenth Amendment did not tear history up by
contains privileges and immunities which belong to a the roots, and the regulation of the liquor traffic is one of
citizen of the U.S., the practice of law has never the oldest and most untrammeled of legislative powers.
depended on the concept of citizenship. The right to Michigan could, beyond question, forbid all women from
control and regulate the granting of license to practice working behind a bar. This is so despite the vast
law in the courts of a state is one of those powers which changes in the social and legal position of women. The
are not transferred for its protection to the Federal fact that women may now have achieved the virtues that
government. men have long claimed as their prerogatives and now
indulge in vices that men have long practiced, does not
Judgement affirmed. preclude the States from drawing a sharp line between
the sexes, certainly, in such matters as the regulation of
JUSTICE BRADLEY, DISSENTING: the liquor traffic.)
The claim that under the 14th amendment of the The Constitution does not require situations 'which are
constitution, which declares that no state shall make or different in fact or opinion to be treated in law as though
enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges and they were the same.' Since bartending by women may, in
immunities of citizens of the U.S. assumes that the the allowable legislative judgment, give rise to moral and
practice of law is one of the privileges and immunities of social problems against which it may devise preventive
women as citizens to engage in any and every profession. measures, the legislature need not go to the full length of
prohibition if it believes that as to a defined group of
Civil law has recognized wide differences in the spheres females other factors are operating which either
and destinies of man and woman. Man is woman’s eliminate or reduce the moral and social problems
protector and defender. Timidity and delicacy belong to otherwise calling for prohibition. Michigan evidently
the female. The founders of the common law believed believes that the oversight assured through ownership of
that a woman had no legal existence apart from her a bar by a barmaid's husband or father minimizes
husband. Their destiny is to become wives and mothers. hazards that may confront a barmaid without such
protecting oversight. This Court is certainly not in a
Judgement affirmed position to gainsay such belief by the Michigan
legislature. If it is entertainable, as we think it is,
Michigan has not violated its duty to afford equal
protection of its laws. We cannot cross-examine either
actually or argumentatively the mind of Michigan
legislators nor question their motives.
GOESART vs. CLEARY
Nor is it unconstitutional for Michigan to withdraw from
FACTS: women the occupation of bartending because it allows
women to serve as waitresses where liquor is dispensed.
As part of the Michigan system for controlling the sale of The District Court has sufficiently indicated the reasons
liquor, bartenders are required to be licensed in all that may have influenced the legislature in allowing
cities, but no female may be so licensed unless she be women to be waitresses in a liquor establishment over
“the wife or daughter of the male owner” of a licensed which a man's ownership provides control. Nothing need
liquor establishment. be added to what was said below as to the other grounds
on which the Michigan law was assailed.
The case is here on direct appeal from an order of the
District Court, denying an injunction to restrain the What if it’s a female owner? Gender classification. What
enforcement of the Michigan law. The claim is that is the basis of distinction?
Michigan cannot forbid females generally from being
barmaids and at the same time make an exception in Heigthened
favor of the wives and daughters of the owners of liquor Mr. Justice RUTLEDGE, with whom Mr. Justice
establishments. DOUGLAS and Mr. Justice MURPHY join, dissenting.
ISSUE: The statute arbitrarily discriminates between male and

female owners of liquor establishments. A male owner,
WON the Equal Protection of the Laws Clause of the although he himself is always absent from his bar, may
Fourteenth Amendment barred Michigan from making employ his wife and daughter as barmaids. A female
the classification the State has made between wives and owner may neither work as a barmaid hereself nor
daughters of owners of liquor places and wives and employ her daughter in that position, even if a man is
daughters of non-owners. always present in the establishment to keep order. This
inevitable result of the classification belies the
HELD: No. assumption that the statute was motivated by a
legislative solicitude for the moral and physicial well-

being of women who, but for the law, would be employed of benefits to appellees. Thus, the appellees were ruled
as barmaids. Since there could be no other conceivable ineligible for disability benefits and are now suing to
justification for such discrimination against women enjoin its enforcement and are challenging the
owners of liquor establishments, the statute should be constitutionality of such provision.
held invalid as a denial of equal protection.
Because of the Rentzer v Calif Unemployment
Insurance Appeals Board and the revised
administrative guidelines that resulted from it, three of
the appellees whose disabilities were attributable to
causes other than normal pregnancy and delivery,
became entitled to benefits under the program and their
claims have since then been paid.
GEDULDIG vs. AIELLO
Issue : WON the California disability insurance program
Gudeldig, etc. v Aiello et al. 1974 invidiously discriminates against Jaramillo and others
similarly situated by not paying insurance benefits for
California has administered a disability insurance disability that accompanies normal pregnancy and
system that pays benefits to persons in private childbirth.
employment who are temporarily unable to work \Underlying Issue: WON the Equal Protection Clause
because of disability not covered by workmen’s requires such policies to be sacrificed in order to finance
compensation for almost 30 years. This is funded from the payment of benefits to those whose disability is
contributions deducted from the wages of participating attributable to normal pregnancies.
employees. Such participation, which requires an
employee to contribute one percent of his salary ($85 No.
max. annually), is mandatory unless the employees are California intended to establish this benefit system as an
protected by voluntary private medical plans approved insurance program to function in accordance with
by the State. These contributions are placed in the insurance concepts. It never drew on general state
Unemployment Compensation Disability Fund. revenues to finance disability or hospital benefits. The
one-percent contribution bears a close and substantial
In the event a participant employee suffers a relationship to the level of benefits payable and to the
compensable disability, he can receive a “weekly benefit disability risks insured under the program. Over the
amount” to be paid on the eighth day of disability. If he years, California has been committed to not increasing
is hospitalized, the payment would be on the 1st day of the contribution rate above the one-percent level. It has
hospitalization and he can also get additional benefits of sought to provide the broadest possible disability
$12 per day). Weekly benefit amounts for one disability protection that would be affordable by even those with
are payable for 26weeks so long as the total amt paid low-incomes.
doesn’t exceed one-half of the wages received during the
base period while additional benefits are for a max of To order the State to pay benefits for disability
20days. accompanying normal pregnancy and delivery is to order
them to make reasonable changes in the contribution
The individual employee is insured against the risk of rate, the max benefits allowable and other variables
disability from a no. of mental or physical illness(es) and affecting the solvency of the program. These variables
mental or physical injuries. It is not every disabling represent a policy determination by the State.
condition that triggers the obligation to pay benefits
though. No benefits are paid for a single disability California doesn’t discriminate with respect to persons or
beyond 26 weeks or for a disability resulting from groups which are eligible for disability insurance
individual’s court commitment as a dipsomaniac, drug protection under the program. The classification
addict or sexual psychopath. 2626 of Unemployment challenged in this case relates to the asserted
Insurance Code also excludes disabilities resulting from “underinclusiveness” of the set of risks that the State
pregnancy. has selected to insure. The State has not chosen to
insure all risks of employment disability and this
Gudelgig, the Director of the California Dept of Human decision is reflected in the level of annual contributions
Resources is responsible for the administration of this exacted from participating employees. Plus, there is no
program. Aiello et al. became pregnant and suffered evidence that the selection of risks insured worked to
employment disability as a result of their pregnancies. discriminate against any definable group or class from
Three of the appellees’ disabilities are attributable to the program.
abnormal complications encountered during their
pregnancies while Jaramillo experienced a normal The Court has held previously that, consistent with the
pregnancy, which is the sole cause fo her disability. 1 Equal Protection Clause, “a State may take one step at
Gudelgig applied 2626 of UIC to preclude the payment a time, addressing itself to the phase of the problem
1
which seems acute to the legislative mind…The
See meaning of disability as defined in 2626 of legislature may select one phase of field and apply a
Unemployment Insurance Code, page 2488 of remedy there, neglecting others.” Particularly with
case.
respect to social welfare programs, so long as the line School of Nursing has its own faculty and administrative
drawn by the State is rationally supportable, the officers and establishes its own criteria for admission.
Courts will not interpose their judgement as to the
appropriate stopping point. Respondent, Joe Hogan, is a registered nurse but does
not hold a baccalaureate degree in nursing. Since 1974,
With respect to how a change of the variables would he has worked as a nursing supervisor in a medical
result in a more comprehensive program, the Court center in Columbus, the city in which MUW is located.
expressed that such would inevitably require state In 1979, Hogan applied for admission to the MUW
subsidy or some other measure. The Court held that the School of Nursing's baccalaureate program. Although he
State has a legitimate interest in maintaining the self- was otherwise qualified, he was denied admission to the
supporting nature of its insurance program and in School of Nursing solely because of his sex.
distributing the available resources in such a way to
keep benefit payments at an adequate level for Hogan filed an action in the United States District Court
disabilities covered. Also it has legitimate concern in for the Northern District of Mississippi, claiming the
maintaining the contribution rate at a level that won’t single-sex admissions policy of MUW's School of Nursing
unduly burden participating employees. Moreover, it violated the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth
said that here is nothing in the Consti that requires the Amendment. Hogan sought injunctive and declaratory
State to subordinate or compromise its legitimate relief, as well as compensatory damages.
interests solely to create a more comprehensive social
insurance program that it already has. Issue
WON the state statute which prevented men from
Brennan’s dissent: enrolling in MUW violate the Equal Protection Clause of
Despite the Code’s broad goals and scope of coverage, the Fourteenth Amendment
compensation is denied for disabilities suffered in
connection with a “normal pregnancy” – disabilities Holding
suffered only by women. By singling out for less Yes The Court held that the state did not provide an
favorable treatment a gender-linked disability peculiar to "exceedingly persuasive justification" for the gender-
women, the State has created a double standard for based distinction. The state's argument, that the policy
disability compensation. One set of rules is applied to constituted educational affirmative action for women,
females while another to males. This is sex was "unpersuasive" since women traditionally have not
discrimination. Where the State employs legislative lacked opportunities to enter nursing.
classifications with reference to gender-linked disability
risks, “the Court is not free to sustain the statute on Ratio
ground that iot rationally promotes legitimate govtl
interests; rather such classifications can be sustained We begin our analysis aided by several firmly established
only when the State bears the burden of demonstrating principles. Because the challenged policy expressly
that the challenged legislation serves overriding or discriminates among applicants on the basis of gender,
compelling interests that cannot be achieved by more it is subject to scrutiny under the Equal Protection
carefully tailored legislative classification or by the use of Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. That this
feasible, less drastic means.” statutory policy discriminates against males rather
than against females does not exempt it from
scrutiny or reduce the standard of review. Our
decisions also establish that the party seeking to
uphold a statute that classifies individuals on the
MISSISSIPPI UNIV. SCHOOL for WOMEN vs. HOGAN basis of their gender must carry the burden of
showing an "exceedingly persuasive justification" for
July 1, 1982 the classification. The burden is met only by showing
JUSTICE O'CONNOR at least that the classification serves "important
governmental objectives and that the discriminatory
FACTS: means employed" are "substantially related to the
achievement of those objectives."
In 1884, the Mississippi Legislature created the
Mississippi Industrial Institute and College for the Care must be taken in ascertaining whether the
Education of White Girls of the State of Mississippi, now statutory objective itself reflects archaic and stereotypic
the oldest state-supported all-female college in the notions. Thus, if the statutory objective is to exclude or
United States. The school, known today as Mississippi "protect" members of one gender because they are
University for Women (MUW), has from its inception presumed to suffer from an inherent handicap or to be
limited its enrollment to women. innately inferior, the objective itself is illegitimate.
In 1971, MUW established a School of Nursing, initially If the State's objective is legitimate and important, we
offering a 2-year associate degree. Three years later, the next determine whether the requisite direct, substantial
school instituted a 4-year baccalaureate program in relationship between objective and means is present. The
nursing and today also offers a graduate program. The purpose of requiring that close relationship is to assure
that the validity of a classification is determined through
reasoned analysis rather than through the mechanical

application of traditional, often inaccurate, assumptions JUSTICE POWELL, with whom JUSTICE REHNQUIST
about the proper roles of men and women. joins, dissenting.
.
The State's primary justification for maintaining the Of the State's 8 universities and 16 junior colleges, all
single-sex admissions policy of MUW's School of except MUW are coeducational. At least two other
Nursing is that it compensates for discrimination Mississippi universities would have provided respondent
against women and, therefore, constitutes with the nursing curriculum that he wishes to pursue.
educational affirmative action. As applied to the No other male has joined in his complaint.
School of Nursing, we find the State's argument
unpersuasive. Nor is respondent significantly disadvantaged by MUW's
all-female tradition. His constitutional complaint is
In limited circumstances, a gender-based classification based upon a single asserted harm: that he must travel
favoring one sex can be justified if it intentionally and to attend the state-supported nursing schools that
directly assists members of the sex that is concededly are available to him. The Court characterizes
disproportionately burdened. However, we consistently this injury as one of "inconvenience."
have emphasized that "the mere recitation of a
benign, compensatory purpose is not an automatic The arguable but recognized benefits of single-sex
shield which protects against any inquiry into the colleges must also be considered. They provide an
actual purposes underlying a statutory scheme." element of diversity, and [an environment in which
women] generally, speak up more in their classes, hold
It is readily apparent that a State can evoke a more positions of leadership on campus, and have more
compensatory purpose to justify an otherwise role models and mentors among women teachers and
discriminatory classification only if members of the administrators."
gender benefited by the classification actually suffer a
disadvantage related to the classification. Mississippi The issue in this case is whether a State transgresses
has made no showing that women lacked the Constitution when it seeks to accommodate the
opportunities to obtain training in the field of legitimate personal preferences of those desiring the
nursing or to attain positions of leadership in that advantages of an all-women's college. In my view, the
field when the MUW School of Nursing opened its Court errs seriously by assuming that the equal
door or that women currently are deprived of such protection standard generally applicable to sex
opportunities. In fact, in 1970, the year before the discrimination is appropriate here. That standard
School of Nursing's first class enrolled, women earned 94 was designed to free women from "archaic and
percent of the nursing baccalaureate degrees conferred overbroad generalizations . . . ." In no previous case
in Mississippi and 98.6 percent of the degrees earned have we applied it to invalidate state efforts to
nationwide. As one would expect, the labor force reflects expand women's choices. Nor are there prior sex
the same predominance of women in nursing. discrimination decisions by this Court in which a
male plaintiff, as in this case, had the choice of an
Rather than compensate for discriminatory barriers equal benefit.
faced by women, MUW's policy of excluding males
from admission to the School of Nursing tends to By applying heightened equal protection analysis to this
perpetuate the stereotyped view of nursing as an case, the Court frustrates the liberating spirit of the
exclusively woman's job. By assuring that Mississippi Equal Protection Clause. It prohibits the States from
allots more openings in its state-supported nursing providing women with an opportunity to choose the type
schools to women than it does to men, MUW's of university they prefer.
admissions policy lends credibility to the old view that
women, not men, should become nurses, and makes the
assumption that nursing is a field for women a self-
fulfilling prophecy. Thus, we conclude that, although MICHAEL M. vs. SUPERIOR COURT
the State recited a "benign, compensatory purpose,"
it failed to establish that the alleged objective is the
FACTS:
actual purpose underlying the discriminatory
• Petitioner, then a 17 ½ yr old male, was charged
classification.
with violation of California’s statutory rape law,
which defines unlawful sexual intercourse as
Thus, considering both the asserted interest and the
“an act of sexual intercourse accomplished with
relationship between the interest and the methods
a female not the wife of the perpetrator, where
used by the State, we conclude that the State has
the female is under 18”
fallen far short of establishing the "exceedingly
persuasive justification" needed to sustain the • Prior to trial, petitioner sought to set aside the
gender-based classification. Accordingly, we hold information on both state and federal
that MUW's policy of denying males the right to constitutional grounds asserting that the statute
enroll for credit in its School of Nursing violates the unlawfully discriminated on the basis of gender
Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth since men alone can be held criminally liable
Amendment. thereunder. The trial court and CA denied
petitioner’s request for relief and petitioner sanction imposed solely on males thus serves to
sought review in the SC of California. roughly “equalize” the deterrents on the sexes.
• California SC upheld the statute. It justified the On underinclusivity/overbroadness
• There is no merit in petitioner’s contention that
gender classification because only females may
be victims and only males may violate the the statute is impermissibly underinclusive and
section. It subjected the statute to strict scrutiny must, in order to pass judicial scrutiny, be
stating that it must be justified by compelling broadened so as to hold the female as criminally
state interest. It found that the classification liable as the male. The relevant inquiry is not
was “supported not by mere social convention whether the statute is drawn as precisely as it
but by the immutable fact that it is the female might have been, but whether the line chosen by
exclusively who can become pregnant” the California Legislature is w/n constitutional
limitations. In any event, a gender-neutral
• Canvassing the tragic costs of illegitimate
statute would frustrate the State’s interest in
teenage pregnancies, including the large number
effective enforcement since a female would be
of teenage abortions, increased medical risk
less likely to report violations of the statute if
associated with teenage pregnancies, & the
she herself would be subject to prosecution.
social consequences of teenage child-bearing,
• Nor is the statute impermissibly overbroad
court concluded that the State has a compelling
interest in preventing such pregnancies. because it makes unlawful sexual intercourse
with prepubescent females, incapable of
ISSUE: becoming pregnant. Aside from the fact that the
WON California’s statutory rape law violates the Equal statute could be justified on the grounds that
Protection Clause. NO very young females are particularly susceptible
to physical injury from sexual intercourse, the
RATIO: Constitution does not require the California
On the proper test Legislature to limit the scope of the statute to
older teenagers and exclude young girls.
• Gender-based classifications are not “inherently On age consideration
suspect so as to be subject to the “strict • And the statute is not unconstitutional as
scrutiny” but will be upheld if they bear a “fair applied to petitioner, who, like the girl involved,
and substantial relationship” to legitimate state was under 18 at the time of the sexual
ends. The traditional minimum rationality test intercourse, on the asserted ground that the
applies. statute presumes in such circumstances that
• Because the Equal Protection Clause does not the male is the culpable aggressor. The statute
demand that a statute necessarily apply equally does not rest on such an assumption, but is an
to all persons or require things which are attempt to prevent illegitimate teenage
different in fact to be treated in law as though pregnancy by providing an additional deterrent
they were the same, a statute will be upheld for men. The age of the man is irrelevant since
where the gender classification is not invidious, the young men are as capable as older men of
but rather realistically reflects the fact that the inflicting the harm sought to be prevented.
sexes are not similarly situated in certain
circumstances. HELD: US SC affirmed California SC. Statute does not
On the legitimate state interest violate the Equal Protection Clause.
• One of the purposes of the California state
statute in which the State has a strong interest
is the prevention of illegitimate teenage
pregnancies. Teenage pregnancies, which have PERSONNEL ADMINISTRATOR vs. FEENEY
increased dramatically over the last 2 decades,
have significant social, medical, and economic
Personnel Administrator of Mass. v Feeney (1979)
consequences for both the mother and her child,
and the State.
ponente: Stewart J
• The statute protects women from sexual
intercourse and pregnancy at an age when the
Facts:
physical, emotional, and psychological
consequences are particularly severe. Because
Helen Feeney is a nonveteran. She alleges that the
virtually all of the significant harmful &
Massachusetts Veterans Preference Statute is
identifiable consequ3ences of teenage pregnancy
unconstitional. The statute grants an absolute lifetime
fall on the female, a legislature acts well within
preference to veterans by requiring that "any person
its authority when it elects to punish only the
male or female, including a nurse," qualifying for a civil
participant who, by nature, suffers few of the
service position, who was honorably discharged from the
consequences of his conduct.
US Armed Forces after at least 90 days of active service,
• Moreover, the risk of pregnancy itself constitutes
at least one day in wartime, must be considered for
a substantial deterrence to young females. No
appointment to a civil service position ahead of any
similar sanctions deter males. A criminal
qualified nonveterans. This formula excludes women
from consideration for the best Mass civil service jobs discrimination in the formulation of a law, it is still
thus denying women the equal protection of laws. constitutional.
She passed her first civil service exam for the position of When a gender neutral statute is challenged, there must
Senior Clerk stenographer and was promoted. She be a two-fold inquiry:
competed in other civil service exams during her 12 year 1) Whether or not the statutory classification is indeed
career to avail herself of a better job and promotion. She neutral; notgender-based,
consistently passed and was ranked quite high in some 2) Whether or not the adverse effects reflects
but she was always passed over by lower ranked invidious gender-based discrimination. In 2 impact is a
veterans. She lost her job when it was abolished and starting point but it is purposeful discrimination that
concluded that further competing in civil sercice exams offends consti.
is useless
because the veterans would always get ahead of her. The appellee acknowledged and the district court found
that the distinction between veterans and non-veterans
The district Court agreed with her saying that it had a is not a pre-text for gender discrimination.
severe exclutionary impact on women hiring. In the 1st
appeal to the US Supreme Court, the case was Veteran is a gender-neutral word. The distinction
remanded so that the district court can consider it in between vetern and non-veteran is not gender based.
light of the Washington V Davis ruling that states a Men and women can be veterans.
neutral law does not violate equal protection solely
because it results in a racially disproportionate impact; The appellee and district court contends that
it must be traced to a purpose to discriminate on race. 1) there is gender bias because it pefers a status
The district court reaffirmed their judgment. generally reserved for men,
2) the impact of absolute lifetime employment is too
ISSUE: inevitable to be unintended.
Does the Veterans Preference Statute violate equal The 1st contention presumes that the state incorporates
protection by discriminating against women? a panoply of sex-based laws to favor the employment of
men in armed forces to become veterans. But veteran
RULE: preference is not discriminatory to women and the
appellee and district court contradicts itself that a
When a distinction drawn by a statute is not a pretext limited hiring preference for veterans could be sustained.
for gender discrimination and the law does not reflect a Just because few women become veterans does not
purpose to discriminate then it is constitutional mean that the veteran preference statute was intended
RATIONALE: by the state to discriminate against women. There must
be discriminatory intent but the state is simply
The Mass Veterans Preference statute was a measure Preferring veterans not men. The legislative classification
designed to ease the transition from military to civil life between vets and non-vets has
by veterans and to attract loyal and well-disciplined not been disputed to be illegitimate. The Enlistment
people to civil service. It is written in gender neutral policies of the US armed forces may be gender biased
language (the use of person, male or female), though in but that is not the issue here.
1884, when the 1st such statute was promulgated, no
women were in the armed forces. It has been conceded The appellee presumes that a person intends the natural
by the appellants that the civil positions open for and foreseeable consequences of his voluntary actions.
competition resulted in a disproportionate amount of The Veteran preference would necessarily place more
males being preferred because over 98% of the veterans men on civil service positions than women and the
at that time consisted of men. legislature is aware of this. However, "discriminatory
purpose" implies that the legislature selected a
Equal protection does not take away the ability of the particular course "because of", not "in spite of", adverse
state to classify as long as it is rationally based though Effects on an identifiable group. The veteran preference
the effects may be uneven. However, certain was not shown to be enacted because of gender
classifications are, like race, presumptively invalid and discrimantion against women.
can only be upheld upon extraordinary justification,
even if that classification is supposedly neutral. If a DISPOSITION:
neutral law has a disproportionate effect on a minority
then it judgment reversed
unconstitional only if there can be traced a
discriminatory purpose. CONCURRING: Stevens w/ White
Neutrals laws that have a disparate affect on minorities Disadvantaged males are almost as large as
traditionally victims of discrimination may have an disadvantaged females.
unconstitutional purpose. But equal protection means
equal laws, not equal results. So long as there is no DISSENT: Marshall w/ Brennan
 At the age of 60, Fragrante immigrated to

There is discriminatory intent because the statutory Hawaii.
scheme bears no substantial relationship to a legitimate  He applied for an entry level job as a Civil
government objective. Just because the objective of a Service Clerk at the City’s Division of Motor
statute is to prefer one group does not always mean that Vehicles and Licensing.
it does not have another purpose to disadvantage  Fragrante scored the highest among 721 test
another. takers in the written examination and was rank
first on a list of eligibles for two clerk positions.
Nobody can ever know what the legislature is thinking at  Following the interview, it was noted by the two
a given time, therefore, critical constitutional inquiry is interviewers that he had a very pronounced
not whether an illicit consideration was the primary accent and was difficult to understand and
cause but rather whether it had an appreciable role in therefore, as a result of this, he was not chosen
shaping a given legislative enactment. for the job and he was so notified by mail.
There is no reliable evidence for subjective intentions so ISSUE: W/N unlawful discrimination on the basis of
to discern the purpose of a facially neutral policy, the national origin was the reason for denying employment
court must consider the degree, inevitability and to Fragrante.
foreseeability of any disproportionate impact as well as
the alternatives reasonably available. Here, the impact HELD: No evidence of unlawful discrimination was
on women is undisputed. The burden of proof should be found but it is Fragrante’s lack of the occupational
on the state to prove that sex-based considerations requirement of being able to communicate effectively
played no part. with the public that was the reason for his being denied
the job.
To survive a challenge under equal protection clause,
statutes must be substantially related to the RATIO:
achievement of important govt objectives.  In disparate treatment cases, under which
theory this case was brought under, the
The appellants contend that the statute: employer is normally alleged to have “treated a
1) assists veterans in their readjustment person less favorable than others because of the
to civilian life person’s race, color, religion, sex or national
2) encourage military reenlistment origin.”
3) reward those who have served their country. o Plaintiff has the initial burden of proving
by preponderance of evidence a prima
To 1st objective, the statute is overinclusive because of facie case of discrimination.
it's permanent preference. The majority of those who
currently enjoy the system have long been discharged  4 factors in McDonnell Douglas test:
and have no need for readjustment. 1. that he has an identifiable national origin;
2. that he applied and was qualified for a job which
To 2nd objective, it does not actually induce the employer was seeking applicants;
reenlistment and there is no proof to be found that the 3. that he was rejected despite his qualifications;
statute influenced reenlistment. Also it bestows benefits 4. that, after his rejection, the position remained
equally on those who volunteered and those who were open and the employer continued to seek
drafted. applicants from persons of complainant's
qualifications.
To 3rd objective, rewarding veterans does not adequately
justify visiting substantial hardships on another class o Employer then has burden of
long subject to discrimination. The legislation cant be
“articulating some legitimate, non-
sustained unless carefully tuned to alternatives. Here
discriminatory reason” for the adverse
there are less discriminatory means available to effect
action.  employer still has degree of
the Compensatory purpose.
freedom of choice given to him
o To succeed in carrying the ultimate
burden of proving intentional
discrimination, a plaintiff may
YICK WO vs. HOPKINS establish a pretext either directly, by
showing that the employer was more
likely motivated by a discriminatory
FRAGRANTE vs. CITY & COUNTY of HONOLULU reason, or indirectly, by showing the
employer's proffered reason is
unworthy of credence.
FACTS:  While Fragrante was able to establish a prima

facie case since jurisprudence and the

guidelines of the Equal Employment ought to be deemed morally inferior to any other person”
Oppurtunity Commission has defined where race-dependent , gender-dependent and
discrimination to include denial of equal illegitimacy-dependent classifications are now generally
employment opportunity on the basis that a disfavored. Therefore the threshold question is whether
person has the linguistic characteristics of a similarly situated individuals are being treated
national origin group… an adverse differently.
employment decision may be predicated
upon an individuals accent when it interferes In the US, it was substantive due process instead of EP
materially with job performance. which was used to justify court intervention with state
o The oral ability to communicate economic legislation but in the 1960s the Warren Court
effectively in English is reasonable went further where it used EP as a far-reaching umbrella
related to the normal operations of the for judicial protection of fundamental rights not specified
clerk’s office who must often be able to in the Const. One difference is that if the governmental
respond to the public’s questions in a act classifies persons, it will be subjected to EP analysis;
manner in which they can understand. otherwise, it would be subjected to due process analysis.
EP tests whether the classification is properly drawn,
 In sum, the record conclusively shows that
while procedural due process tests the process to find
Fragante was passed over because of the
out whether an individual falls within or without a
deleterious effect of his Filipino accent on his
specific classification.
ability to communicate orally, not merely
because he had such an accent.
Standards of Judicial Review
There must be a sufficient degree of relationship between
the perceived purpose of the law and the classification
Supreme Court of the United States which the law makes. The choice of a standard of review
reflects whether the Court will assume the power to
Manuel T. FRAGANTE, petitioner, override democratic political process, or whether it will
v. limit the concept of a unique judicial function.
CITY AND COUNTY OF HONOLULU, et al The old EP doctrine applies the rational relationship
test- it will be upheld if it bears a rational relationship to
No. 89-1350 an end of government which is not prohibited by the
Const.
April 16, 1990 The new EP doctrine applies the strict scrutiny test. It
will not accept every permissible governmental purpose
as to support a classification; it will require that it is
Case below, 699 F.Supp. 1429; 888 F.2d 591. pursuing a compelling end.
The newer EP doctrine of the past 10 years has gone
Petition for writ of certiorari to the United States Court of beyond the two-tiered level of review, and applies the
Appeals for the Ninth Circuit. intensified means test. According to Prof. Gunther of
Stanford, the Court should accept the articulated
Denied. purpose of the legislation, but it should closely scrutinize
the relationship between the classification and purpose.
494 U.S. 1081, 110 S.Ct. 1811, 108 L.Ed.2d 942, 52
Fair Empl.Prac.Cas. (BNA) Two-tiered standard of review
848, 53 Empl. Prac. Dec. P 39,796 Under this, the first tier consists of the rational
relationship test and the second tier the strict scrutiny
END OF DOCUMENT test. Strict judicial scrutiny is applied when legislation
impinges on fundamental tights, or implicates suspect
classes (classification based on race or ethnicity).
According to American cases, fundamental rights are:
a. marriage and procreation- “fundamental to the
DEFENSOR-SANTIAGO ARTICLE (The “New” Equal very existence and survival of the race
Protection) b. voting- “preservative of other basic civil and
political rights”
c. fair administration of justice- fundamental as
established in Griffin v. Illinois
The Phil. Consti. Provides “nor shall any person be d. interstate travel- started with the landmark
denied the equal protection of the laws” which it got from decision in Shapiro v. Thompson
the American Const. Amendment “no state shall… deny e. other constitutional rights- fundamental rights
to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection protected by the first 8 amendments
of the laws”. EP is generally based on moral equality-
“although not every person is the moral equal others, Suspect classes include:
there are some traits and factors, of which race is a a. race or national origin- in the case of Korematsu
paradigmatic example, by virtue of which no person v. US “all legal restrictions which curtail the civil

rights of a single racial groups are immediately opportunities regardless of sex, race or creed”. Therefore
suspect. That is not to say that all such in the Phil. it will not always be necessary to extend the
restrictions are unconstitutional. It is to say that two-tiered standard of judicial review to cases involving
courts must subject them to the most rigid social discrimination.
scrutiny”
b. alienage- established in the case of In re Models for an open-ended standard
Griffiths Under the traditional approach, the ideal limit of
reasonableness is reached when the public mischief
Benign classifications and affirmative action sought to be eliminated is interchangeable with the trait,
The US SC has held that racial classifications which as the defining characteristics of the legislative
discriminate against minorities are inherently “suspect” classification. Problems only arise when it is under-
and will be subject to strict scrutiny and upheld only if inclusive or over-inclusive.
necessary to promote a compelling state interest. Thee There are 3 models drawn by Prof. Nowak of the Univ. of
question of benign classification is will the same Illinois for determining the approach that the Court
standard of review apply to government action which should take:
discriminates in favor of racial or ethnic minorities? It a. suspect-prohibited classification- whenever a
was addressed in the case of Regents of the University of classification burdens persons on the basis of
California v. Bakke where they held it is not prohibited if their race, the court would invalidate the law
discrimination remedies disadvantages of members of a unless the legislature can prove that the
group resulting from past unlawful discrimination but is classification is necessary to achieve a
still open to questions (intermediate or strictest compelling state interest. This standard will be
standard) as to what level of standard to applied. In the almost impossible to meet.
Phil. Benign classification and affirmative action does b. Neutral classifications- neutral whenever it
not necessarily fall under EP. It is specified in the Const. treats persons in a dissimilar manner on the
Art. XV, Sec. 11 “the state shall consider the customs, basis of some inherent human characteristic or
traditions, beliefs, and interests of national cultural status (other than racial heritage) or limit the
minorities in the formulation and implementation of exercise of a fundamental right by a class of
state policies”. (it has only to show rational relationship persons. The court should validate a statute only
in order to survive judicial challenge) if the means used bear a factually demonstrable
relationship to a state interest capable of
Appraisal of the Two-tiered standard withstanding analysis.
Criticized by Justice Harlan, he was saying c. Permissive classification- whenever legislation
“classifications which are either based upon certain treats classes in a dissimilar manner but does
“suspect” criteria or affect “fundamental rights” will be not employ a prohibited or neutral classification
held to deny EP unless justified by a compelling as the basis of dissimilar treatment, it will be
governmental interest (calling it the compelling interest upheld as long as there is any conceivable basis
doctrine). He was saying that if classification is based upon which the classification could bear a
upon the exercise of rights guaranteed against state rational relationship to the state end.
infringement by the Federal Const., then there is no
need for any resort to the EP clause. He was also saying Another model drawn by Prof. Gary Simson of Univ. of
that the fundamental right is unfortunate and Texas (discriminatory effect test)
unnecessary since it creates an exception which His model is based upon the prescribed balance between
threatens to swallow the standard equal protection rule. discriminatory effect and governmental justification:
In extending the compelling interest rule to all such 1) courts should first decide whether the individual
cases would go far toward making the Court a super- interest affected by the classification before them
legislature. is fundamental, significant, or insignificant.
2) Whether the disadvantage to the affected
Notwithstanding such criticisms, the Warren Court gave interest is total, significant, or insignificant.
crucial support saying that since total equality is 3) Next is ascertaining whether the interest
impossible and undesirable, the judiciary in the name of informing the classification is compelling,
the constitution must select the areas in which quality is significant, insignificant, or unlawful
to be imposed. 4) Courts should also determine the necessary,
significant, insignificant, or non-existent
With the advent of the new legal equality, the US has character of the relationship between means and
declared it the duty of government to take positive action ends.
to reduce social discrimination. In the Phil. It is not After all the factors, they should compute:
necessary since the Const. makes the positive Nature of the affected interest x magnitude of
commands: “the state shall promote social justice to disadvantage
ensure dignity, welfare and security”, “shall maintain Nature of the state’s interest x relationship between
and ensure adequate social services in the field of means and end
education, health, housing, employment, welfare and
social security…” , “it shall afford protection to labor, The Philippine Experience
promote full employment, ensure equal work

The Phil. SC continues to apply the permissive criteria of foreign diplomats and other temporary residents. As
the traditional EP. The Phil. Court while ostensibly such, they hire their teachers both from the Philippines
applying the rational relationship test, was implicity and from abroad.
applying the strict scrutiny test in People v. Vera where
it held that the Phil. Probation Act was unconstitutional To indicate whether they are foreign hires or local hires,
because application of the statute depended upon salary they take into consideration 1) domicile 2) home
appropriations for probation officers by the provincial economy 3) economic allegiance 4) was the school
boards (since residents of a province could be denied of responsible for bringing the individual to the Philippines.
the benefits of probation if the provincial board failed to
appropriate the necessary amount). The problem lies in the salary of the teachers. As foreign
hires, they are accorded benefits that local hires do not
In an unfortunate development, the court upheld the Act have. These include, housing, transportation, shipping
which made it unlawful for any native of the Phil. who costs, taxes, and home leave travel allowance. Their
was a member of non-Christian tribe to possess or drink salaries are also higher by 25%. The school gives 2
intoxicating liquors other than native liquors. It was held reasons: 1) dislocation factor and 2) limited tenure.
to be reasonable because it was designed to insure peace
and order among non-Christian tribes but the rational In a new collective bargaining agreement, ISA educators
relationship test would consider this distasteful. contested this difference in salary. Filing a strike, DOLE
There are still other cases such as the Laurel v. Misa assumed jurisdiction. Acting secretary Trajano decided
where the court failed to use the strict scrutiny test and in favor of the school, and DOLE secretary Quisumbing
was considered unworthy of emulation. denied the motion for reconsideration.
The lengthy search in Phil. jurisprudence can be
abbreviated by adopting the category which the Petitioner claims that the point-of-hire classification is
American Court labeled under the two-tiered standard of discriminatory to Filipinos. Respondents claim, however,
judicial review, as the category of cases calling for strict that this is not so as a number of their foreign educators
judicial scrutiny. are in fact local-hires.
Scenario for the “new” equal protection ISSUE:
The tired slogan of Filipino politicians “those who have Whether or not the 25% difference in salary is
less in life should have more in law” should be taken on discriminatory.
a serious level as an affirmative action on the part of the
government, and perhaps the formulation of “benign” HELD:
classifications. Contemporary developments argue for
expanding the contours of constitutional equality, by Yes it is.
adopting strict judicial scrutiny in cases where the laws
seek to restrict fundamental rights or to classify on the RATIO:
basis of suspect criteria.
In deciding the case, the court points first to the 1987
In the Phil. the equal protection clause, phrased as it is Constitution, particularly the Article on Social Justice
after the American model, may pose problems of and Human Rights, which the court says this
legislative and administrative classifications, of linkages discrimination is against.
between legal and socio-economic opportunity, of equal
rewards, and most fundamentally of the extent of They also point to international law, which likewise looks
compatibility of political liberty and economic equality. down on discrimination. It then goes further to say that
In the resolution of these problems, the “new” equal this is even worse when the discrimination is done in the
protection could prove to be a useful and equitable workplace. Pointing again to the Constitution, they
technique of judicial analysis, in the hands of a SC assert that it promotes “equality of employment
sentient to the continuing need to prevent invidious opportunities to all”, as well as the Labor Code, which
discrimination against disadvantaged victims of ensure equal opportunity for all.
legislative classification or in the exercise of certain
fundamental rights by the Filipino people, as a justice Article 135 of the Labor Code looks down on
constituency. discrimination in terms of wages. Article 248 declares
such a practice unfair.
Also cited is the International Covenant on Economic,

INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL ALLIANCE vs. Social and Cultural Rights. Article 7 talks about the
QUISIMBING ensuring of remuneration, as well as fair and equal
wages and remuneration.
FACTS
In this case, there is no evidence in a difference of
International School Inc., pursuant to PD 732, is an workload nor of performance, so the presumption is that
educational institution targeted towards dependents of all the employees are performing at equal levels. There is

no evidence of the foreign hires being 25% more efficient. join Interact or Rotaract, organizations sponsored by
The school’s claimed need to entice these foreign hires is Rotary International.
not a good defense, either. As for compensation, the
other forms of compensation are enough. In 1977 the Rotary Club of Duarte, California, admitted
Before ending, the court says, however, that the foreign Donna Bogart, Mary Lou Elliott, and Rosemary Freitag to
and local hires are not part of the same bargaining unit, active membership. Rotary International notified the
nor is there any showing of an attempt to consolidate the Duarte Club that admitting women members is contrary
two. to the Rotary constitution. After an internal hearing,
Rotary International's board of directors revoked the
charter of the Duarte Club and terminated its
membership. The Duarte Club's appeal to the
International Convention was unsuccessful.
The Duarte Club and two of its women members filed a

complaint in the California Superior Court. The
BOARD of DIRECTORS vs. ROTARY CLUB
complaint alleged that appellants' actions violated the
Unruh Civil Rights Act, Cal. Civ. Code The court ruled
May 4, 1987
in favor of Rotary International citing that neither Rotary
JUSTICE POWELL
International nor the Duarte Club is a "business
establishment" within the meaning of the Unruh Act.
FACTS:
The California Court of Appeal reversed. It held that both
When the Duarte chapter of Rotary International
Rotary International and the Duarte Rotary Club are
violated club policy by admitting three women into
business establishments subject to the provisions of the
its active membership its charter was revoked and it
Unruh Act. The Court of Appeal identified several
was expelled. The California Court of Appeals,
"businesslike attributes" of Rotary International,
however, in reversing a lower court decision, found
including its complex structure, large staff and budget,
that Rotary International's action violated a
and extensive publishing activities. The court held that
California civil rights act prohibiting sexual
the trial court had erred in finding that the business
discrimination.
advantages afforded by membership in a local Rotary
Club are merely incidental. In particular, the court noted
Rotary International, "an organization of business and
that members receive copies of the Rotary magazine and
professional men united worldwide who provide
numerous other Rotary publications, are entitled to wear
humanitarian service, encourage high ethical standards
and display the Rotary emblem, and may attend
in all vocations, and help build goodwill and peace in the
conferences that teach managerial and professional
world." Individual members belong to a local Rotary Club
techniques.
rather than to International. In turn, each local Rotary
Club is a member of International. Individuals are
The court also held that membership in Rotary
admitted to membership in a Rotary Club according to a
International or the Duarte Club does not give rise to a
"classification system" The general rule is that "one
"continuous, personal, and social" relationship that
active member is admitted for each classification, but he,
"takes place more or less outside public view." The court
in turn, may propose an additional active member, who
further concluded that admitting women to the Duarte
must be in the same business or professional
Club would not seriously interfere with the objectives of
classification."
Rotary International. Finally, the court rejected
appellants' argument that their policy of excluding
Subject to these requirements, each local Rotary Club is
women is protected by the First Amendment principles
free to adopt its own rules and procedures for admitting
set out in Roberts v. United States Jaycees. The court
new members. Rotary International has promulgated
ordered appellants to reinstate the Duarte Club as a
Recommended Club By-laws providing that candidates
member, and permanently enjoined them from enforcing
for membership will be considered by both a
or attempting to enforce the gender requirement against
"classifications committee" and a "membership
the Duarte Club.
committee."
ISSUE:
Membership in Rotary Clubs is open only to men. It was
WON a California statute (Unruh Act) that requires
testified that the exclusion of women results in an
California Rotary Clubs to admit women members
"aspect of fellowship, that is enjoyed by the present male
violates the First Amendment.
membership," and also allows Rotary to operate
effectively in foreign countries with varied cultures and
HOLDING:
social mores. Women are however, permitted to attend
meetings, give speeches, and receive awards. Women
No. The Court found that the relationship among the
relatives of Rotary members may form their own
club's members was not of the intimate or private variety
associations, and are authorized to wear the Rotary lapel
which warrants First Amendment protection. Because
pin. Young women between 14 and 28 years of age may
many of Rotary's activities are conducted in the presence

of strangers, and because women members would not Many of the Rotary Clubs' central activities are
prevent the club from carrying out its purposes, there carried on in the presence of strangers. Rotary Clubs
was no violation of associational rights. Even if there are required to admit any member of any other
were a slight encroachment on the rights of Rotarians to Rotary Club to their meetings. Members are
associate, that minimal infringement would be justified encouraged to invite business associates and
since it "serves the State's compelling interest" in ending competitors to meetings. In sum, Rotary Clubs,
sexual discrimination. rather than carrying on their activities in an
atmosphere of privacy, seek to keep their "windows
RATIO and doors open to the whole world," We therefore
conclude that application of the Unruh Act to local
Application of the Act to local Rotary Clubs does not Rotary Clubs does not interfere unduly with the
interfere unduly with club members' freedom of members' freedom of private association.
private association
The Court also has recognized that the right to engage in
In Roberts v. United States Jaycees, the court upheld activities protected by the First Amendment implies "a
against First Amendment challenge a Minnesota statute corresponding right to associate with others in pursuit of
that required the Jaycees to admit women as full voting a wide variety of political, social, economic, educational,
members. Roberts provides the framework for analyzing religious, and cultural ends." In this case, however, the
appellants' constitutional claims. As observed in evidence fails to demonstrate that admitting women
Roberts, our cases have afforded constitutional to Rotary Clubs will affect in any significant way the
protection to freedom of association in two distinct existing members' ability to carry out their various
senses. First, the Court has held that the purposes.
Constitution protects against unjustified government
interference with an individual's choice to enter into As a matter of policy, Rotary Clubs do not take positions
and maintain certain intimate or private on "public questions," including political or international
relationships. Second, the Court has upheld the issues. To be sure, Rotary Clubs engage in a variety of
freedom of individuals to associate for the purpose of commendable service activities that are protected by the
engaging in protected speech or religious activities. First Amendment. But the Unruh Act does not require
the clubs to abandon or alter any of these activities. Nor
The Court has recognized that the freedom to enter into does it require them to abandon their classification
and carry on certain intimate or private relationships is system or admit members who do not reflect a cross
a fundamental element of liberty protected by the Bill of section of the community. Indeed, by opening
Rights. Such relationships may take various forms. In membership to leading business and professional
determining whether a particular association is women in the community, Rotary Clubs are likely to
sufficiently personal or private to warrant constitutional obtain a more representative cross section of
protection, we consider factors such as size, purpose, community leaders with a broadened capacity for
selectivity, and whether others are excluded from critical service.
aspects of the relationship
Even if the Unruh Act does work some slight
The evidence in this case indicates that the infringement on Rotary members' right of expressive
relationship among Rotary Club members is not the association, that infringement is justified because it
kind of intimate or private relation that warrants serves the State's compelling interest in eliminating
constitutional protection. The size of local Rotary discrimination against women.. On its face the Unruh
Clubs ranges from fewer than 20 to more than 900. Act, like the Minnesota public accommodations law we
There is no upper limit on the membership of any considered in Roberts, makes no distinctions on the
local Rotary Club. About 10 percent of the basis of the organization's viewpoint. Moreover, public
membership of a typical club moves away or drops accommodations laws "plainly serve compelling state
out during a typical year. The clubs therefore are interests of the highest order." In Roberts we
instructed to "keep a flow of prospects coming" to recognized that the State's compelling interest in
make up for the attrition and gradually to enlarge assuring equal access to women extends to the
the membership. The purpose of Rotary "is to produce acquisition of leadership skills and business contacts
an inclusive, not exclusive, membership, making as well as tangible goods and services. The Unruh Act
possible the recognition of all useful local occupations, plainly serves this interest. We therefore hold that
and enabling the club to be a true cross section of the application of the Unruh Act to California Rotary
business and professional life of the community." Clubs does not violate the right of expressive
However beneficial this is to the members and to those association afforded by the First Amendment.
they serve, it does not suggest the kind of private or
personal relationship to which we have accorded Finally, appellants contend that the Unruh Act is
protection under the First Amendment. unconstitutionally vague and overbroad. We conclude
that these contentions were not properly presented
Application of the Act to California Rotary Clubs to the state courts. It is well settled that this Court will
does not violate the First Amendment right of not review a final judgment of a state court unless "the
expressive association. record as a whole shows either expressly or by clear
implication that the federal claim was adequately
presented in the state system." Appellants did not RATIO:

present the issues squarely to the state courts until they
filed their petition for rehearing with the Court of Appeal. 1. Forcing a group to accept certain members
The court denied the petition without opinion. may impair the ability of the group to
express those views, and only those views,
that it intends to express. “Freedom of
association … plainly presupposes a
BOY SCOUTS of AMERICA vs. DALE freedom not to associate.”
BOY SCOUTS OF AMERICA V. DALE (2000) 2. The constitution’s protection of expressive

association is not reserved for advocacy
(ponente: Chief Justice Rehnquist) groups. But to come within its ambit, a
group must engage in some form of
expression, whether it be public or private.
FACTS:
3. The Boy Scouts seeks to instill values in
1. James Dale was a former Eagle Scout who also young people by having its adult leaders
became an assistant scoutmaster. While in spend time with the youth members,
college, he was very active in gay and lesbian instructing and engaging them in activities
issues. He even became the copresident of his like camping, archery, and fishing. During
university’s Gay/Lesbian Alliance. the time spent with the youth members, the
scoutmasters inculcate them with the Boy
2. When the Boy Scouts of America learned that he Scouts’ values–both expressly and by
is an avowed homosexual and gay rights activist, example. It seems indisputable that an
it revoked his adult membership in the Boy association that seeks to transmit such a
Scouts of America (BSA) because the system of values engages in expressive
organization forbids membership to activity.
homosexuals.
4. The values the Boy Scouts seeks to instill
3. Dale filed a complaint against the BSA in the are “based on” those listed in the Scout
New Jersey Superior Court alleging that the BSA Oath and Law. The Boy Scouts explains
had violated New Jersey’s public that the Scout Oath and Law provide “a
accommodations statute by revoking his positive moral code for living; they are a list
membership based solely on his sexual of ‘do’s’ rather than ‘don’ts.’ ” The Boy
orientation. The NJ Superior Court granted Scouts asserts that homosexual conduct is
judgment in favor of Dale. The decision was inconsistent with the values embodied in
affirmed by the NJ Appellate Division. the Scout Oath and Law, particularly with
the values represented by the terms
4. The New Jersey Supreme Court affirmed the “morally straight” and “clean.”
judgment of the Appellate Division. It held that
the Boy Scouts was a place of public 5. The terms “morally straight” and “clean” are
accommodation subject to the public by no means self-defining. Different people
accommodations law; that the organization was would attribute to those terms very
not exempt from the law under any of its express different meanings. The BSA, through its
exceptions; and that the Boy Scouts violated the official written statements, believes that
law by revoking Dale’s membership based on his engaging in homosexual conduct is
avowed homosexuality. contrary to being “morally straight” and
“clean.”
5. BSA raised the issue in the US Supreme Court.
6. It is not the role of the courts to reject a
ISSUES: group’s expressed values because they
disagree with those values or find them
1. WON Boy Scouts is an expressive
internally inconsistent. As is true of all
association and that the forced
expressions of constitutional freedoms, the
inclusion of Dale would significantly
courts may not interfere on the ground that
affect its expression. - YES
they view a particular expression as unwise
or irrational. As we give deference to an
2. WON applying New Jersey’s public
association’s assertions regarding the
accommodations law in the way nature of its expression, we must also give
applied by the NJ Supreme Court deference to an association’s view of what
violates the Boy Scouts’ right of would impair its expression.
expressive association. - YES

7. Dale, by his own admission, is one of a communication produced by the private

group of gay Scouts who have “become organizers would be shaped by all those
leaders in their community and are open protected by the law who wish to join in
and honest about their sexual orientation. . with some expressive demonstration of
Dale’s presence in the Boy Scouts would, at their own.”
the very least, force the organization to
send a message, both to the youth 11. A state requirement that the Boy Scouts
members and the world, that the Boy retain Dale as an assistant scoutmaster
Scouts accepts homosexual conduct as a would significantly burden the
legitimate form of behavior. organization’s right to oppose or disfavor
homosexual conduct. The state interests
8. Associations do not have to associate for embodied in New Jersey’s public
the “purpose” of disseminating a certain accommodations law do not justify such a
message in order to be entitled to the severe intrusion on the Boy Scouts’ rights
protections of the constitution. An to freedom of expressive association. That
association must merely engage in being the case, we hold that the
expressive activity that could be impaired in constitution prohibits the State from
order to be entitled to protection. imposing such a requirement through the
application of its public accommodations
9. State public accommodations laws were law.
originally enacted to prevent discrimination
in traditional places of public 12. Justice Stevens’ dissent makes much of its
accommodation–like inns and trains. New observation that the public perception of
Jersey’s statutory definition of “ ‘[a] place of homosexuality in this country has changed.
public accommodation’ ” is extremely Indeed, it appears that homosexuality has
broad. The term is said to “include, but not gained greater societal acceptance. But
be limited to,” a list of over 50 types of this is scarcely an argument for denying
places. . Many on the list are what one protection to those who refuse to accept
would expect to be places where the public these views. The constitution protects
is invited. For example, the statute includes expression, be it of the popular variety or
as places of public accommodation taverns, not. And the fact that an idea may be
restaurants, retail shops, and public embraced and advocated by increasing
libraries. But the statute also includes numbers of people is all the more reason to
places that often may not carry with them protect the rights of those who wish to
open invitations to the public, like summer voice a different view.
camps and roof gardens. In this case, the
New Jersey Supreme Court went a step 13. We are not, as we must not be, guided by
further and applied its public our views of whether the Boy Scouts’
accommodations law to a private entity teachings with respect to homosexual
without even attempting to tie the term conduct are right or wrong; public or
“place” to a physical location. As the judicial disapproval of a tenet of an
definition of “public accommodation” has organization’s expression does not justify
expanded from clearly commercial entities, the State’s effort to compel the organization
such as restaurants, bars, and hotels, to to accept members where such acceptance
membership organizations such as the Boy would derogate from the organization’s
Scouts, the potential for conflict between expressive message. “While the law is free
state public accommodations laws and the to promote all sorts of conduct in place of
constitutional rights of organizations has harmful behavior, it is not free to interfere
increased. with speech for no better reason than
promoting an approved message or
10. In the Hurley case, we said that public discouraging a disfavored one, however
accommodations laws “are well within the enlightened either purpose may strike the
State’s usual power to enact when a government.”
legislature has reason to believe that a
given group is the target of discrimination,
and they do not, as a general matter, violate
the First Amendment. But we went on to
note that in that case “the Massachusetts
[public accommodations] law has been GOODRIDGE vs. DEPT. of PUBLIC HEALTH
applied in a peculiar way” because “any
contingent of protected individuals with a Ponente: CJ Marshall
message would have the right to participate
in petitioners’ speech, so that the
FACTS:
equality of all individuals. It forbids the creation of

The plaintiffs are fourteen individuals from five second-class citizens. The defendants have failed to
Massachusetts counties. Among them are Hillary identify any constitutionally adequate reason for denying
Goodridge, forty-four years old, and Julie Goodridge, civil marriage to same-sex couples.
forty-three years old, who had been in a committed
relationship for thirteen years and lived with their five RATIO:
year old daughter.
Civil marriage is created and regulated through exercise
In March and April, 2001, each of the plaintiff couples of the police power. Marriage also bestows enormous
attempted to obtain a marriage license from a city or private and social advantages on those who choose to
town clerk's office. As required under Genral Laws c.7, marry. The benefits accessible only by way of a marriage
they completed notices of intention to marry on forms license are enormous, touching nearly every aspect of life
provided by the registry, see G.L. c. 207, § 20, and and death. It is undoubtedly for these concrete reasons,
presented these forms to a Massachusetts town or city as well as for its intimately personal significance, that
clerk, together with the required health forms and civil marriage has long been termed a "civil right."
marriage license fees. In each case, the clerk either
refused to accept the notice of intention to marry or The Massachusetts Constitution protects matters of
denied a marriage license to the couple on the ground personal liberty against government incursion as
that Massachusetts does not recognize same- sex zealously, and often more so, than does the Federal
marriage. Because obtaining a marriage license is a Constitution, even where both Constitutions employ
necessary prerequisite to civil marriage in essentially the same language. The individual liberty and
Massachusetts, denying marriage licenses to the equality safeguards of the Massachusetts Constitution
plaintiffs was tantamount to denying them access to civil protect both "freedom from" unwarranted government
marriage itself, along with its social and legal intrusion into protected spheres of life and "freedom to"
protections, benefits, and obligations. partake in benefits created by the State for the common
good. It also requires, at a minimum, that the exercise of
On April 11, 2001, the plaintiffs filed suit in the Superior the State's regulatory authority not be "arbitrary or
Court against the Department of Public Health and the capricious."
commissioner seeking a judgment that "the exclusion of
the plaintiff couples and other qualified same-sex The plaintiffs seek only to be married, not to undermine
couples from access to marriage licenses, and the legal the institution of civil marriage. They do not want
and social status of civil marriage, as well as the marriage abolished. They do not attack the binary
protections, benefits and obligations of marriage, violates nature of marriage, the consanguinity provisions, or any
Massachusetts law." of the other gate-keeping provisions of the marriage
licensing law. Recognizing the right of an individual to
The Superior Court judge ruled for the department. In a marry a person of the same sex will not diminish the
memorandum of decision and order dated May 7, 2002, validity or dignity of opposite-sex marriage, any more
he dismissed the plaintiffs' claim that the marriage than recognizing the right of an individual to marry a
statutes should be construed to permit marriage person of a different race devalues the marriage of a
between persons of the same sex, holding that the plain person who marries someone of her own race.
wording of G.L. c. 207, as well as the wording of other
marriage statutes, precluded that interpretation. He also Civil marriage is now construed to mean the voluntary
held that the marriage exclusion does not offend the union of two persons as spouses, to the exclusion of all
liberty, freedom, equality, or due process provisions of others. This reformulation redresses the plaintiffs'
the Massachusetts Constitution, and that the constitutional injury and furthers the aim of marriage to
Massachusetts Declaration of Rights does not guarantee promote stable, exclusive relationships. It advances the
"the fundamental right to marry a person of the same two legitimate State interests the department has
sex." After the complaint was dismissed and summary identified: providing a stable setting for child rearing and
judgment entered for the defendants, the plaintiffs conserving State resources. It leaves intact the
appealed. Legislature's broad discretion to regulate marriage.
ISSUE:
WON the Massachusetts Statute may deny the TECSON vs. COMELEC
protections, benefits, and obligations conferred by civil
(March 3, 2004)
marriage to two individuals of the same sex who wish to
Ponente: J. Vitug
marry.
FACTS:
HELD:
The Court concluded that it may not. The • Dec 31, 2003: respondent Ronald Allan Kelly Poe
Massachusetts Constitution affirms the dignity and (FPJ) filed his certificate of candidacy (COC) for the

position of President of the Republic of the During the Spanish regime, there was no such term as
Philippines under the Koalisyon ng Nagkakaisang “Philippine citizens” but “subjects of Spain” or “Spanish
Pilipino. In his COC, FPJ represented himself to be a subjects.” The natives, as we know, were called “indios,”
natural-born citizen of the Phils with his date of denoting a lower regard for the inhabitants of the
birth to be Aug 20, 1939 and his place of birth in archipelago. The Civil Code of Spain came out with the
Manila. 1st categorical enumeration of who were Spanish citizens.
• Jan 9, 2004: petitioner Victorino Fornier filed with Upon ratification of the Treaty of Paris and pending
legislation by the US Congress, the native inhabitants of
the Comelec a petition to disqualify FPJ and to deny
the Phils ceased to be Spanish subjects. The term
due course or to cancel his COC upon the claim that
“citizens of the Philippines” first appeared in the Phil
FPJ made a material misrepresentation in his
Bill of 1902, the 1st comprehensive legislation of the US
COC by claiming to be a natural-born Filipino
Congress on the Phils. Under this organic act, a “citizen
when in truth:
of the Philippines” was one who was an inhabitant of the
1. his parents were foreigners – his mother, Phils, and a Spanish subject on the 11th day of April
Bessie Kelley Poe, was an American and his 1899. The term “inhabitant” was taken to include 1) a
father, Allan F. Poe, was a Spanish national, native-born inhabitant, 2) an inhabitant who was a
being the son of Lorenzo Pou, a Spanish subject native of Peninsular Spain, and 3) an inhabitant who
2. granting that Allan F. Poe was a Filipino citizen, obtained Spanish papers on or before 11 April 1899.
he could not have transmitted his Filipino While there were divergent views on WON jus soli was a
citizenship to FPJ, the latter being an mode of acquiring citizenship, the 1935 Consti brought
illegitimate child of an alien mother (Allan F. an end to any such link with common law by adopting
Poe contracted a prior marriage to a certain jus sanguinis or blood relationship as the basis of
Paulita Gomez before his marriage to Bessie Filipino citizenship:
Kelley. Even if no such prior marriage existed, “Sec 1, Art III: The following are citizens of the Phils:
Allan F. Poe married Bessie Kelly only a year 1. Those who are citizens of the Phil Islands at the
after the birth of respondent.) time of the adoption of this Consti
• Jan 23: Comelec dismissed the petition for lack of 2. Those born in the Phils of foreign parents who,
merit; subsequent MFR was denied before the adoption of this Consti, had been
• Petitioner Fornier invokes § 78 of the Omnibus elected to public office in the Phil Islands
Election Code: 3. Those whose fathers are citizens of the Phils
“§ 78. Petition to deny due course to or cancel a 4. Those whose mothers are citizens of the Phils and
COC. – A verified petition seeking to deny due upon reaching the age of majority, elect Phil
course or to cancel a COC may be filed by any citizenship
person exclusively on the ground that any material 5. Those who are naturalized in accordance with law”
misrepresentation contained therein as required Subsection 4 of the above provision resulted in
under § 74 hereof is false.” discriminatory situations that incapacitated women from
• Petitioners Tecson, et al. and Velez invoke Article VII, transmitting their Filipino citizenship to their legitimate
§ 4, par. 7 of the Consti in assailing the jurisdiction children and required illegitimate children of Filipino
of the Comelec. mothers to still elect Filipino citizenship. The 1973
Consti corrected this by adding the provision:
“2. Those whose fathers and mothers are citizens of
ISSUES  HELD:
the Phils
1. WON the Court has jurisdiction over the petitions  3. Those who elect Phil citizenship pursuant to the
YES, but only with regard to Fornier’s petition provisions of the 1935 Consti”
2. WON FPJ made a material misrepresentation in his The 1987 Consti generally adopted the provision of the
COC  NO, hence, he is indeed a natural-born 1973 Consti, except for subsection 3:
Filipino citizen “3. Those born before Jan 17, 1973 of Filipino
mothers, who elect Phil citizenship upon reaching the
RATIO: age of majority”
1. With regard to petitioner Fornier’s petition, the Court
The Case of FPJ
recognizes its own jurisdiction under § 78 of the
Sec 2, Art VII of the 1987 Consti states that “No person
Omnibus Election Code in consonance with the
may be elected President unless he is a natural-born
general powers of the Comelec. Their decisions on
citizen of the Phils,” among other qualifications. The
disqualification cases may be reviewed by the SC per
term “natural-born citizens” is defined to include “those
Rule 64 of the Revised Rules of Civil Procedure as
who are citizens of the Phils from birth without having to
well as § 7, Art IX of the Consti. The petition was
perform any act to acquire or perfect their Phil
aptly elevated to and could well be taken cognizance
citizenship.” Considering the reservations made by the
by the CS, as opposed to that of petitioner Tecson’s,
parties on the veracity of the evidence, the only
which refers to a contest in a post-election scenario,
conclusions that could be drawn with some degree of
and hence, not applicable in this case.
certainty are that:
2.
1. the parents of FPJ were Allan F. Poe and Bessie
Citizenship: Brief Historical Background
Kelley

2. FPJ was born to them on 20 Aug 1939 FPJ’s citizenship

3. Allan F. Poe and Bessie Kelley were married to Petitioner argues that, since FPJ was an illegitimate
each other on 16 Sept 1940 child, he followed the citizenship of his mother, Bessie
4. the father of Allan F. Poe was Lorenzo Pou Kelley, an American citizen. Amicus curiae Joaquin
5. at the time of his death on 11 Sept 1954, Lorenzo Bernas, SJ states:
Pou was 84 years old “If the pronouncement of the Court on jus sanguinis
was on the lis mota, it would be a decision constituting
The death certificate of Lorenzo Pou would indicate that doctrine under stare decisis; but if it was irrelevant to
he died in San Carlos, Pangasinan. It could thus be the lis mota, it would not be a decision but a mere
assumed that he was born sometime in 1870 when the obiter dictum, which did not establish doctrine. (He
Phils was still a colony of Spain. Petitioner argues that then proceeds to discredit all the cases cited by
Lorenzo Pou was not in the Phils during the crucial petitioner, as being obiter dicta). Aside from the fact
period of 1898 to 1902, considering there was no that such a pronouncement would have no textual
existing record about such fact. However, he failed to basis in the Consti, it would also violate the Equal
show that Lorenzo Pou was at any other place during the Protection Clause TWICE. First, it would make an
same period. In the absence of any evidence to the illegitimate distinction between a legitimate and
contrary, it should be sound to conclude, or at least illegitimate child, and second, it would make an
to presume, that the place of residence of a person at illegitimate distinction between the illegitimate
the time of his death was also his residence before child of a Filipino father and the illegitimate
death. children of a Filipina mother.
Proof of Paternity and Filiation The distinction between legitimate children and
Under the Civil Code of Spain until the effectivity of the illegitimate children rests on real differences. But
1950 Civil Code, acknowledgement (judicial/compulsory real differences alone do not justify invidious
or voluntary) was required to establish filiation or distinction. Real differences may justify
paternity. In FPJ’s birth certificate, nowhere in the distinction for 1 purpose but not for another
document was the signature of Allan F. Poe found. There purpose.
being no will apparently executed by decedent Allan F.
Poe, the only other proof of voluntary recognition What possible state interest can there be for
remained to be “some other public document.” The 1950 disqualifying an illegitimate child from being a
Civil Code, on the other hand, categorized recognition of public officer? It was not the child’s fault that his
illegitimate children into voluntary, legal, or compulsory. parents had illicit liaison. Why deprive him of the
Unlike an action to claim legitimacy which would last fullness of political rights for no fault of his own?
during the lifetime of the child, an action to claim To disqualify an illegitimate child from holding an
acknowledgement could only be brought during the important public office is to punish him for the
lifetime of the presumed parent. The Family Code, indiscretion of his parents. There is neither justice
however, liberalized the rules, as found in Articles 172, nor rationality in that. And if there is neither
173 and 175 re: filiation. justice nor rationality in the distinction, then it
transgresses the equal protection clause and must
Civil law provisions point out to an obvious bias against be reprobated.”
illegitimacy. Such discrimination may be traced to the
Spanish family and property laws that sought to WOOHOO! Nai-imagine ko si Father Bernas…
distribute inheritance of titles and wealth strictly
according to bloodlines. These distinctions between Hence, where jurisprudence regarded an illegitimate
legitimacy and illegitimacy were thus codified in the child as taking after the citizenship of its mother, it did
Spanish Civil Code and later survived in our Civil Code. so for the benefit of the child. It was to ensure a Filipino
Such distinction, however, remains and should nationality for the illegitimate child of an alien father in
remain only in the sphere of civil law and not unduly line with the assumption that the mother, who had
impede or impinge on the domain of political law. custody, would exercise parental authority and had the
The proof of filiation or paternity for purposes of duty to support her illegitimate child. It was to help the
determining his citizenship status should thus be child, not to prejudice or discriminate against him. In
deemed independent from and not inextricably tied fact, the 1935 Consti can never be more explicit than it
up with that prescribed for civil law purposes. The is. Providing neither conditions nor distinctions, it states
Civil Code or Family Code provisions of proof of that among the citizens of the Phils are “those whose
filiation or paternity, although good law, do not have fathers are citizens of the Phils” regardless of
preclusive effects on matters alien to personal and whether such children are legitimate or not.
family relations. The ordinary rules on evidence could
well and should govern. Thus, the duly notarized
declaration made by Ruby Kelly Mangahas, sister of
Bessie Kelley Poe, might be accepted to prove the acts of
Allan F. Poe recognizing his own paternal relationship
with FPJ (i.e. living together with Bessie Kelley and their
children in 1 house and as 1 family).

Equal Protection Clause

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Equal Protection Clause

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Equal Protection Clause

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

consti part 6: equal protection clause

districts authority to levy for public purposes

consti 2 all stars 1

grievance. There is no personal or substantial

consti 2 all stars 2

Sec. 3 fines a violator of not more than Php200 or

ISSUE 4) In discussing police power, the court states

consti 2 all stars 4

ISSUE Here, as in the Hirabayashi case, the court cannot

2. So far, then. as a conflict with the 14 th Amendment

Racial classification = Diversity?

consti 2 all stars 9

consti 2 all stars 10

consti 2 all stars 11

FACTS: Original: A citizen emigrating from one state to

JUSTICE MILLER, DISSENTING: RATIO:

ISSUE: The statute arbitrarily discriminates between male and

consti 2 all stars 13

reasoned analysis rather than through the mechanical

 At the age of 60, Fragrante immigrated to

FACTS:  While Fragrante was able to establish a prima

consti 2 all stars 19

consti 2 all stars 20

consti 2 all stars 21

Scenario for the “new” equal protection ISSUE:

Also cited is the International Covenant on Economic,

consti 2 all stars 22

The Duarte Club and two of its women members filed a

consti 2 all stars 23

presented in the state system." Appellants did not RATIO:

BOY SCOUTS OF AMERICA V. DALE (2000) 2. The constitution’s protection of expressive

consti 2 all stars 25

7. Dale, by his own admission, is one of a communication produced by the private

equality of all individuals. It forbids the creation of

consti 2 all stars 27

consti 2 all stars 28

2. FPJ was born to them on 20 Aug 1939 FPJ’s citizenship

consti 2 all stars 29

You might also like