26 October, 2001

Appendix B - Design Modules

B.1 Introduction

WaSim contains 3 complementary design modules to aid sub-surface pipe

drain design. These are outlined in the following sections.

Each of the 3 modules, for drain spacing, pipe sizing for field drains, and
for collector drains, can be used separately from WaSim. However, the
drain spacing module can also be run in advance of the WaSim software
to help set the initial parameters for a realistic simulation.

B.2 Drain spacing

(Ref. Land Drainage. LK Smedema, DW Ryecroft. Batsford.1983)
Both Steady State (Hooghoudt) and Unsteady State (Glover-Dumm) equations
are included in this module for calculating subsurface pipe drain spacing.

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Select the appropriate equation. To input data, use the slider bars and
click the 'Accept Values' button to transfer the parameters to the results
table.

The parameters for the Houghoudt equation are defined on the interactive
diagram. When elements of the full sized picture are selected with the
mouse, a description appears for a few seconds below the diagram.

Click the Run button to evaluate the drain spacing.

*Note: The user defined safety factor is a coefficient to decrease the spacing by the selected
percentage.

Results from a few calculations are shown below. 'Intermediates' are

values used by the Hooghoudt or Glover-Dumm equations, derived from the
field measurements (input parameters).

A few calculations will soon fill the results tables but ten calculations
from each equation can be viewed simultaneously by clicking the 'View
Results' button.

A summary of the equations used is presented below.

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Houghoudt Equation

The Hooghoudt equation is used when the flow is steady (the watertable
is at a constant level).

The Hooghoudt equation uses a function, reduced depth (dr), to replace

the depth to the impermeable layer below the drain (a).

If the calculated drain spacing is not larger than the depth from the
drainage base to the impermeable layer by a factor of 4 (L > 4a) then the
calculation of the reduced depth (dr) is not valid and the results from the
equation should not be assumed accurate.

Hooghoudt equation:
(8K 2 d r h + 4K 1 h 2 )
q= ------------------------------------------ B 1)
L2

or

L = (8 K 2 d r h + 4K 1 h 2 ) / q ----------------------------------------- B 2)

where,
L = drain spacing (m)
K1 = weighted hydraulic conductivity above the drains (mm/hr)
K2 = weighted hydraulic conductivity below the drains (mm/hr)
h = water table head above drain at midpoint between drains (m)
a = depth of barrier (impermeable layer) below drains (m)
dr = reduced equivalent depth to impermeable layer (m)
q = drainage rate (mm/hr)

The equivalent depth (dr) is calculated from one of the following

equations:

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a
dr = ; for a / L < 0.25 -------------------------- B 3)a
1 + (8a / π L) ln( a / u )
πL
dr = ; for a / L > 0.25 -------------------------- B 3)b
8[ln( L / u )]

u = wetted perimeter of the drain (m)

Glover-Dumm Equation

In the case of unsteady flow, a rise or fall in the watertable occurs as

water is stored in or released from the soil. The Glover-Dumm equation
can be used to estimate the drain spacing required to lower the watertable
to a desired level in a given time period. By introducing Hooghoudt's
reduced depth into the Glover-Dumm formulation, the resistance caused
by the converging flow towards the drains is taken into account.

Unsteady state

Glover-Dumm equation:
1 1
−
 Kd r t  2  h  2
L = π    ln 1.16 0  ----------------------------------- B (4)
 µ   ht 

where:
L = drain spacing
K = hydraulic conductivity (m/day)
dr = reduced equivalent depth (m) to impermeable layer
(as in the Hooghoudt formulation)
t = time after instantaneous rise of the watertable
µ = drainable pore space
h0 = initial height of the watertable above drain level at time t=0
ht = height of the watertable above drain level at time t

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B.3 Pipe Sizing

Drain Design for Single Diameter Pipes Module

(Ref. Drainage Principles and Applications. ILRI Pub. 16, 1994)

The Manning Equation for pipe flow is used in this module.

---------------------------------------------- B (5)

where

Q = flow rate (m3 /s)

n = Manning's roughness coefficient
A = cross-sectional area (m2 )
s = hydraulic gradient
R = hydraulic radius (m)
P = wetted perimeter (m)

For full flowing pipes

where d is the diameter of the pipe

For Uniform Flow in full flowing pipes, Manning's equation becomes

-------------------------------------------------- B (6)

This formula is used by the program to calculate any one of the following
when the other two are known:

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- minimum required pipe diameter

- hydraulic gradient
- discharge

Any of these parameters can be selected with the option buttons to the
right of the parameter input sliders.

Non-Uniform Flow, Perforated pipes

For equal flows, the head loss in a perforated pipe (non- uniform flow) is
1/3 that in a closed pipe of similar diameter. For a field drain flowing full
and for equal gradients s:
Q perf = Qcl 3
Or:
Q cl = 0.58Q perf ----------------------------------------- B (7)
and:
1
0.54 2. 67 2
Q perf = d s ----------------------------------------- B (8)
n
Where
Qperf = discharge of a perforated pipe (non- uniform flow)
Qcl = discharge of a closed wall pipe (uniform flow)
d = pipe diameter
n = Mannnings roughness coefficient
s = hydraulic gradient

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Field length and drainage spacing (from the Spacing for Field Drains
module) can be entered into the discharge calculator to give a value for
discharge.

Results are given for perforated field drains (non- uniform flow) and for
collectors or transport pipelines.

Drain Design for Collector Pipes

This module is used for determining the minimum diameter requirement

for collector pipes in uniform flow. The Manning equation is used for
evaluating the pipe-full diameter for each length of sub-collector required
for each field drain added.

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---------------------------------------------- (as before)

where,

Q = flow rate (m3 /s)

n = Manning's roughness coefficient
s = hydraulic gradient
d = diameter of the pipe

To determine a minimum diameter for a collector, click the 'Add Lateral'

button, which allows details of flow from the incoming lateral, and basic
parameters for the collector, to be input with the sliders.

To remove unwanted laterals, select a lateral or range of laterals and click

'Remove Lateral'. The 'Undo Remove' button can be used to replace
laterals removed by mistake.

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For small diameter pipes, savings in pipe cost which could be obtained by
progressively increasing the pipe diameter at junctions working
downstream, rather than using a single size over long distances, may not
be justified because of higher organization and installation costs.

Safety factor
Over time the flow capacity of pipe drains will decrease because of
sedimentation, chemical deposits or intrusion of roots.
There are various ways of incorporating safety factors to compensate for
reduction in pipe capacity. A traditional method is to reduce the pipe
discharge by a redduction factor, R, according to the following
guidelines:

• For small diameter pipes (field drains, d < 100 mm), take 60% of the
theoretical capacity (R = 0.60)
• For larger diameters (generally collectors, d > 100 mm, take 75% of
the theoretical capacity (R = 0.75)

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