TECHNICAL PAPERS

each other is a continuous process of asperity adhesion and

subsequent breaking of those adhesive bonds. Most often the
bonds are not broken exactly at the interface between the two
materials. Instead, part of the softer material is oftentimes
sheared off, thereby forming wear particles. Gross adhesive
wear is indicated by many characteristics, Fig. 6 for one
example. Die inspection would probably be the best method
to spot adhesive wear problems. In extreme cases, i.e., with
high pressures and poor lubrication, galling occurs and a large
amount of the softer material remains bonded to the die sur-
face. While adhesive wear will occur mostly at the wire to die
interface, it can also occur at the wire-to-capstan or wire-to-
wire contacts.
Delamination wear. In delamination wear, which was origi-
nally proposed by Suh10-11, subsurface cracks nucleate and
propagate parallel with the surface, as shown in Fig. 712.
Fig. 4. Image of a fine-grained polycrystalline Cracks occur at a depth of about 10 microns (10-5 meters)
diamond die surface, displaying sharp grain below the surface. At this location the tensile stresses are at a
boundaries. Photo courtesy of Fort Wayne maximum value and are perpendicular to the outer surface. As
Wire Die. these cracks grow the layer of material between the cracks and
the surface experiences considerably greater deformation than
the bulk of the wire due to fewer constraints. A typical
which have both much harder and sharper asperities than deformed layer can be seen in Fig. 7. Ultimately, the crack
other die materials. The grain size of polycrystalline dies plays growth coupled with the accelerated deformation causes this
a big role in determining the severity of abrasive wear. Often top layer to delaminate from the bulk of the wire. Fig. 8 shows
as the polycrystalline diamond grain size becomes finer, the a fine that was captured in the act of delaminating.
abrasiveness becomes more severe, as was noted by Patel and Resulting fines are usually thick and flake-like particles, and
Chia7. Fig. 4 shows the surface of a PCD die. sometimes show the curvature of the wire. Fig. 9 shows typi-
Third body abrasive wear. Third body abrasive wear is sim- cal delamination fines. Unlike all other fines generation mech-
ilar to abrasive wear, albeit it is not the die asperity that is anisms, which are always present to some degree, delamina-
plowing into the wire. In third body abrasive wear, a hard par- tion wear can be completely absent, particularly if there are no
ticle between the wire and the die causes abrasions to the wire. copper oxide inclusions at nucleation sites. When delamina-
Whereas abrasive wear can be demonstrated by sandpaper, tion wear is present, however, the weight of fines that are gen-
third body abrasive wear is illustrated when an abrasive pow- erated will increase by an order of magnitude12. While this
der is rubbed onto a surface. Consequently, the abrasive parti- weight increase can be dramatic, delamination wear will prob-
cles are causing the wear. Third body abrasive wear can be ably have a minor impact on wire drawing problems com-
more severe than abrasive wear because the abrasive particles pared with the other mechanisms because delamination wear
roll into different positions and can expose multiple sharp particles are relatively large and easier to filter. Therefore, the
points. In wire drawing, the vast majority of the abrasive par- lubricant degrades to a lesser extent. Bending the hard drawn
ticles are fines themselves. The material that forms these fines wire around a small diameter will increase the generation of
is sometimes already oxidized. On occasion, the fines can delaminated particles. In addition, they are more likely to
become oxidized after they are liberated from the wire due to occur in work-hardened materials.
the high temperatures experienced between the wire and die. Rod surface quality (oxides). The quality of the incoming
Since oxides are harder than the metal, oxidized fines are rod, i.e., its surface oxide film thickness, such as that shown
quite abrasive to the wire. previously in Fig. 1b, has a great influence on the fines that are
Surface deformation wear. In most wire drawing operations generated downstream in the rod breakdown machines. There
the wire undergoes intermediate anneals to either help reduce may also be residual fines on the rod that are picked up from
wire breaks or to obtain better final properties. Often the wire the hot rolling process. All of these particulates clog wire die
surface experiences more deformation and work hardening entrances or become third body abrasive wear particles. Fines
than the interior of the wire. The surface could also experience can originate from either subsurface oxides or from the alco-
frictional heating so that the surface anneals and softening hol reduced outer copper layer that lies between these oxides
might occur. When the cumulative work hardening of the sur- and the wire surface. Subsurface oxides may form when hot
face becomes excessive, however, the hard and brittle surface cracks occur in the cast bar or if fold-overs take place before
will begin to crack and break up. This phenomenon is called the scale can be removed. Similar problems may occur if there
surface deformation wear, and an example is shown in Fig. 5. is misalignment of the mill rolls leading to protrusions and
Adhesive wear. When two solid bodies are brought into fold-overs. It is important to note that these rod surface and
direct contact, their asperities adhere to one another at a subsurface defects can adversely affect the wiredrawing
microscopic level. Two solid bodies sliding with respect to

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