ME 301 Renewable Energy

Solar Meteorology

Eng H Chingosho
Assignment Notice
• Deadline for submission remains 12:00 noon Wednesday 14 March
2018.
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The Sun
• The sun has six layers.
• Three layers, the corona, chromosphere, and photosphere, comprise
the sun's atmosphere or outer layer.
• The other three layers, convective zone, radiative zone, and core,
comprise the inner layers, or the parts of the sun that are not seen.
• In the case of the sun hydrogen atoms are fused together to produce
helium in a process known as the proton-proton (or PP) cycle.
1.5 x 10^8
SUN-EARTH ASTRONOMICAL
RELATIONS
Sun-Earth Distance

• The earth revolves around the sun in an elliptical orbit with the sun at
one of the foci. The amount of solar radiation reaching the earth is
inversely proportional to the square of the distance from the sun. An
accurate value of the sun-earth distance is therefore important. The
mean sun-earth distance ro is called one astronomical unit (AU):

• 1 AU = 1.496 x 1011 m
Eccentricity correction factor
• The reciprocal of the square of the radius vector of the earth, called
the eccentricity correction factor of the earth, Eo is given by:

2
𝑟𝑜 360𝑛
• 𝐸𝑜 = = 1 + 0.033𝑐𝑜𝑠 , where n is the day number of
𝑟𝐸𝑆 365
the year ranging from 1 on 1st January to 365 on 31st December.
Example 1

On October 16 the day number n = 289

2
𝑟𝑜 360×289
• 𝐸𝑜 = = 1 + 0.033𝑐𝑜𝑠 = 1.0086
𝑟𝐸𝑆 365

•  𝒓𝑬𝑺 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟗𝟔 𝑨𝑼
Extra-terrestrial radiation
• Solar radiation reaching the top of the earth’s atmosphere is
proportional to the eccentricity correction factor. The extraterrestrial
radiation measured on a plane normal to the radiation on the nth day
of the year is given by:
360𝑛
• 𝐺𝑜𝑛 = 𝐸𝑜 × 𝐺𝑆𝐶 = 𝐺𝑆𝐶 1 + 0.033𝑐𝑜𝑠 [W/m2], where GSC is
365
the solar constant .
Solar constant
The solar constant is the energy from the sun, per unit time, received
on a unit area of surface perpendicular to the direction of propagation
of radiation, at mean sun-earth distance, outside the atmosphere.
Variation of extra-terrestrial solar radiation
Graph bellow shows the variation of extra-terrestrial solar radiation,
Gon, with time of the year.
Elliptic plane
• The plane of revolution of the earth around the sun is called the elliptic
plane. The earth itself rotates around an axis called the polar axis, which is
inclined approximately 23.5 degrees from the normal to the elliptical plane.
The earth’s rotation around its axis causes diurnal changes in radiation
income (day or night). The position of the axis relative to the sun causes
seasonal changes in solar radiation.
• The angle between the polar axis and the normal to the elliptical plane
however remains unchanged, i.e. the angle between the earth’s equatorial
plane and the elliptical plane remains unchanged (23.5 degrees).
Solar Declination Angle, 
• The angle between the line joining the centers of the sun and earth
to the equatorial plane changes everyday, in fact every instant. This
angle is called the declination angle, .

𝛿=0 𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑚𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑥𝑒𝑠

= ±23.45 𝑎𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑒𝑠
• The declination angle is positive in summer (in the Northern
Hemisphere) or winter in the Southern hemisphere.

• It is negative in summer (in the Southern Hemisphere) or winter in

the Northern hemisphere.

• It has a value of -23.5 degrees and 23.5 degrees at the winter and
summer solstices, respectively (December 21 and June 21
thereabout).

• It has a value of zero degrees at autumnal and vernal equinoxes

(March 21 and September 21).
• The declination angle can be described by drawing a celestial sphere
with the earth at the centre and the sun revolving around it. In the
celestial sphere the celestial poles are the points at which the earth’s
polar axis, when produced, cuts the celestial sphere. Similarly, the
celestial equator is the outward projection of the earth’s equatorial
plane on the celestial sphere. The intersection of the plane of the
equator with the plane of the sun’s revolution, the elliptic, makes an
angle of 23.5 degrees. At any time given time, the position of the sun
relative to the celestial equator describes the solar declination.

•  is given by:
360
𝛿 = 23.45 sin 𝑛 + 284
365
Example 2
• Calculate the declination angle on 1 February. In which hemisphere is the sun
over on this date?
Solution
On February 1 , n =32.Hence
360
𝛿 = 23.45 sin 𝑛 + 284
365

360
𝛿 = 23.45 sin 32 + 284
365

𝛿 = −17.7 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑠
Class Exercises 1

i) Calculate the declination angle on June 16. In which hemisphere is

the sun over on June 16?
ii) Find the days of the year when the declination angle is

(a) zero degrees and

(b) +/-23.45 degrees

Solution Exercise 1
• Declination angle on 16 June . In which hemisphere is the sun over on this date?
On 16 June, n =167.Hence
360
𝛿 = 23.45 sin 𝑛 + 284
365

360
𝛿 = 23.45 sin 167 + 284
365

𝛿 = 23.35 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑠
• Its +ve, hence the sun is over in the Northern Hemisphere
Equation of Time
• The time based on the apparent angular motion of the sun across the sky is
called solar time.

• Solar time is based on the rotation of the earth about its polar axis as well
as its revolution around the sun.

• A solar day is the interval of time (not necessarily 24 hours) when the sun
appears to complete one cycle about a stationary observer on earth.

• The solar day varies in length throughout the year. The two principal
factors for variance are the following:
• The solar day varies in length throughout the year. The two principal
factors for variance are the following:

(i) The earth sweeps out unequal areas on the elliptical plane as it revolves
around the sun (the earth’s orbit is not perfectly circular) and
(ii)The earth’s polar axis is tilted with respect to the elliptic plane

• In simple terms, this means that an observer on earth facing the equator
(facing North in the Southern Hemisphere) today sets a clock (running at
uniform rate) at 12 noon, when the sun is directly over the local meridian
(i.e. due north or south), then after a month or so at 12 noon (on the clock)
the sun may not appear exactly over the local meridian. A discrepancy of as
much as 16 minutes is possible. This discrepancy is called the equation of
time.
• The Equation of Time can be given by:
• 𝐸 = 229.2 ሺ0.000075 + 0.001868𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐵 − 0.032077𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐵 − 0.014615𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝐵 −
0.04089 sin 2𝐵ሻ
360
• Where 𝐵 = 𝑛 − 1 and n is the day number of the day number of the year.
365

Thus 1 ≤ 𝑛 ≤ 365. In equation 3.3.1 the second right-hand term in parenthesis

represents E in radians and the multiplier 229.2 converts it into minutes.
• Or it may be approximated in minutes as:
360 𝑛−81
• 𝐸 = 9.87𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝛽 − 7.5𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽 − 1.5𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽 , where 𝛽 = .
364
(3.3.2)
• Figure in the next slide shows the variation of the Equation of Time with day
number of the year.
Variation of Equation of Time over the year
• Solar radiation data are often recorded or reported in terms of solar
time (local apparent time).

• In fact solar time is used in all sun-angle relationship calculations

• In many solar energy studies it is usually necessary to obtain the

radiation, temperature and wind speed data for the same instant.
Therefore it is desirable to be able to convert local standard time
(clock time) to local apparent time (solar time).

• To carry out this conversion, it is necessary to know the standard

meridian for the local zone. All international standard meridians are
multiples of 15o E or W of Greenwich, England.
• Therefore, all standard times are hour multiples ahead or behind the Greenwich Mean Time.

𝑺𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆 = 𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒎𝒆𝒂𝒏 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 + 𝟒 𝑳𝒔𝒕 − 𝑳𝒍𝒐𝒄 + 𝑬

• Lst is the standard meridian of the local zone and Lloc is the longitude (meridian) of the location in
degrees West.

OR
𝑺𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆 = 𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒎𝒆𝒂𝒏 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 ሺ+/−ሻ𝟒 𝑳𝒔𝒕 − 𝑳𝒍𝒐𝒄 + 𝑬

• Lst is the standard meridian of the local zone and Lloc is the longitude (meridian) of the location in
degrees East

• If the location is east of the standard meridian, the correction is added to the clock time. If the location
is west, it is subtracted.

• If the location is East of Greenwich , the sign of the equation is minus (-), and if it is West , the sign is
plus (+).
Example 3
At Victoria Falls longitude 25.9 East what is the solar time corresponding to 10:30 am clock time on
February 3.

Solution

At Victoria Falls Lloc = -25.9o and Lst = -30o (nearest multiple of 15o), Equation 3.3.3 gives:

𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 = 𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 + 4 −30 − ሺ−25.9ሻ + 𝐸

= 𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 − 16.4 + 𝐸

But On February 3, n= 34 and from the Equation of Time , E is -13.5 minutes. Therefore the
correction to standard time is -29.9 minutes.

Thus 10:30 am standard time is about 10 am (actually 10:00:06 am).

Class Exercise
• Calculate the apparent solar time on March 10 at 2:30 pm for the city
of Athens, Greece (23.66◦E longitude).
Class Exercise Solution
• The ET for March 10 (n=69) is calculated using the ET equation.The factor B
is obtain
360 𝑛−81
• 𝛽= .
364
360 69−81
• = =-11.87
364
• 𝐸 = 9.87𝑠𝑖𝑛2 −11.87 − 7.5 cos −11.87 − 1.5 sin −11.87
• =-11.04 min
• The standard meridian for Athens is 30 degrees longitude. Therefore , the
Apparent Solar time at 2:30 pm is
𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 = 14: 30 − 4 30 − 23.66 − 11.04

= 13: 54 𝑜𝑟 1: 54 𝑝𝑚
 Sun – Earth Relationships

Eng H Chingosho
Direction of Beam Radiation
• The geometric relationships between a plane of any particular
orientation relative to the earth at any time (whether the plane is
fixed or moving relative to the earth) and the incoming beam solar
radiation, that is, the position of the sun relative to that plane, can be
described in terms of several angles.
• The angles are as follows:

 Latitude, the angular position north or south of the equator, north

positive; −90° ≤ ∅ ≤ 90° .

 Declination, the angular position of the sun at solar noon with

respect to the respect to the equatorial plane i.e. the angle between
the line joining the centers of the earth and sun to the equatorial
plane; north positive; −23.45° ≤ 𝛿 ≤ 23.45°.
A fixed aperture with its orientation defined by the tilt angle and
the aperture azimuth angle . The aperture normal N and sun
position vector S are also shown.
 Slope, the angle between the plane of the surface in question and the
horizontal; 0 ≤ 𝛽 ≤ 180°.
 Surface azimuth angle, the deviation of the projection on a horizontal
plane of the normal to the surface from the local meridian, with zero due
north, east positive and west negative; −180° ≤ 𝛾 ≤ 180°.

ω Hour angle, the angular displacement of the sun east or west of the
local meridian due to rotation of the earth on its axis at 15o per hour. ω is
zero at solar noon, when the sun is above the local meridian, 𝜔 = 15ሺ𝑡 −
12ሻ; morning negative, afternoon positive.

 Angle of incidence, the angle between beam radiation on a surface

and the normal to the surface.
• Additional angles are defined that describe that describe the position
of the sun in the sky:
• z Zenith angle, the angle between the vertical and the line to the
sun, i.e. the angle of incidence of beam radiation on a horizontal
surface
• s Solar altitude angle, the angle between the horizontal and the
line to the sun, i.e. the compliment of the zenith angle.
• s Solar azimuth, the angular displacement from north of the
projection of beam radiation on the horizontal. Displacements east
of north are positive and west of north negative.
• There are a set of useful relationships between these angles.
Equations relating the angle of incidence of beam radiation on a
surface, , to the other angles are:

𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜹𝒔𝒊𝒏𝝋𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜷 − 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜹𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝋𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜷𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜸 +

𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜹𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝋𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜷𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝎 + 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜹𝒔𝒊𝒏𝝋𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜷𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜸𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝎 +
𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜹𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜷𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜸𝒔𝒊𝒏𝝎 (Equation 2.4.1)

• And

𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑧 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑧 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛾𝑠 − 𝛾

Class Exercise

• Calculate the angle of incidence of beam radiation on a surface

located at Harare, latitude 17.8o South, at 10:30 (solar time) on June
11, if the surface is tilted at 25o from the horizontal and pointed 15o
east of north.[5 marks]
Special Cases
• There are several commonly occurring cases for which general
equation (2.4.1 ) is simplified.
Case One
i) For a horizontal surface, =0, the second, fourth and fifth terms drop
out and the angle of incidence on the horizontal is actually the zenith
angle, z. The resulting equation is:

𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽𝒛 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜹𝒔𝒊𝒏𝝋 + 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜹𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝋𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝎. (Equation 2.4.2 )

 Case Two
• The sunset/sunrise hour angle on the horizontal surface (on the horizon
actually) is determined by realizing that = 𝜃𝑧 = 90° , 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑧 = 0 and
𝜔 = 𝜔𝑠 , the sunset hour angle.
• Thus, after rearranging Equation 2.4.2 we get:
𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝎𝒔 = −𝒕𝒂𝒏𝝋𝒕𝒂𝒏𝜹 or 𝝎𝒔 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔−𝟏 −𝒕𝒂𝒏𝝋𝒕𝒂𝒏𝜹 (Equation 2.4.3)
2
• The number of daylight hours is thus: 𝑁𝑑 = 𝜔 =
15 𝑠
𝟐
𝒄𝒐𝒔−𝟏 −𝒕𝒂𝒏𝝋𝒕𝒂𝒏𝜹 (Equation 2.4.4)
𝟏𝟓
• At the equinoxes,  = 0 and ωs = 90o, Nd =12 hours irrespective of location
(latitude). At the equator,  = 0, and ωs = 90o, Nd =12 hours irrespective of
season (declination).