Effects of Harmonics

The distortion in the waveform in the load current of any nonlinear

device causes similar changes in the voltage waveform relative to the harmonic
impedance of the source network. This voltage distortion affects both the
current and voltage for all other loads connected to that system.

How bad harmonics influence on motors and generators, transformers,

capacitors and other equipment (on photo: FLUKE 437-II testing equipment
power quality tool)
The common effects of such harmonic distortion are as follows:

1. Motors and generators

2. Transformers
3. Capacitors
4. Power cables
5. Electronic equipment
6. Switchgear and relaying
7. Fuses
8. Communication Systems Interference
1. Motors and generators
Generators and motors are adversely affected by harmonics in the networks to
which they are connected. Typical effects are:

1. Increased heating due to iron and copper losses at the harmonic frequencies
2. Higher audible noise emission as compared with sinusoidal excitation
3. Harmonic currents in the rotor
The harmonic currents noted above are caused by harmonics in the stator
winding, which will produce harmonic currents in the rotor, e.g., 5th- and
7th-order stator harmonics will produce 6th-order rotor harmonics, while 11th-
and 13th-order stator harmonics will produce 12th-order rotor harmonics.

These rotor harmonic currents will result in increased rotor heating and
pulsating or reduced torque.

It should also be noted that system unbalance (standing unbalance or

ground faults), expressed as negative-sequence currents, can also reflect into
the rotor as harmonic currents, which add to those noted above.
Generators can also produce harmonics and, in particular, triplen
harmonics that can circulate through adjacent Wye-grounded transformers
when generators are directly connected to a load bus. The use of the Delta-
connected generator transformers can control this.

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2. Transformers
The stray-loss factor for copper conductors varies as the square of the load
current and the square of the frequency, and will therefore vary with the
harmonic mix in the power supply. Although the percentage contribution to
distortion by higher harmonics decreases as the harmonic frequency rises, its
heating effect, even if the harmonic percentages are low, could rise
substantially.
The harmonics generated by nonlinear loads such as variable-frequency drives
(VFD) will impose non-sinusoidal current on the power transformers that supply
such loads, resulting in a substantial increase in losses and temperature
rise.
With the addition of harmonic currents, standard design transformers must be
derated to limit the temperature rise to be within the insulation temperature-rise
rating or the transformer needs to be replaced with a special “K”-rated
transformer.

Special K-
factor transformer nameplate

The “K” factor has been established by Underwriter Laboratories (UL) to define
the ability of a transformer to serve varying degrees of nonlinear load current
without exceeding the rated temperature rise.

The “K” factor is based on the predicted losses as specified in ANSI/IEEE

C57.110 [S14].
3. Capacitors
Any capacitance in an AC network can produce a risk of resonance with the
inductive parts of the network. Although electrical networks are designed not
to have any resonances at fundamental frequencies, when the multiple
frequency effects of harmonic distortions are considered, there is always the
possible risk of system resonance.

These and other effects of harmonics on capacitors and capacitor banks

are as follows:

1. Resonance imposes considerably higher voltages and currents in capacitors.

2. The capacitor bank acts as a sink for higher harmonic currents, which
increases the heating and dielectric stresses.
3. The losses in a capacitor are proportional to the reactive output (kVAR),
which, in turn, is proportional to the frequency. These losses are increased,
and the overall capacitor life is shortened with increasing harmonics.
To avoid or minimize such problems, capacitor banks can be tuned to reject
certain harmonics by adding reactance.
In most industrial harmonics power systems, the primary objective for installing
capacitors is to meet the utility power factor requirements as expressed in its
tariff rates. Additional benefits are better voltage regulation and lower
losses.

Commonly used locations are shown in Figure 2 below.

Figure 2 – Typical one-line diagram for an industrial system
Any capacitor bank can be a source of parallel resonance with the system
inductance.

Avoiding resonance problems

The best approach to avoid resonance problems is to install large capacitor
banks at the main bus. This solution offers the following advantages:

1. More available reactive power to the system as a whole

2. Easier control of harmonic voltages and currents
3. Lower capital costs, as large banks are more economical in terms of
purchase cost
4. Reactors can be added to shift the resonant frequency away from the
characteristic harmonic frequency of the plant
Capacitors can also be combined with reactors to develop harmonic filters at
the troublesome resonance harmonic frequencies. The resonant frequency at
the capacitor bus can be calculated by:

Where:

• fr is resonant frequency
• fs is system frequency, 60 Hz
• kVAsc is three-phase system fault level in kVA
• kVAc is three-phase capacitor-bank rating in kVA

4. Power cables
Power cables are inherently capacitive and, as noted above for capacitor
banks, their capacitance can produce a risk of resonance with the inductive
parts of the network.

These resonance risks and the harmonics themselves can produce the
following problems for cable systems:

1. Cables involved in system resonance may be subjected to voltage stress

and corona.
2. Increased heating due to higher rms current, skin effect, and proximity effect.
The skin effect will vary with the frequency and conductor size.
Power cable conductors commonly lie very close to one another, and therefore
the high-frequency currents in the outer skin of one conductor influence the
spread and behavior of high-frequency currents in the skin of the adjoining
conductors, giving rise to a “proximity effect.”
The skin effect and proximity effect are proportional to the square of a frequency. Cables

therefore have to be derated if there is significant harmonic distortion, particularly if I THD is

greater than 10%.

Feeder cable to the drive cubicle

The power cable feeder to any variable-frequency drive (VFD) drive carries
60 Hz fundamental or sinusoidal current plus the harmonic currents produced
by the drive. The selected feeder size needs to be based on the heating from
the total rms current (fundamental plus harmonics) and the skin effect of the
higher order harmonics.

The cable therefore has to be derated to compensate for additional

heat caused by the harmonic currents and the associated skin effect.
Skin effect also depends on the conductor size and, hence, large conductor
sizes should be avoided.

Figure 3 – Cable derating vs. harmonics with six-pulse harmonic current distribution
Figure 3 shows the cable derating factors plotted against percentage harmonic
current with the harmonic mix associated with a typical 6-pulse VFD. Due to the
skin effect, more derating is required for large conductors.

A paper by Hiranandani has covered the method of performing cable ampacity

calculations to include the effects of harmonics. Some cable manufacturers
have in-house computer software and can assist the users if the specific
harmonic data is available for the drives under consideration.
In terms of the application of cables for variable speed drives, or other
signicant harmonic sources, the following recommendations can be
made:

1. Use three-conductor and not single-conductor cables.

2. Avoid large conductors to minimize the losses due to skin effect. The
conductor size should not exceed 350 kcmil.
3. Use shielded cables for equipment rated above 600 V.
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5. Electronic equipment
Power electronic equipment is susceptible to mis-operation if there are
significant levels of harmonic distortion. Some of the control systems for
power electronic devices use zero crossing detection to control switching.

Harmonic distortion can result in shifting of the voltage zero crossing points,
and these changes can be critical for many types of electronic control circuits.
Also, if incorrect switching occurs, more harmonics can be produced,
compounding the problem.

6. Switchgear and relaying

Harmonic currents in switchgear will increase heating and losses in switchgear
in the same way as has been discussed for power cables above. Similarly,
voltage distortions can cause problems for voltage transformers (VT) and
connected relays, while current distortion can do the same for current
transformers (CT) and current-operated relays.
In particular, electromechanical overcurrent relays exhibit a tendency to operate
more slowly, while static underfrequency relays that use zero crossing for
frequency measurement are susceptible to substantial changes in operating
characteristics in the same way as noted above for electronic control circuits.

Harmonics can also impair the speed of operation of electromagnetic-type

differential relays.

Modern digital relays use filtering techniques to produce the fundamental

frequency only so that the fault current and voltage measurement circuits are
not significantly affected by harmonics. Correct filtering requires the relay
algorithm to track the system frequency, and most relays have a limited
frequency range over which they are designed to operate.
Although the fault-measuring capability may not be compromised, its ability to
correctly measure and detect overloading conditions depends on its ability to
measure the heating effect accurately, i.e., the full rms values.

Although corrections can be made in the settings when the harmonic mix is
known, it is important to know the cut-off frequency of the relay to be able
to fully compensate and protect devices, such as high-frequency filters.

Fuses
Fuses suffer a derating factor because of the heat generated by harmonics.
Fuses can therefore malfunction under the influence of harmonics. These
effects must be considered so that the fuses can be derated correctly.

Also, the unwarranted and frequent blowing of fuses is an indication of the

presence of unexpected harmonics or changes in the harmonic mix in that
system.

8. Communication Systems Interference

Communication systems are susceptible to interference from harmonics,
particularly those that result in frequencies in the audible range. Any increase in
audible telephone interference needs to be investigated, since this is often the
first warning that harmonics are present or are increasing.
When calculating the influence of harmonics and their associated frequencies
on adjacent communication circuits, two factors are used, the weightage
factor, W, and the telephone interface factor, TIF.
The weighting in the W factor is based on the sensitivity of the human ear and
is shown in figure 4. The communication interference due to inductive coupling
between power and communication circuits is calculated using the TIF, which is
de ned as:

Figure 4 – Telephone interface factor (TIF) weightage values

Where:

Wf = 5 × Pf × f

Where:

• Vf is rms voltage at frequency f

• Wf is TIF weightage factor at frequency f
• Vt is rms fundamental
• Pf is C message weighting
• 5 is constant to simulate captive coupling
• f is frequency
Impact of Nonlinear Loads
Harmonics are a convenient way of expressing the waveform distortion
caused by nonlinear loads in electrical power systems. Before the
introduction of power electronics, most nonlinear loads were the result of static
rectifier systems or the operation of transformers of shunt reactors at voltages
beyond their magnetizing knee point, i.e., beyond their linear region.

Since the introduction of power electronics into industrial systems, waveform

distortion has become more common, and the need for analysis of the resultant
harmonics has increased.

Other waveform distortions occur when transformers are energized, but

these harmonics are transient in nature. Harmonics can also cause
resonance with, and overloading of, devices designed to operate at
fundamental frequencies only.
To control the level of harmonics in any system, it is important to know both the
source of harmonics and the devices that are sensitive to such harmonics to
limit their effect in any network.

Table 1 – Harmonic current generated by nonlinear loads (% of

Fundamental)

Harmonic Rectifier VFD SMPS PC Fluoroscent

Order 6/12-Pulse PWM6-Pulse Lamps
3 … … 81 57 28.7
5 20/… 25-47 60.6 38 2.6
7 14.3/… 16 37.5 23 2.2
9 … … 15.7 13 …
11 9.1/9.1 8.7 2.4 23 …
13 7.7/7.7 4.5 6.3 5 …
15 … … 7.9 3 …
17 5.9/… 3.7 … … …
19 5.3/… 1.9 … … …
THD 28/14.3 51 116 75 29