Key takeaways

1. The print() function is a built-in function. It prints/outputs a specified message to the

screen/consol window.

2. Built-in functions, contrary to user-defined functions, are always available and don't have to
be imported. Python 3.7.1 comes with 69 built-in functions. You can find their full list provided
in alphabetical order in the Python Standard Library.

3. To call a function (function invocation), you need to use the function name followed by
parentheses. You can pass arguments into a function by placing them inside the parentheses. You
must separate arguments with a comma, e.g., print("Hello,", "world!"). An "empty"
print() function outputs an empty line to the screen.

4. Python strings are delimited with quotes, e.g., "I am a string", or 'I am a string,
too'.

5. Computer programs are collections of instructions. An instruction is a command to perform a

specific task when executed, e.g., to print a certain message to the screen.

6. In Python strings the backslash (\) is a special character which announces that the next
character has a different meaning, e.g., \n (the newline character) starts a new output line.

7. Positional arguments are the ones whose meaning is dictated by their position, e.g., the
second argument is outputted after the first, the third is outputted after the second, etc.

8. Keyword arguments are the ones whose meaning is not dictated by their location, but by a
special word (keyword) used to identify them.

9. The end and sep parameters can be used for formatting the output of the print() function.
The sep parameter specifies the separator between the outputted arguments (e.g., print("H",
"E", "L", "L", "O", sep="-"), whereas the end parameter specifies what to print at the end
of the print statement.

Key takeaways
1. An expression is a combination of values (or variables, operators, calls to functions - you will
learn about them soon) which evaluates to a value, e.g., 1 + 2.
2. Operators are special symbols or keywords which are able to operate on the values and
perform (mathematical) operations, e.g., the * operator multiplies two values: x * y.

3. Arithmetic operators in Python: + (addition), - (subtraction), * (multiplication), / (classic

division - returns a float if one of the values is of float type), % (modulus - divides left operand by
right operand and returns the remainder of the operation, e.g., 5 % 2 = 1), ** (exponentiation -
left operand raised to the power of right operand, e.g., 2 ** 3 = 2 * 2 * 2 = 8), //
(floor/integer division - returns a number resulting from division, but rounded down to the
nearest whole number, e.g., 3 // 2.0 = 1.0)

4. A unary operator is an operator with only one operand, e.g., -1, or +3.

5. A binary operator is an operator with two operands, e.g., 4 + 5, or 12 % 5.

6. Some operators act before others - the hierarchy of priorities:

 unary + and - have the highest priority

 then: **, then: *, /, and %, and then the lowest priority: binary + and -.

7. Subexpressions in parentheses are always calculated first, e.g., 15 - 1 * (5 * (1 + 2)) =

0.

8. The exponentiation operator uses right-sided binding, e.g., 2 ** 2 ** 3 = 256.

Exercise 1

What is the output of the following snippet?

print((2 ** 4), (2 * 4.), (2 * 4))

Exercise 2

What is the output of the following snippet?

print((-2 / 4), (2 / 4), (2 // 4), (-2 // 4))

Exercise 3

What is the output of the following snippet?

print((2 % -4), (2 % 4), (2 ** 3 ** 2))

Key takeaways

1. A variable is a named location reserved to store values in the memory. A variable is created
or initialized automatically when you assign a value to it for the first time. (2.1.4.1)

2. Each variable must have a unique name - an identifier. A legal identifier name must be a non-
empty sequence of characters, must begin with the underscore(_), or a letter, and it cannot be a
Python keyword. The first character may be followed by underscores, letters, and digits.
Identifiers in Python are case-sensitive. (2.1.4.1)

3. Python is a dynamically-typed language, which means you don't need to declare variables in
it. (2.1.4.3) To assign values to variables, you can use a simple assignment operator in the form
of the equal (=) sign, i.e., var = 1.

4. You can also use compound assignment operators (shortcut operators) to modify values
assigned to variables, e.g., var += 1, or var /= 5 * 2. (2.1.4.8)

5. You can assign new values to already existing variables using the assignment operator or one
of the compound operators, e.g.: (2.1.4.5)

var = 2 print(var) var = 3 print(var) var += 1 print(var)

6. You can combine text and variables using the + operator, and use the print() function to
output strings and variables, e.g.: (2.1.4.4)

var = "007" print("Agent " + var)

Key takeaways

1. Comments can be used to leave additional information in code. They are omitted at runtime.
The information left in source code is addressed to human readers. In Python, a comment is a
piece of text that begins with #. The comment extends to the end of line.

2. If you want to place a comment that spans several lines, you need to place # in front of them
all. Moreover, you can use a comment to mark a piece of code that is not needed at the moment
(see the last line of the snippet below), e.g.:

# This program prints # an introduction to the screen. print("Hello!") #

Invoking the print() function # print("I'm Python.")
3. Whenever possible and justified, you should give self-commenting names to variables, e.g., if
you're using two variables to store a length and width of something, the variable names length
and width may be a better choice than myvar1 and myvar2.

4. It's important to use comments to make programs easier to understand, and to use readable and
meaningful variable names in code. However, it's equally important not to use variable names
that are confusing, or leave comments that contain wrong or incorrect information!

5. Comments can be important when you are reading your own code after some time (trust us,
developers do forget what their own code does), and when others are reading your code (can
help them understand what your programs do and how they do it more quickly).

Key takeaways

1. The print() function sends data to the console, while the input() function gets data from
the console.

2. The input() function comes with an optional parameter: the prompt string. It allows you to
write a message before the user input, e.g.:

name = input("Enter your name: ") print("Hello, " + name + ". Nice to meet
you!")

3. When the input() function is called, the program's flow is stopped, the prompt symbol keeps
blinking (it prompts the user to take action when the console is switched to input mode) until the
user has entered an input and/or pressed the Enter key.

NOTE

You can test the functionality of the input() function in its full scope locally on your machine.
For resource optimization reasons, we have limited the maximum program execution time in
Edube to a few seconds. Go to Sandbox, copy-paste the above snippet, run the program, and do
nothing - just wait a few seconds to see what happens. Your program should be stopped
automatically after a short moment. Now open IDLE, and run the same program there - can you
see the difference?

Tip: the above-mentioned feature of the input() function can be used to prompt the user to end
a program. Look at the code below:
name = input("Enter your name: ") print("Hello, " + name + ". Nice to meet
you!") print("\nPress Enter to end the program.") input() print("THE END.")

3. The result of the input() function is a string. You can add strings to each other using the
concatenation (+) operator. Check out this code:

num1 = input("Enter the first number: ") # Enter 12 num2 = input("Enter the
second number: ") # Enter 21 print(num1 + num2) # the program returns 1221

4. You can also multiply (* - replication) strings, e.g.:

myInput = ("Enter something: ") # Example input: hello print(myInput * 3) #

Expected output: hellohellohello

Key takeaways

1. The comparison (or the so-called relational) operators are used to compare values. The table
below illustrates how the comparison operators work, assuming that x = 0, y = 1, and z = 0:

Operator Description Example

returns if operands' values are equal, and
== x == y # False x == z # True
False otherwise

!=
returns True if operands' values are not x != y # True x != z # False
equal, and False otherwise
True if the left operand's value is greater
> than the right operand's value, and False x > y # False y > z # True
otherwise
True if the left operand's value is less than
< the right operand's value, and False x < y # True y < z # False
otherwise
True if the left operand's value is greater
x >= y # False x >= z # True
≥ than or equal to the right operand's value, y >= z # True
and False otherwise
True if the left operand's value is less than
x <= y # True x <= z # True y
≤ or equal to the right operand's value, and <= z # False
False otherwise

2. When you want to execute some code only if a certain condition is met, you can use a
conditional statement:
 a single if statement, e.g.:

x = 10 if x == 10: # condition print("x is equal to 10") # executed if

the condition is True

 a series of if statements, e.g.:

x = 10 if x > 5: # condition one print("x is greater than 5") #

executed if condition one is True if x < 10: # condition two print("x
is less than 10") # executed if condition two is True if x == 10: #
condition three print("x is equal to 10") # executed if condition three
is True

Each if statement is tested separately.

 an if-else statement, e.g.:

x = 10 if x < 10: # condition print("x is less than 10") # executed if

the condition is True else: print("x is greater than or equal to 10") #
executed if the condition is False

 a series of if statements followed by an else, e.g.:

x = 10 if x > 5: # True print("x > 5") if x > 8: # True print("x > 8")
if x > 10: # False print("x > 10") else: print("else will be executed")

Each if is tested separately. The body of else is executed if the last if is False.

 The if-elif-else statement, e.g.:

x = 10 if x == 10: # True print("x == 10") if x > 15: # False print("x

> 15") elif x > 10: # False print("x > 10") elif x > 5: # True print("x
> 5") else: print("else will not be executed")

If the condition for if is False, the program checks the conditions of the subsequent
elif blocks - the first elif block that is True is executed. If all the conditions are False,
the else block will be executed.

 Nested conditional statements, e.g.:

 x = 10 if x > 5: # True if x == 6: # False print("nested: x == 6") elif
x == 10: # True print("nested: x == 10") else: print("nested: else")
else: print("else")

Key takeaways: continued

Exercise 1

What is the output of the following snippet?

x = 5 y = 10 z = 8 print(x > y) print(y > z)

Exercise 2

What is the output of the following snippet?

x, y, z = 5, 10, 8 print(x > z) print((y - 5) == x)

Exercise 3

What is the output of the following snippet?

x, y, z = 5, 10, 8 x, y, z = z, y, x print(x > z) print((y - 5) == x)

Exercise 4

What is the output of the following snippet?

x = 10 if x == 10: print(x == 10) if x > 5: print(x > 5) if x < 10: print(x <
10) else: print("else")

Exercise 5

What is the output of the following snippet?

x = "1" if x == 1: print("one") elif x == "1": if int(x) > 1: print("two")

elif int(x) < 1: print("three") else: print("four") if int(x) == 1:
print("five") else: print("six")
Exercise 6

What is the output of the following snippet?

x = 1 y = 1.0 z = "1" if x == y: print("one") if y == int(z): print("two")

elif x == y: print("three") else: print("four")

Key takeaways

1. There are two types of loops in Python: while and for:

 the while loop executes a statement or a set of statements as long as a specified boolean
condition is true, e.g.:

# Example 1 while True: print("Stuck in an infinite loop.") # Example 2

counter = 5 while counter > 2: print(counter) counter -= 1

 the for loop executes a set of statements many times; it's used to iterate over a sequence
(e.g., a list, a dictionary, a tuple, or a set - you will learn about them soon) or other
objects that are iterable (e.g., strings). You can use the for loop to iterate over a sequence
of numbers using the built-in range function. Look at the examples below:

# Example 1 word = "Python" for letter in word: print(letter, end="*")

# Example 2 for i in range(1, 10): if i % 2 == 0: print(i)

2. You can use the break and continue statements to change the flow of a loop:

 You use break to exit a loop, e.g.:

text = "OpenEDG Python Institute" for letter in text: if letter == "P":

break print(letter, end="")

 You use continue to skip the current iteration, and continue with the next iteration, e.g.:
 text = "pyxpyxpyx" for letter in text: if letter == "x": continue
print(letter, end="")

3. The while and for loops can also have an else clause in Python. The else clause executes
after the loop finishes its execution as long as it has not been terminated by break, e.g.:

n = 0 while n != 3: print(n) n += 1 else: print(n, "else") print() for i in

range(0, 3): print(i) else: print(i, "else")

4. The range() function generates a sequence of numbers. It accepts integers and returns range
objects. The syntax of range() looks as follows: range(start, stop, step), where:

 start is an optional parameter specifying the starting number of the sequence (0 by

default)
 stop is an optional parameter specifying the end of the sequence generated (it is not
included),
 and step is an optional parameter specifying the difference between the numbers in the
sequence (1 by default.)

Example code:

for i in range(3): print(i, end=" ") # outputs: 0 1 2 for i in range(6, 1, -

2): print(i, end=" ") # outputs: 6, 4, 2

Key takeaways: continued

Exercise 1

Create a for loop that counts from 0 to 10, and prints odd numbers to the screen. Use the
skeleton below:

for i in range(1, 11): # line of code # line of code

Exercise 2

Create a while loop that counts from 0 to 10, and prints odd numbers to the screen. Use the
skeleton below:

x = 1 while x < 11: # line of code # line of code # line of code

Exercise 3

Create a program with a for loop and a break statement. The program should iterate over
characters in an email address, exit the loop when it reaches the @ symbol, and print the part
before @ on one line. Use the skeleton below:

for ch in "[email protected]": if ch == "@": # line of code #

line of code

Exercise 4

Create a program with a for loop and a continue statement. The program should iterate over a
string of digits, replace each 0 with x, and print the modified string to the screen. Use the
skeleton below:

for digit in "0165031806510": if digit == "0": # line of code # line of code

# line of code

Exercise 5

What is the output of the following code?

n = 3 while n > 0: print(n + 1) n -= 1 else: print(n)

Exercise 6

What is the output of the following code?

n = range(4) for num in n: print(num - 1) else: print(num)

Exercise 7

What is the output of the following code?

for i in range(0, 6, 3): print(i)

Key takeaways

1. Python supports the following logical operators:

 and → if both operands are true, the condition is true, e.g., (True and True) is True,
 or → if any of the operands are true, the condition is true, e.g., (True or False) is
True,
 not → returns false if the result is true, and returns true if the result is false, e.g., not
True is False.

2. You can use bitwise operators to manipulate single bits of data. The following sample data:

 x = 15, which is 0000 1111 in binary,

 y = 16, which is 0001 0000 in binary.

will be used to illustrate the meaning of bitwise operators in Python. Analyze the examples
below:

 & does a bitwise and, e.g., x & y = 0, which is 0000 0000 in binary,
 | does a bitwise or, e.g., x | y = 31, which is 0001 1111 in binary,
 ˜ does a bitwise not, e.g., ˜ x = 240, which is 1111 0000 in binary,
 ^ does a bitwise xor, e.g., x ^ y = 31, which is 0001 1111 in binary,
 >> does a bitwise right shift, e.g., y >> 1 = 8, which is 0000 1000 in binary,
 << does a bitwise left shift, e.g., y << 3 = , which is 1000 0000 in binary,

Exercise 1

What is the output of the following snippet?

x = 1 y = 0 z = ((x == y) and (x == y)) or not(x == y) print(not(z))

Exercise 2

What is the output of the following snippet?

x = 4 y = 1 a = x & y b = x | y c = ~x d = x ^ 5 e = x >> 2 f = x << 2

print(a, b, c, d, e, f)
Key takeaways

1. The list is a type of data in Python used to store multiple objects. It is an ordered and
mutable collection of comma-separated items between square brackets, e.g.:

myList = [1, None, True, "I am a string", 256, 0]

2. Lists can be indexed and updated, e.g.:

myList = [1, None, True, 'I am a string', 256, 0] print(myList[3]) # outputs:

I am a string print(myList[-1]) # outputs: 0 myList[1] = '?' print(myList) #
outputs: [1, '?', True, 'I am a string', 256, 0] myList.insert(0, "first")
myList.append("last") print(myList) # outputs: ['first', 1, '?', True, 'I am
a string', 256, 0, 'last']

3. Lists can be nested, e.g.: myList = [1, 'a', ["list", 64, [0, 1], False]].

You will learn more about nesting in module 3.1.7 - for the time being, we just want you to be
aware that something like this is possible, too.

4. List elements and lists can be deleted, e.g.:

myList = [1, 2, 3, 4] del myList[2] print(myList) # outputs: [1, 2, 4] del

myList # deletes the whole list

Again, you will learn more about this in module 3.1.6 - don't worry. For the time being just try to
experiment with the above code and check how changing it affects the output.

5. Lists can be iterated through using the for loop, e.g.:

myList = ["white", "purple", "blue", "yellow", "green"] for color in myList:

print(color)

6. The len() function may be used to check the list's length, e.g.:

myList = ["white", "purple", "blue", "yellow", "green"] print(len(myList)) #

outputs 5 del myList[2] print(len(myList)) # outputs 4

7. A typical function invocation looks as follows: result = function(arg), while a typical

method invocation looks like this:result = data.method(arg).
Exercise 1

What is the output of the following snippet?

lst = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5] lst.insert(1, 6) del lst[0] lst.append(1) print(lst)

Exercise 2

What is the output of the following snippet?

lst = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5] lst2 = [] add = 0 for number in lst: add += number

lst2.append(add) print(lst2)

Exercise 3

What happens when you run the following snippet?

lst = [] del lst print(lst)

Exercise 4

What is the output of the following snippet?

lst = [1, [2, 3], 4] print(lst[1]) print(len(lst))

Key takeaways

1. You can use the sort() method to sort elements of a list, e.g.:

lst = [5, 3, 1, 2, 4] print(lst) lst.sort() print(lst) # outputs: [1, 2, 3,

4, 5]

2. There is also a list method called reverse(), which you can use to reverse the list, e.g.:

lst = [5, 3, 1, 2, 4] print(lst) lst.reverse() print(lst) # outputs: [4, 2,

1, 3, 5]

Exercise 1
What is the output of the following snippet?

lst = ["D", "F", "A", "Z"] lst.sort() print(lst)

Exercise 2

What is the output of the following snippet?

a = 3 b = 1 c = 2 lst = [a, c, b] lst.sort() print(lst)

Key takeaways

1. If you have a list l1, then the following assignment: l2 = l1 does not make a copy of the l1
list, but makes the variables l1 and l2 point to one and the same list in memory. For example:

vehiclesOne = ['car', 'bicycle', 'motor'] print(vehiclesOne) # outputs:

['car', 'bicycle', 'motor'] vehiclesTwo = vehiclesOne del vehiclesOne[0] #
deletes 'car' print(vehiclesTwo) # outputs: ['bicycle', 'motor']

2. If you want to copy a list or part of the list, you can do it by performing slicing:

colors = ['red', 'green', 'orange'] copyWholeColors = colors[:] # copy the

whole list copyPartColors = colors[0:2] # copy part of the list

3. You can use negative indices to perform slices, too. For example:

sampleList = ["A", "B", "C", "D", "E"] newList = sampleList[2:-1]

print(newList) # outputs: ['C', 'D']

4. The start and end parameters are optional when performing a slice: list[start:end], e.g.:

myList = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5] sliceOne = myList[2: ] sliceTwo = myList[ :2]

sliceThree = myList[-2: ] print(sliceOne) # outputs: [3, 4, 5]
print(sliceTwo) # outputs: [1, 2] print(sliceThree) # outputs: [4, 5]

5. You can delete slices using the del instruction:

myList = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5] del myList[0:2] print(myList) # outputs: [3, 4, 5]

del myList[:] print(myList) # deletes the list content, outputs: []

6. You can test if some items exist in a list or not using the keywords in and not in, e.g.:
myList = ["A", "B", 1, 2] print("A" in myList) # outputs: True print("C" not
in myList) # outputs: True print(2 not in myList) # outputs: False

Exercise 1

What is the output of the following snippet?

l1 = ["A", "B", "C"] l2 = l1 l3 = l2 del l1[0] del l2[0] print(l3)

Exercise 2

What is the output of the following snippet?

l1 = ["A", "B", "C"] l2 = l1 l3 = l2 del l1[0] del l2 print(l3)

Exercise 3

What is the output of the following snippet?

l1 = ["A", "B", "C"] l2 = l1 l3 = l2 del l1[0] del l2[:] print(l3)

Exercise 4

What is the output of the following snippet?

l1 = ["A", "B", "C"] l2 = l1[:] l3 = l2[:] del l1[0] del l2[0] print(l3)

Exercise 5

Insert in or not in instead of ??? so that the code outputs the expected result.

myList = [1, 2, "in", True, "ABC"] print(1 ??? myList) # outputs True
print("A" ??? myList) # outputs True print(3 ??? myList) # outputs True
print(False ??? myList) # outputs False

Key takeaways
1. A function is a block of code that performs a specific task when the function is called
(invoked). You can use functions to make your code reusable, better organized, and more
readable. Functions can have parameters and return values.

2. There are at least four basic types of functions in Python:

 built-in functions which are an integral part of Python (such as the print() function).
You can see a complete list of Python built-in functions at
https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html.
 the ones that come from pre-installed modules (you'll learn about them in Module 5 of
this course)
 user-defined functions which are written by users for users - you can write your own
functions and use them freely in your code,
 the lambda functions (you'll learn about them in Module 6 of this course.)

3. You can define your own function using the def keyword and the following syntax:

def yourFunction(optional parameters): # the body of the function

You can define a function which doesn't take any arguments, e.g.:

def message(): # defining a function print("Hello") # body of the function

message() # calling the function

You can define a function which takes arguments, too, just like the one-parameter function
below:

def hello(name): # defining a function print("Hello,", name) # body of the

function name = input("Enter your name: ") hello(name) # calling the function

We'll tell you more about parametrized functions in the next section. Don't worry.

Exercise 1

The input() function is an example of a:

a) user-defined function
b) built-in function

Exercise 2
What happens when you try to invoke a function before you define it? Example:

hi() def hi(): print("hi!")

Exercise 3

What will happen when you run the code below?

def hi(): print("hi") hi(5)

Key takeaways

1. You can pass information to functions by using parameters. Your functions can have as many
parameters as you need.

An example of a one-parameter function:

def hi(name): print("Hi,", name) hi("Greg")

An example of a two-parameter function:

def hiAll(name1, name2): print("Hi,", name2) print("Hi,", name1)

hiAll("Sebastian", "Konrad")

An example of a three-parameter function:

def address(street, city, postalCode): print("Your address is:", street,

"St.,", city, postalCode) s = input("Street: ") pC = input("Postal Code: ") c
= input("City: ") address(s, c, pC)

2. You can pass arguments to a function using the following techniques:

 positional argument passing in which the order of arguments passed matters (Ex. 1),
 keyword (named) argument passing in which the order of arguments passed doesn't
matter (Ex. 2),
 a mix of positional and keyword argument passing (Ex. 3).

Ex. 1 def subtra(a, b): print(a - b) subtra(5, 2) # outputs: 3 subtra(2, 5) #

outputs: -3 Ex. 2 def subtra(a, b): print(a - b) subtra(a=5, b=2) # outputs:
3 subtra(b=2, a=5) # outputs: 3 Ex. 3 def subtra(a, b): print(a - b)
subtra(5, b=2) # outputs: 3 subtra(5, 2) # outputs: 3
It's important to remember that positional arguments mustn't follow keyword arguments.
That's why if you try to run the following snippet:

def subtra(a, b): print(a - b) subtra(5, b=2) # outputs: 3 subtra(a=5, 2) #

Syntax Error

Python will not let you do it by signalling a SyntaxError.

3. You can use the keyword argument passing technique to pre-define a value for a given
argument:

def name(firstN, lastN="Smith"): print(firstN, lastN) name("Andy") # outputs:

Andy Smith name("Betty", "Johnson") # outputs: Betty Johnson (the keyword
argument replaced by "Johnson")

Exercise 1

What is the output of the following snippet?

def intro(a="James Bond", b="Bond"): print("My name is", b + ".", a + ".")

intro()

Exercise 2

What is the output of the following snippet?

def intro(a="James Bond", b="Bond"): print("My name is", b + ".", a + ".")

intro(b="Sean Connery")

Exercise 3

What is the output of the following snippet?

def intro(a, b="Bond"): print("My name is", b + ".", a + ".") intro("Susan")

Exercise 4

What is the output of the following snippet?

def sum(a, b=2, c): print(a + b + c) sum(a=1, c=3)

Key takeaways

1. You can use the return keyword to tell a function to return some value. The return
statement exits the function, e.g.:

def multiply(a, b): return a * b print(multiply(3, 4)) # outputs: 12 def

multiply(a, b): return print(multiply(3, 4)) # outputs: None

2. The result of a function can be easily assigned to a variable, e.g.:

def wishes(): return "Happy Birthday!" w = wishes() print(w) # outputs: Happy

Birthday!

Look at the difference in output in the following two examples:

# Example 1 def wishes(): print("My Wishes") return "Happy Birthday" wishes()

# outputs: My Wishes # Example 2 def wishes(): print("My Wishes") return
"Happy Birthday" print(wishes()) # outputs: My Wishes # Happy Birthday

3. You can use a list as a function's argument, e.g.:

def hiEverybody(myList): for name in myList: print("Hi,", name)

hiEverybody(["Adam", "John", "Lucy"])

4. A list can be a function result, too, e.g.:

def createList(n): myList = [] for i in range(n): myList.append(i) return

myList print(createList(5))

Exercise 1

What is the output of the following snippet?

def hi(): return print("Hi!") hi()

Exercise 2
What is the output of the following snippet?

def isInt(data): if type(data) == int: return True elif type(data) == float:

return False print(isInt(5)) print(isInt(5.0)) print(isInt("5"))

Exercise 3

What is the output of the following snippet?

def evenNumLst(ran): lst = [] for num in range(ran): if num % 2 == 0:

lst.append(num) return lst print(evenNumLst(11))

Exercise 4

What is the output of the following snippet?

def listUpdater(lst): updList = [] for elem in lst: elem **= 2

updList.append(elem) return updList l = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5] print(listUpdater(l))

Key takeaways

1. A variable that exists outside a function has a scope inside the function body (Example 1)
unless the function defines a variable of the same name (Example 2, and Example 3), e.g.:

Example 1:

var = 2 def multByVar(x): return x * var print(multByVar(7)) # outputs: 14

Example 2:

def mult(x): var = 5 return x * var print(mult(7)) # outputs: 35

Example 3:

def multip(x): var = 7 return x * var var = 3 print(multip(7)) # outputs: 49

2. A variable that exists inside a function has a scope inside the function body (Example 4), e.g.:

Example 4:
def adding(x): var = 7 return x + var print(adding(4)) # outputs: 11
print(var) # NameError

3. You can use the global keyword followed by a variable name to make the variable's scope
global, e.g.:

var = 2 print(var) # outputs: 2 def retVar(): global var var = 5 return var
print(retVar()) # outputs: 5 print(var) # outputs: 5

Exercise 1

What will happen when you try to run the following code?

def message(): alt = 1 print("Hello, World!") print(alt)

Exercise 2

What is the output of the following snippet?

a = 1 def fun(): a = 2 print(a) fun() print(a)

Exercise 3

What is the output of the following snippet?

a = 1 def fun(): global a a = 2 print(a) fun() a = 3 print(a)

Exercise 4

What is the output of the following snippet?

a = 1 def fun(): global a a = 2 print(a) a = 3 fun() print(a)

Key takeaways

1. A function can call other functions or even itself. When a function calls itself, this situation is
known as recursion, and the function which calls itself and contains a specified termination
condition (i.e., the base case - a condition which doesn't tell the function to make any further
calls to that function) is called a recursive function.

2. You can use recursive functions in Python to write clean, elegant code, and divide it into
smaller, organized chunks. On the other hand, you need to be very careful as it might be easy
to make a mistake and create a function which never terminates. You also need to remember
that recursive calls consume a lot of memory, and therefore may sometimes be inefficient.

When using recursion, you need to take all its advantages and disadvantages into consideration.

The factorial function is a classic example of how the concept of recursion can be put in practice:

# Recursive implementation of the factorial function def factorial(n): if n

== 1: # the base case (termination condition) return 1 else: return n *
factorial(n - 1) print(factorial(4)) # 4 * 3 * 2 * 1 = 24

Exercise 1

What will happen when you attempt to run the following snippet and why?

def factorial(n): return n * factorial(n - 1) print(factorial(4))

Exercise 2

What is the output of the following snippet?

def fun(a): if a > 30: return 3 else: return a + fun(a + 3) print(fun(25))

Key takeaways: tuples

1. Tuples are ordered and unchangeable (immutable) collections of data. They can be thought of
as immutable lists. They are written in round brackets:

myTuple = (1, 2, True, "a string", (3, 4), [5, 6], None) print(myTuple)
myList = [1, 2, True, "a string", (3, 4), [5, 6], None] print(myList)

Each tuple element may be of a different type (i.e., integers, strings, booleans, etc.). What is
more, tuples can contain other tuples or lists (and the other way round).
2. You can create an empty tuple like this:

emptyTuple = () print(type(emptyTuple)) # outputs: <class 'tuple'>

3. A one-element tuple may be created as follows:

oneElemTup1 = ("one", ) # brackets and a comma oneElemTup2 = "one", # no

brackets, just a comma

If you remove the comma, you will tell Python to create a variable, not a tuple:

myTup1 = 1, print(type(myTup1)) # outputs: <class 'tuple'> myTup2 = 1

print(type(myTup2)) # outputs: <class 'int'>

4. You can access tuple elements by indexing them:

myTuple = (1, 2.0, "string", [3, 4], (5, ), True) print(myTuple[3]) #

outputs: [3, 4]

5. Tuples are immutable, which means you cannot change their elements (you cannot append
tuples, or modify, or remove tuple elements). The following snippet will cause an exception:

myTuple = (1, 2.0, "string", [3, 4], (5, ), True) myTuple[2] = "guitar" # a
TypeError exception will be raised

However, you can delete a tuple as a whole:

myTuple = 1, 2, 3, del myTuple print(myTuple) # NameError: name 'myTuple' is

not defined

6. You can loop through a tuple elements (Example 1), check if a specific element is (not)present
in a tuple (Example 2), use the len() function to check how many elements there are in a tuple
(Example 3), or even join/multiply tuples (Example 4):

# Example 1 t1 = (1, 2, 3) for elem in t1: print(elem) # Example 2 t2 = (1,

2, 3, 4) print(5 in t2) print(5 not in t2) # Example 3 t3 = (1, 2, 3, 5)
print(len(t3)) # Example 4 t4 = t1 + t2 t5 = t3 * 2 print(t4) print(t5)

EXTRA

You can also create a tuple using a Python built-in function called tuple(). This is particularly
useful when you want to convert a certain iterable (e.g., a list, range, string, etc.) to a tuple:

myTup = tuple((1, 2, "string")) print(myTup) lst = [2, 4, 6] print(lst) #

outputs: [2, 4, 6] print(type(lst)) # outputs: <class 'list'> tup =
tuple(lst) print(tup) # outputs: (2, 4, 6) print(type(tup)) # outputs: <class
'tuple'>
By the same fashion, when you want to convert an iterable to a list, you can use a Python built-in
function called list():

tup = 1, 2, 3, lst = list(tup) print(type(lst)) # outputs: <class 'list'>

Key takeaways: dictionaries

1. Dictionaries are unordered*, changeable (mutable), and indexed collections of data. (*In
Python 3.6x dictionaries have become ordered by default.

Each dictionary is a set of key : value pairs. You can create it by using the following syntax:

myDictionary = { key1 : value1, key2 : value2, key3 : value3, }

2. If you want to access a dictionary item, you can do so by making a reference to its key inside a
pair of square brackets (ex. 1) or by using the get() method (ex. 2):

polEngDict = { "kwiat" : "flower", "woda" : "water", "gleba" : "soil" } item1

= polEngDict["gleba"] # ex. 1 print(item1) # outputs: soil item2 =
polEngDict.get("woda") print(item2) # outputs: water

3. If you want to change the value associated with a specific key, you can do so by referring to
the item's key name in the following way:

polEngDict = { "zamek" : "castle", "woda" : "water", "gleba" : "soil" }

polEngDict["zamek"] = "lock" item = polEngDict["zamek"] # outputs: lock

4. To add or remove a key (and the associated value), use the following syntax:

myPhonebook = {} # an empty dictionary myPhonebook["Adam"] = 3456783958 #

create/add a key-value pair print(myPhonebook) # outputs: {'Adam':
3456783958} del myPhonebook["Adam"] print(myPhonebook) # outputs: {}

You can also insert an item to a dictionary by using the update() method, and remove the last
element by using the popitem() method, e.g.:

polEngDict = {"kwiat" : "flower"} polEngDict = update("gleba" : "soil")

print(polEngDict) # outputs: {'kwiat' : 'flower', 'gleba' : 'soil'}
polEngDict.popitem() print(polEngDict) # outputs: {'kwiat' : 'flower'}

5. You can use the for loop to loop through a dictionary, e.g.:
polEngDict = { "zamek" : "castle", "woda" : "water", "gleba" : "soil" } for
item in polEngDict: print(item) # outputs: zamek # woda # gleba

6. If you want to loop through a dictionary's keys and values, you can use the items() method,
e.g.:

polEngDict = { "zamek" : "castle", "woda" : "water", "gleba" : "soil" } for

key, value in polEngDict.items(): print("Pol/Eng ->", key, ":", value)

7. To check if a given key exists in a dictionary, you can use the in keyword:

polEngDict = { "zamek" : "castle", "woda" : "water", "gleba" : "soil" } if

"zamek" in polEngDict: print("Yes") else: print("No")

8. You can use the del keyword to remove a specific item, or delete a dictionary. To remove all
the dictionary's items, you need to use the clear() method:

polEngDict = { "zamek" : "castle", "woda" : "water", "gleba" : "soil" }

print(len(polEngDict)) # outputs: 3 del polEngDict["zamek"] # remove an item
print(len(polEngDict)) # outputs: 2 polEngDict.clear() # removes all the
items print(len(polEngDict)) # outputs: 0 del polEngDict # removes the
dictionary

9. To copy a dictionary, use the copy() method:

polEngDict = { "zamek" : "castle", "woda" : "water", "gleba" : "soil" }

copyDict = polEngDict.copy()

Key takeaways: tuples and dictionaries

Exercise 1

What happens when you attempt to run the following snippet?

myTup = (1, 2, 3) print(myTup[2])

Exercise 2
What is the output of the following snippet?

tup = 1, 2, 3 a, b, c = tup print(a * b * c)

Exercise 3

Complete the code to correctly use the count() method to find the number of duplicates of 2 in
the following tuple.

tup = 1, 2, 3, 2, 4, 5, 6, 2, 7, 2, 8, 9 duplicates = # your code

print(duplicates) # outputs: 4

Exercise 4

Write a program that will "glue" the two dictionaries (d1 and d2) together and create a new one
(d3).

d1 = {'Adam Smith':'A', 'Judy Paxton':'B+'} d2 = {'Mary Louis':'A', 'Patrick

White':'C'} d3 = {} for item in (d1, d2): # your code print(d3)

Exercise 5

Write a program that will convert the l list to a tuple.

l = ["car", "Ford", "flower", "Tulip"] t = # your code print(t)

Exercise 6

Write a program that will convert the colors tuple to a dictionary.

colors = (("green", "#008000"), ("blue", "#0000FF")) # your code

print(colDict)

Exercise 7

What will happen when you run the following code?

myDict = {"A":1, "B":2} copyMyDict = myDict.copy() myDict.clear()

print(copyMyDict)
Exercise 8

What is the output of the following program?

colors = { "white" : (255, 255, 255), "grey" : (128, 128, 128), "red" : (255,
0, 0), "green" : (0, 128, 0) } for col, rgb in colors.items(): print(col,
":", rgb)