AACE International Chapter 34 – The International System of Units (SI)

Chapter 34―The International System of Units (SI)

Kurt G. R. Heinze, P.Eng. ECCP FAACE AACE Hon. Life

Abstract
The Système International d'Unites (The international system of units), also known as (SI), was adopted as a global measurement
unit system in 1960. The SI uses seven base units accompanied by twenty two derived units; each with special names and symbols.
The base and derived units support each other and are coherent, absolute and unique. Key benefits of using SI include ease of
interchangeability, reduction in number of manufacturing parts and expansion of global markets. Estimating, contracting and
project controls will be greatly enhanced when all parties use the SI units to eliminate potential errors and facilitate communication.

Keywords: Base Units, Conversion Factors, Derived Units, Hard Conversion, Metric Conversion, SI, Significant Digits, and Soft
Conversion.

INTRODUCTION
As cost conscious managers, we are well aware that practical action by corporate bodies must be justified by monetary
consideration. The Système International d'Unites (SI) changeover is a deliberate practical move that must ultimately yield a net
gain. Keeping track of costs and benefits is, therefore, an important part of "metric conversion" activity.

Learning Objectives
After completing this chapter, readers should be able to:

 Identify the seven base SI units of measurement.

 Understand the unit conversions from SI to non-SI units and vice versa.
 Understand the rules for SI style and usage to be able to properly express units.

Objective
AACE International has adopted a policy of using international units of measure (SI) in all of its publications, in compliance with the
United States Metric Conversion Act of 1975; which was enacted to increase the use of the metric system. This chapter is intended
to help readers better understand the concept and the proper application of the SI system.

Background
The measuring system customarily used in the U.S. is basically the same as the one brought by the colonists from England. This
system had origins in a variety of cultures; such as the Babylonian sexagesimal counting system (360 0 circle), Egyptian (common
fractions, i.e., repeated halving), Roman (base number 12 as in dozen, hours, months), Celts, and Vikings (base number 20). The
Chinese were the first to introduce the decimal notation (ten fingers and the abacus), which later appeared in Arabia in the 15 th
Century.

Through colonization and dominance of world commerce, the English system of weights and measures spread to many parts of the
world, including the American colonies. In 1585, Simon Stevin introduced decimal fractions and predicted that eventually a common
measuring system would be based on factors of ten. Stevin’s idea was realized in 1795, when the French Convention Nationale
passed a law establishing “le système métrique decimal;” which is the basis, practically unchanged, of the metric system today.

The British Association for the Advancement of Science introduced the Centimeter/Gram/Second (CGS) system in 1873, which was
adopted by 35 nations, but not by Britain. In 1866, the metric system was made legal in the U.S., mainly because engineers found
the CGS units too small for engineering use. Engineers preferred the MKS (Meter-Kilogram-Second) set of base units which became
the European metric system; however, this system had a number of conversion factors which made it almost as unwieldy as the
British system. In 1901, Giovanni Giorgi proposed that by recognizing an electric unit such as the ampere as a base unit, the system
could be made coherent, i.e., without conversion factors between units (see Table 34.1).

Giorgi’s MKSA system was adopted by the Conférence Générale des Poids et Mesures (CGPM); and in 1960, the CGPM renamed it le
Système International d'Unites (SI). This involved declaring 29 old units obsolete and replacing them with new coherent units.

In the U.S., President Gerald Ford submitted the Metric Conversion Act of 1975, leading to the creation of the USA Metric Board for
a voluntary implementation of the new system.

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Table 34.1― Base Units and Derived Units with Special Names
Quantity Base Unit Symbol
length meter m
mass kilogram kg
time second s
electric current ampere A
thermodynamic temperature kelvin K
amount of substance mole mol
luminous intensity candela cd

Quantity Derived Unit Symbol

land surveyor's area hectare ha
liquid volume liter L
plane angle radian rad
solid angle steradian sr
frequency hertz Hz
force newton N
pressure, stress pascal Pa
energy, work, heat quantity joule J
power watt W
quantity of electricity coulomb C
electric potential, emf volt V
electric capacitance farad F
electric resistance ohm 
electric conductance siemens S
magnetic flux weber Wb
flux density, magnetic induction tesla T
inductance henry H
luminous flux lumen lm
illuminance lux lx
radioactive activity becquerel Bq
absorbed radioactive dose gray Gy
catalytic activity katal kat

The SI originally consisted of seven fundamental base units, two supplementary units, and several derived units with special names.
The supplementary units were changed to derived units in October 1995, resulting in only two major categories (Table 34.1).

SI also uses prefixes that relate to base units in intervals of one thousand (Table 34.2). In the lower range, for popular use, the
intervals are ten (centi-, hecto-, kilo-). Thanks to those prefixes, most measurements can be expressed with numerical values of two
to four digits. The relationship to the base unit is immediately evident from the prefix. There is no need for any more than one basic
unit for any given quantity. Length is always expressed in meter (m) with a prefix if applicable [mm, cm, km (verbal emphasis on the
prefix, kilometer, not kilometer!). This eliminates different names for different lengths such as miles, fathoms, chains, feet, knots,
etc. with many conversion factors. SI quantities relate by simply moving the decimal point.

Table 34.2―Prefixes for Multiples and Submultiples of SI Units

Prefix Symbol Factor

tera- T 1012 = 1 000 000 000 000
giga- G 109 = 1 000 000 000
mega- M 106 = 1 000 000
kilo- k 103 = 1 000
hecto- h 102 = 100
deca- da 101 = 10
deci- d 10-1 = 0.1
centi c 10-2 = 0.01
milli- m 10-3 = 0.0001
micro- µ 10-6 = 0.000 001
nano- n 10-9 = 0.000 000 001
pico- p 10-12 = 0.000 000 000 001

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SI IS COHERENT, ABSOLUTE, AND UNIQUE

SI is coherent
There are no factors relating different units; they are all related to each other by unity: One Newton is the force required to give a
mass of one kilogram an acceleration of one meter per second-squared.

SI is absolute
SI expressions are unqualified. Force is always expressed in Newton, there is no other name for force; mass is kg and pressure is
Pascal. The imperial system used pound for force (psi) and also for mass (density). Ounces could denote weight or volume. U.S.
gallons are different from Imperial gallons etc.

SI is unique
The same units are used whether we do thermal, mechanical or electrical calculations. This is a tremendous advantage because all
engineering disciplines speak the same language. One unit of power, the watt, is used now where nineteen units were used
previously (Btu, calories, HP, etc.). The Pascal is replacing some 30 different units including obsolete old metric units.

Based on a design by Hans Milton, Director or Metric Conversion, Department of Works, Australia and Albert Mettler, Secretary of
the Canadian Metric Association. 1973. Reproduced by permission of the Canadian Metric Association.
Figure 34.1―SI is coherent

If one Newton force is exerted through a length of one meter, it produces the energy of one joule. If this takes place in one second,
the power produced is one watt. Furthermore, if one Newton force is distributed over an area of one square meter, it produces a

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pressure of one Pascal. We find the same coherence with the other base units. For example, the derived units for ampere are volt,
ohm, siemens, coulomb, henry, weber, tesla, and farad. (Figure 34.1)

METRIC CONVERSION
The advantage of the SI over the customary and the old "metric" system is obvious but not necessarily appreciated by the general
public in its day-to-day living. Many individuals still seem to be deprived of facts and may not really understand the system. It is not
the learning of the new, but the unlearning of the old which appears so painful to many.

Soft Conversion
We can make it easy for ourselves by using computers and conversion tables that instantly give us SI measurements. However,
instant "converters" do not convert conventional units into SI units; instead they translate the existing into the "metric" equivalent
of the existing. By doing this, we are only using the old system with new numbers.

This subjective approach is called "soft" conversion. What we are doing when we "soft" convert is adding another expression to the
proliferation of expressions already in existence for each quantity of measurement. During the transition period of conversion we
cannot avoid changing existing physical quantities into their SI equivalents.

Significant Digits
With the ease of computerized calculations there is a temptation of using an overabundance of insignificant digits. A 20 foot hydro
pole is not 6096 mm long. A seven ounce jar of pickled eggs is not 198 g. The liquid is probably expressed in fluid ounces and should
have been converted into 200 cm3 or 200 mL.

Hard Conversion:
Our customary system worked in the past, but it is standing on its own. The SI is a different improved system which also stands on its
own. The two systems are incompatible. When a speed limit sign on our highways show 60 and our speedometer shows 60 km/h
without any reference to miles, we have hard converted.

Britain’s double bed size has been 54 inches wide and 75 inches long (137 cm × 191 cm). Britain's Bedding Federation changed this
into a hard converted 150 cm by 200 cm bed. This is a true changeover, taking advantage of the opportunity to increase the size of
the bed at the same time. This holds true with standard door openings and other modular building components. With hard
conversion we have the opportunity to update, houseclean, rationalize, remove duplication, and otherwise improve upon the
standards we use.

Conversion Factors
Table 34.3 shows conversions from old units to SI units, such as converting gal/hr into L/s.

For example:
1.051 503 E-03 means 1.051 503 x 10-3 or 1.051 503/1000 = 0.001 051 503.
1 gal/hr. = 0.0001 051 503 L/s

To convert from 1 L/s to gal/hr., we divide

1/0.001 051 503 = 9.510 223 E+02.

Converting 5000 gal/hr = 5000 x 0.001 051 503 = 5.26 L/s.

Here we have used the prefix d (deci), where dm3 (L) is 1/1000 of a cubic meter (m3 ). Prefixes move the decimal point back and
forth.

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Table 34.3―Multiplication Table to Convert to SI

Convert From To Multiply By Replacing Other Old Units
Length and Area
inch millimeter (mm) 2.54 E+01
yard meter (m) 9.144 000 E-01 rod, league, pole, chain,
foot meter (m) 3.048 000 E-01 fathom, mil, printer’s pica,
mile meter (m) 1.609 347 E+03 point, angstrom, caliber,
acre meter2 (m2) 4.046 873 E+03 section, barn, township
ft2 meter2 (m2) 9.290 304 E-02
Please note, that one acre (10 square chains) is 43 560 ft2 or a square of 208.710 327 feet each side, which is not a whole number.
The acre (approx. 63m x 64m) may be compared to the derived unit hectare (ha), which is 100m x 100m or approx. 2.5 acres.
Volume and Flow
gallon (US dry) meter3 (m3) 4.404 884 E-03
gallon (US liquid) meter3 (m3) 3.785 412 E-03
gallon (Canada) meter3 (m3) 4.546 090 E-03 barrel oil, board foot, bushel,
register ton meter3 (m3) 2.832 685 E+00 cup, gill (US), gill (UK), pint,
ounce (US fluid) meter3 (m3) 2.957 353 E-05 cubic yard, quart, cubic inch
ounce (Canada) meter3 (m3) 2.841 307 E-05 per minute
gallon (US)/min meter3/second 6.309 020 E-05
ft3/second meter3/second 2.831 685 E-02
Mass
pound (lb. avoirdupois) kilogram (kg) 4.535 924 E-01
grain, ounce (avoirdupois),
pound (troy) kilogram (kg) 3.732 417 E-01
slug, ounce (troy), stone,
ton (long) kilogram (kg) 1.016 047 E+03
pennyweight, cwt
ton (short) kilogram (kg) 9.071 847 E+02
Kilogram (kg) mass is the constant property of a body. In popular speech, “weight” is used to mean mass at rest. This mass can
change its weight due to acceleration to a point when it becomes “weightless.” We only weigh one-sixth as much on the moon as
on earth, but our mass is still the same.
Force (Weight)
pound-force (lbf) newton (N) 4.448 222 E+00
kilopond newton (N) 9.806 650 E+00 Dyne, kip, thrust
poundal newton (N) 1.382 550 E-01
Pressure or stress
psi (lb/inch2) pascal (Pa) 6.894 757 E+03
cm Hg, cm H2O, dyne/cm2,
atm (standard) pascal (Pa) 1.013 250 E+05
foot of H2O (39.2°F), lbf/ft2,
bar pascal (Pa) 1.000 000 E+05
torr, kip/in2, poundal/ft2, etc.
inch Hg (60°F) pascal (Pa) 3.376 85 E+03
(approx. 30 units)
inch H2O (60°F) pascal (Pa) 2.488 4 E+02
Viscosity
slug/ft·s Pa·s 4.788 026 E+01
poundal·s/ft2 Pa·s 1.488 164 E+00 Poise, stoke, lb/ft·s, rhe, etc.
ft2/s m2/s 9.290 304 E-02

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Table 34.3―Multiplication Table to Convert to SI (cont.)

Convert From To Multiply By Replacing Other Old Units
Energy, work
Btu (international) joule (J) 1.055 056 E+03
Various types of Btus and
calorie (international) joule (J) 4.186 800 E+00
Calories, er, ft·lbf, therm,
electronvolt joule (J) 2.602 19 E-19
Watthour, hp-hour (mech.)
kW·h joule (J) 3.600 000 E+06
Power
horsepower (hp) kilowatt (kW) 7.456 999 E-01 hpelectric, therm/h, ftlbf/s,
Btu/h watt (W) 2.930 711 E-01 hpmechanical, brake hp
Other units
temperature (°F) celsius (°C) (5/9)(F-32) centigrade, réaumur
Kelvin (°K) is used for absolute temperature (-273°C)
frequency (rpm) Hertz (Hz) = 1/s 1.666 667 E-02 cycles per second
Fuel consumption
mass (ton/hr) kg/s 2.519 958 E+04 (see example below)
volume (gal/hr) dm3/s or L/s 1.051 503 E-03
automobile L/100km no conversion
USA uses fuel efficiency, i.e. miles per gallon. Conversion to L/100km is non-linear.
time (hr., min., sec.) h, s no conversion just spelling of symbol

Metric Conversion is an Investment

The SI changeover has a continuous benefit, similar to the invention of the wheel. Even if we let the costs lie where they fall, benefits
will accrue when conversion is complete. Therefore, conversion to SI is an investment, not an expense. The SI implementation is only
a part of a bigger change, the standardization of industrial products and processes.

In a law passed in 1798, France defined the sizes of official

documents requiring stamp duty. The original size A0 =1 m2, halved
four times, leads to the size A4. Following this method for cutting
paper, results in no paper trimming waste.

Today, the ISO―A4 size is mandatory in over 45 countries

worldwide. The Canadian government mandated A4 sizes in 1975,
but ran into opposition by the paper industry and had some
implementation problems.

Figure 34.2―International Paper Sizes

It will be difficult for the general public to abandon a system that worked fairly well and to learn a new “language.” It will be a slow
transition process to a full SI practice.

The fact that most of the world is already using ISO standards will probably have an adverse impact on American competitiveness. It
will likely be the exporting industry and technical societies who push for a USA metric conversion.

Standardization includes a rationalization of products (reduction in the total number of sizes and ranges), which is where a great
deal of the benefits of conversion will occur. The benefits of rationalization remain long after the expenses of conversion are paid.

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The cost/benefit chart (Figure 34.3; 1986 AACE Transactions)

expresses an idea, not a specific duration for a planned M-day.
In Canada, it was about 10 to 12 years.
Fred Jelen, who wrote the book on Cost Optimization
Engineering, commented on this cost/benefit idea when he
said, “The only decision to be made is how to make it most
economically. The real issue is not so much the cost but rather
determining the optimum time at which to make the
conversion.”
It has taken us 200 years to implement a worldwide uniform
measuring system, but a completion date has not yet been
established in the United States.

Figure 34.3―Cost/Benefit Chart

RULES FOR SI STYLE AND USAGE

1. Symbols and prefixes are the same in all languages.

2. Symbols are written in lower case, except when the unit is derived from a proper name, i.e. m = meter; W = watt. The
exception is the non-SI but commonly used unit for cm3, the liter = L. The capital letter is to avoid confusion between
"l(el)" and "1(one)".
3. Symbols and prefixes are printed in upright type. There is no spacing between prefixes and units, e.g.
km cm ng
not km cm ng
and not km cm ng
4. Symbols are not pluralized, e.g. 100 g or 50 km not 100 gs or 50 kms
5. There is no period after a symbol except at the end of a sentence, e.g.
m (not m.), mL (not mL.)
6. A sentence does not start with a symbol and prefix: The symbol for kilogram is kg (not: kg is the symbol for...).
7. Preference is given to decimal notation:
Use 3.25 % rather than 3¼ %; 0.75 km rather than ¾ km.
But "I walked 2 km in half an hour" (not in 0.5 h)
8. For values less than one (1), a zero (0) is used, i.e. 0.56 (not .56)
9. There is a space between the last digit of a number and the first letter of the symbol except for oC, e.g. 36 kg not (36kg); or
22oC not (22 oC)
10. The multiplication symbol is used instead of a dot or period: 5 × 7 or 5*7 not (5 ·7 or 5.7)
11. Compound prefixes must never be used: 3 mg (milligram) not 3 kg (microkilogram)
12. Spaces are used instead of commas to put large numbers in reading blocks of three,
e.g., 23 456 789.24 not 23,456,789.24
13. Only one unit is used to designate quantities: 5.36 m not (5 m, 36 cm) or 3.7 kg not (3 kg, 700 g)
14. An oblique stroke (/) with no spaces is used with symbols rather than the word "per": km/h not (km / h) and not (km per
h). When writing units in full, then kilometer per hour, not (kilometer/hour)
15. ISO standard time units start with the largest unit, e.g.:

Year Month Day Hour Minute Second

2011 07 06 18 21 08 or 2011 - 07 - 06 - 18 : 21 : 08

Europe has changed from DDMMYY to the ISO standard of YYMMDD. The USA still uses MMDDYY, which can be very
confusing and legally costly in international trade. If we have a commitment with China, for example, (they use ISO dating)
for 11 - 03 - 10 (ISO date), we will probably make payments earlier than necessary. (Nov. 3, 2010 instead of March 10,
2011).
16. SI units are pronounced on the first syllable:
centimeter, kilometer, Celsius, micrometer (µ), megahertz; never kilometer.
Instruments are pronounced micrometer (µ),, thermometer, speedometer.
(The spelling in Canada is different:, e.g. kilometre vs. the instrument thermometer).
17. Numeral and symbol should not be on separate lines, nor should a number be hyphenated.
18. The choice of the appropriate multiple of an SI unit is governed by the application, preferably having values between 0.1
and 1000. 3.94 mm instead of 0.003 94 m

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19. The symbol is placed behind the numeral:

15.7 km or 350 mL; (not km 15.7 or mL 350)
(Prefixes may also apply to dollars, e.g. 250 k$ and 5 M$)
20. Temperature will be expressed in "degrees Celsius" or oC without space after the numeral, not (centigrade or degrees C),
e.g. 40oC and 40oC; and not (+ 40 oC, neither minus 40oC or 40oC minus).
Please note, that there are no warmer or cooler temperatures, they can only be higher or lower. Furthermore, 20 oC is not
"half as cold" as 40oC
21. Number and symbol should not be separated by an adjective.
Write: You get "200 km free" with your car rental.
Do not write: You get "200 free km" with your car rental"
22. If a presentation in dual values is unavoidable, give preference to the SI value: 20 kg (44lbs.); not 44 lbs. (20 kg).
23. Former units of area and volume will be changed as follows:
Square meter (formerly sq.m) now becomes m2, pronounced square meter, not meter square.
Similarly, cubic centimeter is now cm3, not cu.cm. or c.c. (It is acceptable to use mL instead of the SI
unit cm3 in case of liquids and gases).
24. In order to not confuse quantity symbols in engineering with SI symbols, the ISO recommends to use italic type lettering
where practical, e.g.,
Quantities:
m = mass; d = depth or diameter; M = bending moment; A = area, a = acceleration.
SI symbols:
m = meter; d = deci-; M = mega-; A = ampere
Combined:
Gravity = g and Force = F = m (kg) × a (m/sec2).
CONCLUSION
The International System of Units (SI) has become a standard measurement practice. Adopting SI has economic benefits of
maximizing the use of standard parts, ease of parts interchangeability and procurement, maintaining consistent estimate database,
enhancing contract management and communication. To increase access to global markets, familiarity of SI and conversion to non-
SI units and vice versa, is essential.

RECOMMENDED READING
This chapter is based on information in the public domain and established international standards. In addition:

1. AACE International. Cost Engineers' Notebook. Morgantown, WV: AACE International.

2. AACE International (1980). Cost Engineering, 22(6).
3. AACE International (1986). Cost Engineering, 28(11), pp. 26.
4. Former Canadian Metric Association (CMA), Metric Fact Sheets (out of print), Scarborough, ON.
5. Heinze, K. (1996). Appendix B, Cost Management of Capital Projects. New York, NY Marcel Dekker.

Sources of SI Information
1. American National Metric Council (ANMC), Publications Department, 4330 East West Highway, Suite 1117, Bethesda, MD,
20814 - 4408.
2. American National Standards Institute (ANSI), ANSI/IEEE Std. 268-82, 11 W 42nd St., New York, NY 10036.
3. American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE), Metric Units in Engineering - Going SI, Revised Edition 1995, 345 East 47th
Street, New York NY 10017 - 2398.
4. American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM), ASTM E380, Standard Practice For Use Of The International System Of
Units and Units In Building Design And Construction, 1916 Race St., Philadelphia, PA 19103.
5. Canadian Standards Association (CSA), Metric Practice Guide, CSA Z234, 178 Rexdale Blvd., Rexdale, ON, Canada M9W
1R3.
6. National Bureau of Standards (NBS), Various Publications, U.S. Department of Commerce, Gaithersburg, MD 20899.
7. National Research Council of Canada, Manual on Metric Building Practice, Otttawa, ON Canada K1A 0R6.
8. R.S. Means Co. Building Construction Cost Data, Metric Addition, R.S. Means Co., Box 800, Kingston, MA 02364.
9. U.S. Metric Association, 10245 Andasol Ave., Northridge, CA 91325-1504.

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