SPRING 2019

LEADERS IN TANK DEGASSING AND NITROGEN PURGING

 CONTENTS
Spring 2019 Volume 05 Number 01 ISSN 1468-9340

03 Comment 48 Emissions cutting

Townsend Hilliard, Purgit, USA, discusses how to reduce
05 World news emissions at tank terminals with vapour recovery.
12 Keeping pace 53 Don’t take NOx for an answer
Gordon Cope, Contributing Editor, explains how a Victor Hoffman, Terry McElroy and Matthew Vuong,
burgeoning oil and gas sector in North America is John Zink Co. LLC, USA, explore how US terminals can
stretching tanks and terminals to the limit. meet new throughput levels while also managing the
18 Winds of change associated environmental impacts.
J. Randolph Kissell, Trinity Consultants, USA, reviews 59 Paving the way to crude oil vapour
changes being considered for designing storage tanks for
wind loads. control
Marco Puglisi, AEREON, Italy, discusses vapour control
23 Braving the storm solutions for the storage industry.
Bruce A. Kaiser, Lightning Master, USA, explains how
geodesic domes on storage tanks can be protected from 63 A routine to rely on
lightning using systems that meet industry standards and Ben Barker, Cool Sorption, Denmark, outlines methods
recommended practices. of improving the availability of vapour recovery units
through smart arrangement and maintenance.
27 Inside information
Jason Hayes, Trimble, USA, explains how laser 67 Plain sailing
technology adds efficiency and detail to storage tank Allyson Golden and Caitlin Geisinger, Burns & McDonnell,
inspection. explain how a few simple steps can streamline the
certification process for marine vapour control systems.
30 Rise of the drones
Phil Buchan, Cyberhawk, UK, overviews the growth of 71 Ditch the stick
drone-based inspection methods for tank and terminal Anton Albrand, SkyBitz, a unit of AMETEK Inc., USA,
operators. explores how level gauging intelligence can improve
tank accuracy.
35 Inspector gadgets
Pouya Kamalinejad and Reza Tavakoli, Avestec, 75 Level up
Canada, discusses the advantages of adopting robotic Joachim Toffolo, AUMA, Germany, explores how electric
technology for asset inspection. actuators in tank farms can take valve automation to the
next level.
39 Combatting contamination
Chris Beatty, Crown Oil Environmental, UK, explains how 81 Big Data in the tank farm
a multitude of measures can be taken to protect against Thomas Ernst, Implico Group, Germany, examines
troublesome tank corrosion. Big Data and outlines the real-world opportunities that
arise for tank storage operators from large-scale data
43 Prevention is better than a cure processing.
Simon Daly, Hempel A/S, UK, outlines the importance
of immunising against the threat of corrosion under 85 Fighting the freeze
insulation. Ilan Toledano, Wattco, Canada, discusses how to use
electric heating in colder climates.

ON US-based Purgit Vapor Control Systems offers a

full suite of purging and degassing services for

THE above ground storage tanks. From nitrogen gas purges

and vapour recovery skids to complete US Coast

FRONT
Guard certified equipment for loading inland barges,
Purgit is an industry leader in efficient and effective
vapour control. The latest generation of RVRU

COVER provides reliable and safe degassing compliance with

the strictest environmental requirements.

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 COMMENT
CONTACT INFO CALLUM O'REILLY
EDITOR

T
MANAGING EDITOR James Little
[email protected]
he rise of unmanned aerial vehicles
EDITOR Callum O'Reilly (UAVs) or drones has been enormous
[email protected]
in recent years. With seemingly endless
EDITORIAL ASSISTANT Laura Dean applications for the robotic technology,
[email protected] this growth is set to continue. Aside
ADVERTISEMENT DIRECTOR Rod Hardy from military use, drones can be utilised in a range
[email protected] of industries including aerial photography and filming, shipping and delivery, search and
ADVERTISEMENT MANAGER Chris Atkin rescue, geographic mapping, wildlife monitoring, and storm tracking, to name just a
[email protected] few. They have even been deployed in Japan to try and battle the problem of overwork.
ADVERTISEMENT EXECUTIVE Sophie Barrett In trials, the robots have hovered around offices to encourage workers to go home –
[email protected] either by filming those that stay late, or by playing loud music.
PRODUCTION Ben Munro The oil and gas sector is also starting to embrace the technology. This issue of
[email protected] Tanks & Terminals includes two interesting pieces from Cyberhawk (p. 30) and Avestec
WEB MANAGER Tom Fullerton (p. 35), who present the advantages of drone-based inspection methods for the storage
[email protected] sector. The benefits on offer include reduced inspection time, improved safety, the
DIGITAL EDITORIAL ASSISTANT Nicholas Woodroof ability to access hard-to-reach areas, reduced downtime, and enhanced data collection.
[email protected] However, at the end of last year, drones hit the headlines here in the UK for all
SUBSCRIPTIONS Laura White the wrong reasons. Between 19 and 21 December, approximately 1000 flights were
[email protected] cancelled or delayed at Gatwick Airport following reports of drone sightings close to
CONTRIBUTING EDITORS the runway. More than 140 000 passengers were affected during the 36 hours of chaos
Nancy Yamaguchi Gordon Cope that ensued. The Royal Air Force (RAF) was called in to help with the problem, and they
eventually withdrew on 3 January after Gatwick Airport spent £5 million on a system
to prevent future attacks. Soon after, drone sightings briefly caused delays at Heathrow
airport. The UK government has now confirmed that all of the country’s airports will
soon have military grade anti-drone equipment, and ministers are working to ensure
that similar technology is installed at other critical infrastructure.
SUBSCRIPTION RATES
Annual subscription £110 UK including postage The enormous disruption serves as a reminder that drones can present a more
/£125 overseas (postage airmail). sinister threat. This was also seen last year when the Iranian-aligned Houthi movement
Two year discounted rate £176 UK
including postage/£200 overseas (postage airmail). in Yemen claimed that it had attacked a Saudi Aramco refinery in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia,
using a drone.1
SUBSCRIPTION CLAIMS
Claims for non receipt of issues must be made within 3 months of Laws and regulations are struggling to keep pace with the development of drone
publication of the issue or they will not be honoured without charge. technology. The widespread availability of commercial drones, combined with the fact
APPLICABLE ONLY TO USA & CANADA that they can often fly in unmonitored and minimally regulated airspace, presents a
Hydrocarbon Engineering (ISSN No: 1468-9340, USPS No: 020-998) is real security threat. Now is the time for the energy sector to assess the risks and create
published monthly by Palladian Publications Ltd GBR and distributed
in the USA by Asendia USA, 17B S Middlesex Ave, Monroe NJ 08831. guidelines and protocols to protect itself.
Periodicals postage paid New Brunswick, NJ and additional mailing
offices. POSTMASTER: send address changes to HYDROCARBON A range of counter-measures have been developed to minimse the danger. Rogue
ENGINEERING, 701C Ashland Ave, Folcroft PA 19032
drones can be detected using cameras, radar and radio frequency sensors. It is then
possible to ‘jam’ the communication between a device and its operator, which causes
it to initiate a default mode and fly back to its original location. Other companies
have developed bazooka-like guns, or ‘interceptor’ drones, which can fire nets at rogue
15 South Street Farnham Surrey drones, trapping them and causing them to fall from the sky. Lasers also have the
GU9 7QU ENGLAND
Tel: +44 (0) 1252 718 999 capability to shoot down drones quickly. Meanwhile, in the Netherlands, eagles have
Fax: +44 (0) 1252 718 992 been trained to intercept drones in midair.
In addition to considering the multitude of benefits that drone technology can
offer to the energy sector, it is becoming increasingly important that the industry
takes the necessary steps to safeguard its infrastructure from the potential threats that
nefarious drones may present.
1. ‘Yemen’s Houthis say they attacked Aramco refinery in Riyadh with drone’, Reuters, (18 July 2019).
2. ‘How countries counter the drone threat’, BBC, (21 December 2018).
 TANK AND
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 WORLD NEWS
Mexico | Total agrees to be anchor customer UK | Essar
Oil UK
acquires BP's share
T otal has signed an agreement
with Tuxpan Port Terminal and
competitiveness. This commitment
also greatly enhances the capacity of pipeline and
Monterra Energy to become the
anchor customer of the Tuxpan
of the Group to supply the
expanding retail network of
storage assets
International Fluids Terminal (TIFT), Total-branded fuel stations in the
a refined oil products terminal in
Mexico.
country.
Total has partnered with
T he Essar Oil UK Group of
companies (Essar) has unveiled
the latest phase of its strategic
Total, through its subsidiary Gasored since October 2017 and
business development after
Total Atlantic Trading Mexico, will has opened more than 100 service
announcing the acquisition of a
have the largest capacity in this stations over the last year, in
number of assets from BP to further
terminal, strategically located on line with its initial planning.
strengthen the company’s logistics
the shores of the State of Veracruz. This network will reach
infrastructure network, which will
With important storage capacity 250 Total-branded service stations
fuel growth ambitions in the UK.
and better access to the Mexican by the end of 2019, with the
This latest expansion of its UK
market, Total will directly provide objective to reach more than
interests means Essar has now
its high-quality refined products, 400 stations by the end of 2020.
invested nearly US$1 billion in
mainly diesel and gasoline, to The Tuxpan Terminal is set to
building a profitable and sustainable
customers with improved start operations in the second
UK business, since first acquiring the
continuity, reliability and semester of 2020.
Stanlow Manufacturing Complex in
July 2011.
Under the agreement, Essar will
Dominion Energy to cut methane
USA | acquire an equity stake in the UKOP
pipeline, a share of the contractual
emissions joint venture (with Shell) which runs
the Kingsbury Terminal and a 100%

D ominion Energy has announced

an initiative to reduce methane
emissions from its natural gas
made in reducing methane emissions
over the last decade, which
prevented more than 180 000 t of
interest in the Northampton
Terminal.
Over recent years, Essar has
infrastructure by 50% over the methane from entering the broadened its downstream
next decade, based on 2010 levels. atmosphere. integration. With 67 Essar-branded
The initiative will prevent more The company plans to reduce UK retail sites already operational
than 430 000 t of methane from methane emissions across its entire across England and Wales, the
entering the atmosphere. system – from production and company has confirmed plans to
This voluntary initiative builds on storage to transmission and grow its network to 400 retail sites
the progress Dominion Energy has distribution. over the next five years.

ExxonMobil and Qatar Petroleum to proceed with

USA |
Golden Pass export project

E xxonMobil and partner Qatar

Petroleum have made a final
investment decision to proceed with
around 16 million tpy of LNG. It is
expected to create about 9000 jobs
over the five-year construction period
direct federal, state and local tax
revenues over the life of the project.
Golden Pass is part of
development of the Golden Pass and more than 200 permanent jobs ExxonMobil’s plans to invest more
LNG export project located in during operations. than US$50 billion over the next
Sabine Pass, Texas. Construction will Preliminary estimates by an five years to build and expand
begin in 1Q19 and the facility is independent study indicate the manufacturing facilities in the US.
expected to start up in 2024. project could generate up to This includes the Growing the Gulf
The US$10+ billion liquefaction US$31 billion in US economic gains initiative, which will create about
project will have capacity to produce and more than US$4.6 billion in 45 000 jobs in the US.

5 Spring 2019
 WORLD NEWS
IN BRIEF Russia to drive underground gas
Russia |
storage growth in FSU

McDermott International Inc. has announced
the award of a tank contract by Puma Energy
R ussia is expected to be the major
contributor to the growth of the
underground working gas storage
reveals that the FSU is expected to
have 13 planned underground gas
storage sites with a total working gas
(Australia) Fuels Pty Ltd for the engineering, capacity in the Former Soviet Union capacity of 956 billion ft3 by 2022.
procurement and construction of 11 fuel (FSU) between 2018 and 2022, The region’s share in the global
tanks for an import terminal in Kwinana, accounting for around 92% of the planned working gas capacity will be
Western Australia. Onsite work is scheduled to total region’s growth, according to 33% in 2022.
commence in 1Q19 with completion scheduled GlobalData, a data and analytics Russia is expected to add around
for 3Q20. The contract will be reflected in company. 877 billion ft3 of underground gas
McDermott’s 4Q18 backlog. GlobalData’s report, ‘Underground storage capacity during the forecast
Gas Storage Industry Outlook in period from nine planned and
 Former Soviet Union to 2022 – announced underground gas storage
Vopak has announced that it will expand its Capacity and Capital Expenditure sites. CAPEX for these sites totals
terminal in Veracruz, Mexico with 110 000 m3 Forecasts with Details of All US$2.4 billion over the next
for the storage and handling of clean petroleum Operating and Planned Storage Sites’, four years.
products. This expansion already has high
commercial coverage and is expected to be fully
commissioned in 4Q20.
German LNG Terminal signs
Germany |
 commercial agreement
Rosneft and the Ministry of Energy and Water
of the Lebanon Republic – Lebanon Oil
Installations – have reached an agreement G erman LNG Terminal GmbH, the
joint venture driving forward
Germany’s first LNG terminal in
Preparations for the terminal’s
permitting approval process are well
underway: a scoping meeting,
providing for the transfer into Rosneft’s
operational management of the oil products Brunsbuettel, has reached another organised and chaired by the
storage terminal in the city of Tripoli (the long-term commercial capacity approving authorities, took place at
second largest city in Lebanon and the main agreement with a global LNG player. the end of January.
port in the north of the country) for a term The parties agreed on the Obtaining construction approval
of 20 years. The agreement also contemplates commitment of a substantial part of for the planned LNG terminal is one
rehabilitation and expansion of the terminal. the terminal capacity. Negotiations of the conditions for being able to
with other interested parties are make the final investment decision in
 ongoing. As a result of strong market
demand, German LNG Terminal will
late 2019. Construction work will
then start in 2020 with the terminal
Exmar has announced that its Floating apply for permits with a total being fully operational by the end of
Liquefaction Unit (FLNG), to be renamed terminal capacity of 8 billion m3/yr. 2022.
Tango FLNG, has berthed in Bahia Blanca,
Argentina, where it will stay and produce LNG

Texas COLT submits application to

for export for YPF over a 10-year period.
USA |
 MARAD
Baker Hughes, a GE company has announced
it will supply turbomachinery equipment for
the construction of the Golden Pass LNG
export facility in Sabine Pass, Texas. BHGE
T exas COLT, a proposed joint
venture among Enbridge Inc.,
Kinder Morgan Inc., and Oiltanking,
and two offshore loading single point
mooring buoys capable of fully
loading a 2 million bbl very large
will provide turbomachinery equipment for has submitted an application with the crude carrier (VLCC) in approximately
three LNG trains, including six gas turbines US Maritime Administration (MARAD) 24 hours.
and 12 centrifugal compressors. to construct and operate a deepwater The offshore facilities will be
crude oil export port located off the connected by a 42 in. pipeline to an
coast of Freeport, Texas, US. The onshore tank farm that will have up to
project includes an offshore platform 15 million bbl of storage capacity.

Spring 2019 6
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 WORLD NEWS
IN BRIEF RIMS receives two new
Worldwide |
certifications for use of drones

Ecoslops has announced that the European
Investment Bank (EIB) has agreed up to
R IMS BV has received a further two
certifications from DNV GL and
the Indian Class Register for the use
Classification Societies, RIMS has
been able to demonstrate that drone
technology with skilled pilots reduces
€18 million in financing for its Marseille and of Remote Inspection Techniques the safety risks and offers a
Antwerp projects, as well as for corporate (drones) during surveys of enclosed cost-efficient solution for inspections
R&D needs. Such financing will allow the spaces. of assets.
company to dedicate its current corporate New regulations issued by IACS Although being recognised by the
resources (more than €7 million at the end of ensure a certain quality standard to classification societies globally, drone
2018) to future projects as well. service suppliers who want to use inspections can be a complex
drone technology during close business. Local permits to fly drones
 surveys, and RIMS is the first company can vary from country to country,
Australia will account for all floating to meet these requirements. Now with restrictions on outdoor flights in
production, storage and offloading vessels with certification from nine some areas.
(FPSOs) planned for deployment in Oceania
during 2019 – 2025, according to GlobalData.
Moda Midstream announces Ingleside
USA |
 expansion and VLCC loading berth
Hartree Partners LP and funds managed
by Oaktree Capital Management L.P. have
announced that they have formed a liquids
storage, terminalling and logistics platform
L iquids terminalling and logistics
provider Moda Midstream LLC
has announced that it has
construction of a new manifold and
interterminal piping to allow MIEC
to receive direct ‘basin to berth’
company, Hartree Bulk Storage LLC, with successfully commissioned upgrades deliveries from the Cactus II
an initial equity commitment of up to to Berth 2A at the Moda Ingleside Pipeline, Gray Oak Pipeline and Epic
US$735 million. The newly formed platform Energy Center (MIEC) in Ingleside, Crude Oil Pipeline. These upgrades
will provide independent solutions to Texas, US, to enable loading of very will be completed prior to the
refiners, petrochemical manufacturers, large crude carriers (VLCCs). pipelines’ expected in-service dates.
marketers and producers of crude oil, refined Moda developed these upgrades MIEC will be able to receive
products, NGLs and other bulk liquids. to provide existing and potential simultaneous deliveries from these
customers the ability to safely and three new ‘next generation’
  cost-effectively load VLCCs at rates
of up to 80 000 bbl/hr.
long-haul crude pipelines at their
full mainline rates.
Whitehelm Capital, Groningen Seaports and
Royal Vopak intend to jointly invest in a As part of the expansion Already one of the largest crude
27 MW solar park. The new solar park will be programme, Moda has commenced export terminals in the US, MIEC has
situated on 19 ha. of land adjacent to Vopak construction of an additional approximately 2.1 million bbls of oil
Terminal Eemshaven, land which is currently 10 million bbls of crude oil storage. storage capacity and receives
already leased by the terminal. The produced The new storage tanks will be placed deliveries from the Cactus Oil
green electricity will be made available for in service throughout 2019, and the Pipeline. MIEC has ample footprint
local use in Groningen, Vopak terminals and expansion will be complete by for additional expansion
the general electricity market. 2Q20. Furthermore, Moda has begun opportunities.

 Shell announces sale completion

New Zealand |
Roll-Lift USA has announced that its
activities on Elba Island have come to an end. of New Zealand entities
After working for more than two years on the
expansion of the LNG plant at the Elba Island
Project in Savannah, Georgia, US, the last
equipment was removed in mid-January 2019.
R oyal Dutch Shell plc (Shell) has
completed the sale of its shares
in Shell entities in New Zealand to
tank farm assets, and the sale of
Shell’s interest in (and operatorship
of) the Great South Basin venture,
OMV for US$578 million. This which was subject to a separate
includes the Maui, Pohokura, agreement.

Spring 2019 8
VERSATILE.
Always a leading innovator, ROSEN not only supplies pipeline
customers with the latest diagnostic and system integrity
technologies but also offers flexible solutions and all-round
support for plants & terminals.

www.rosen-group.com
 WORLD NEWS
DIARY DATES Pin Oak acquires land for terminal
USA |
expansion
17 - 19 March 2019
AFPM Annual Meeting
San Antonio, Texas, USA
www.afpm.org/conferences
P OTAC LLC (Pin Oak) has
announced the acquisition of
236 acres near its terminal in
Corpus Christi Ship Channel,
offering its customers additional
tank capacity, as well as rail
Corpus Christi, Texas, US to further loading/unloading capabilities
26 - 28 March 2019 expand its operating capabilities. through an operational Union
StocExpo Europe The newly acquired site is Pacific connection and the KCS.
Rotterdam, the Netherlands situated adjacent to the Kansas City Pin Oak’s main terminal is
www.stocexpo.com Southern (KCS) main rail line and currently under construction, with
Corpus Christi railyard. The site can brownfield expansion of more than
1 - 5 April 2019 accommodate in excess of 2 million bbls of crude storage, all
LNG 2019
Shanghai, China
10 million bbls of bulk liquids supported by long-term third-party
www.lng2019.com
storage, as well as the construction customer contracts. The connection
and operation of a full unit train into the Gray Oak Pipeline is
2 - 4 April 2019 solution. currently under construction and
21st Annual International Aboveground Storage Pin Oak plans to connect the the terminal will be a necessary
Tank Conference & Trade Show site through a short distance outlay for Permian and Eagle Ford
Orlando, Florida, USA pipeline to its main site on the crude.
www.nistm.org

21 - 24 May 2019
AFPM Reliability & Maintenance Conference and Hifa Petrol acquires fifth
Bosnia and Herzegovina |
Exhibition
Grapevine, Texas, USA
liquid fuels terminal

H
www.afpm.org/conferences
ifa Petrol has acquired a liquid The total storage capacity of
3 - 5 June 2019 fuels terminal in Ševarlije near Hifa Petrol for petroleum and
ILTA International Operating Conference & Trade Doboj, Bosnia and Herzegovina. petroleum products is
Show With this step, Hifa Petrol has 12.6 million l. Of this total,
Houston, Texas, USA become the owner of a fifth terminal, 9 million l is liquids, and 3.6 million l
www.ilta.org besides those in Bukvi near Tešanj, is gas.
Gruda, Mostar and Vogošca. The terminals consist of
10 - 12 September 2019 The terminal in Ševarlije consists aboveground and underground
Turbomachinery & Pump Symposia of two parts: a gas terminal with a storage tanks, fire protection
Houston, Texas, USA capacity of 2.5 million l and an oil facilities and free surfaces with
tps.tamu.edu terminal with a capacity of 1 million l. access roads (road and rail).
17 - 19 September 2019
Gastech 2019
Houston, Texas, USA Polskie LNG obtains permits for
Poland |
www.gastechevent.com
terminal expansion
25 - 26 September 2019
Tank Storage Asia
Singapore
www.tankstorageasia.com
P olskie LNG has obtained a set of
environmental and location
decisions for all projects
the Special Act on the LNG
Terminal). The Expansion Program of
President Lech Kaczynski’s LNG
implemented under the LNG Terminal is implemented as
14 - 16 October 2019 Terminal Expansion Program. scheduled.
AFPM Operations & Process Technology Summit The environmental permits are Polskie’s LNG Terminal will
San Antonio, Texas, USA final, while the decisions issued by become a key facility contributing to
www.afpm.org/conferences the Governor of Western Pomerania the development of the LNG market
are immediately enforceable (which not only locally, but also in
stems directly from the provisions of neighbouring countries.

Spring 2019 10
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 Gordon Cope,
Contributing Editor,
explains how a
burgeoning oil and gas
sector in North America
is stretching tanks and
terminals to
the limit.

Spring 2019 12
A
ll over North America, the production of oil All of this requires extensive expansion and new
and gas is growing at a tremendous pace. development of tanks and terminals.
According to the Energy Information
Administration (EIA), US gas production US Gulf Coast
averaged 83.2 billion ft3/d in 2018, and crude In the last 10 years, shale drilling in the Permian basin
production exceeded 11.7 million bpd late 2018. In in Texas has caused oil output to more than triple to
Canada, oilsands output continues to grow, from 3 million bpd. The output, which consists of light oil,
2.4 million bpd in 2015 to an expected 3.1 million bpd gas and NGLs, has created both domestic and export
by 2020. markets. Since the lifting of the crude export ban in
Furthermore, the prolific shale plays also churn out 2015, outgoing shipments have been expanding. The
immense amounts of natural gas and natural gas EIA reported that crude exports exceeded
liquids (NGLs). Crude, LNG and refined energy 2.4 million bpd in December 2018, and are expected to
products are all being exported in record amounts. climb even further in 2019.

1
13 Spring 2019
 The majority of crude now moves through the capacity and created a price differential of up to
extensive pipelines, storage and docking facilities in CAN$50/bbl, costing the industry an estimated
the Houston Ship Channel. There are concerns that CAN$80 million/d. Crude has backed up in storage to
the Channel might become a bottleneck, however, an estimated near-record of 35 million bbls.
and companies are looking for alternatives. In late Gibson Energy, based in Calgary, is adding tank
2018, Carlyle Group signed an agreement with the capacity in Alberta. In October 2018, it announced a
Port of Corpus Christi (250 km southwest of 1 million bbl expansion in its Hardisty facility and an
Houston), to develop an offshore crude export expansion at its Moose Jaw, Saskatchewan farm. “We
terminal that can handle the world’s largest oil expect that our sanctioned capital programme will
tankers. The Harbor Island terminal would be the first grow over the course of 2019 as we seek to sanction
US facility to be able to fully load very large crude two to four tanks per year on a run rate basis and
carriers (VLCCs) capable of holding up to pursue additional infrastructure investment
2 million bbl. The company expects the terminal to opportunities in both Canada and the US,” said CEO
be operational by 2020. Steve Spaulding.
In addition, commodities trader Trafigura Ltd is Producers have been increasingly relying on
promoting a VLCC port approximately 25 km offshore crude-by-rail. Facilities at the five major terminals in
of Corpus Christi. Enbridge is also looking at building Canada have been expanded in order to handle a
a terminal in Freeport, Texas. record of 274 000 bpd.
New pipelines are key to determining which But it has not been enough to alleviate discounts.
terminals will capture the growing export market. The government estimated that the province was
Plains All American Pipeline’s Cactus II project, with a producing 190 000 bpd over pipeline capacity. In
capacity of 585 000 bpd, will terminate in December 2018, Alberta Premier, Rachel Notley,
Corpus Christi. Enbridge’s terminal would be supplied ordered a reduction of 325 000 bpd (8.7%) in order to
by its 850 000 bpd Seaway pipeline running from drain the glut. After excess storage is drawn down,
Cushing, Oklahoma. the reduction will drop to 95 000 bpd until the end
Ports in Louisiana are also looking at major of 2019.
expansions. Tallgrass Energy plans to build the
Seahorse Pipeline, a 950 km, 30 in. oil line linking the NGL
Cushing storage hub with the 2.5 million bpd refinery NGLs, including ethane, propane, and butane, are an
complex near St. James, Louisiana. The 800 000 bpd important side-product of shale production. NGL
system will also include a new, 20 million bbl storage production in the US stood at a record
facility, the Plaquemines Liquids Terminal. The 4.8 million bpd in late 2018, and the EIA expects it to
terminal will have the ability to service Post Panamax grow a further 10% in 2019. In addition to supplying
tankers (up to 1 million bbl capacity), and VLCC petrochemical plants in the USGC, NGLs are
tankers. increasingly being exported abroad. Over
Cushing is the major storage facility for the US 250 000 bpd of ethane are now being shipped from
Midwest, serving refineries throughout the PADD 2 Energy Transfer Partners' (ETP) Marcus Hook facility in
region. In the last decade, it has expanded tank Pennsylvania and Enterprise Products Partners' (EPD)
capacity from 60 million bbl to 90 million bbl. The Morgan’s Point ethane export terminal on the
terminal reached a record high storage level in Houston Ship Channel. In 2018, ETP announced that it
mid-2017, when it was holding slightly under would build a new export facility in the USGC to
70 million bbl. By mid-2018, crude storage had supply buyers in China. The Orbit terminal near
dropped to 23 million bbl, due to stronger prices and Mont Belvieu, Texas will have an 800 000 bbl
greater takeaway capacity to the US Gulf Coast refrigerated ethane storage tank.
(USGC). Prices have since dropped, however, and AltaGas Ltd, of Calgary, is on track to complete
storage levels are expected to rise through 2019 as its propane export terminal in the Pacific port of
producers store barrels and wait for the market to Prince Rupert, British Columbia (B.C.) by 2019. The
recover. CAN$500 million project includes a deepwater
marine jetty capable of handling very large gas
Oilsands carriers and sufficient storage to handle 40 000 bpd
While the oilsands have expanded, pipeline capacity LPG export capacity. Pembina Pipeline also has plans
to market has not. The proposed 590 000 bpd to construct its own propane export terminal in
Keystone XL line running from Alberta to Nebraska Prince Rupert. The CAN$270 million project will have
(and hence to the USGC) has been delayed for more a capacity of 15 000 bpd.
than a decade. The Trans Mountain pipeline Shale drillers in Appalachia have been able to
expansion (which would have tripled capacity from boost output to a record high of almost
Alberta to Vancouver to almost 900 000 bpd) has 30 billion ft3/d in late 2018. Related ethane
been held up by adverse court rulings. production in the region is expected to grow to
As a result, the expansion of production at the 640 000 bpd by 2025. In a report to Congress, the US
oilsands in Alberta has exceeded pipeline takeaway Department of Energy suggested that the

Spring 2019 14
development of an ethane storage and distribution Looking to the future
hub would aid natural gas development in the The price of oil will largely dictate much of what
Marcellus and Utica shales, as well as attract happens with unconventional production over the
petrochemical projects to areas outside the USGC, next several years. In the face of low oil prices in late
where 95% of existing US capacity is concentrated. 2018, OPEC, Russia and other non-OPEC producers
“Our report shows there’s significant potential for agreed to reductions totalling 1.2 million bpd to
the US to grab a large share of the global stabilise the market. Major North American
petrochemical market,” US Secretary of Energy, unconventional plays now sit within the
Rick Perry, told the National Petroleum Council. “We US$30 – US$40/bbl break-even point. The EIA
have the potential to diversify our petrochemical expects US production to exceed 12 million bpd in
footprint. Building capacity in Appalachia is a 2019, and for gas production to reach 100 billion ft3/d
once-in-a-lifetime opportunity.” in the next few years. Tanks and terminals will need
to expand in step in order to supply much-needed
LNG infrastructure and export needs.
Cheniere now has four
700 million ft3/d trains operating
in Sabine Pass, Louisiana, and has
been shipping LNG to various
consumers in Europe and Asia.

think tank
The commissioning of the fifth
train will give the Sabine Pass
terminal 3.5 billion ft3/d capacity.
Houston-based Tellurian
continues to advance its
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LNG Canada, a consortium led by See them both at drexelbrook.com.
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3.7 billion ft3/d being converted
by several trains into LNG for
export to Asia by the mid-2020s.
Woodfibre LNG near Squamish,
B.C., is being developed by
Singapore-based Pacific Oil & Gas.
The US$1.8 billion project would
convert 300 million ft3/d of gas.
Pembina Pipelines of Calgary is
moving ahead with the Jordan
Cove project, to be built in
Oregon. The train would consume
1.2 billion ft3/d. All projects
would require extensive tankage
to hold both gas and LNG, was
well as terminal facilities to
handle the LNG carriers.

© 2019 by AMETEK Inc. All rights reserved.

 J. Randolph Kissell, Trinity Consultants, USA, reviews
changes being considered for designing storage tanks
for wind loads.

Spring 2019 18
D
amage to storage tanks from wind is infrequent, but and Other Structures’, most recently published in 2016.
when it occurs, it can be catastrophic, as shown in ASCE 7-16 includes four wind speed maps, one for each risk
Figure 1. This is partly because the cylindrical shape category type of structure, I through IV, with I being the least
of storage tanks is efficient at resisting internal risk (such as greenhouses) and therefore the shortest MRI. By
hydrostatic pressure from stored liquids, but very inefficient ASCE 7’s definitions, storage tanks are in risk category III,
at resisting external pressure from wind. Also, wind uplift defined as “Buildings and other structures not included in
depends on the tank diameter squared, and thus wind is a Risk Category IV (including, but not limited to, facilities that
much more significant factor in the design of large storage manufacture, process, handle, store, use or dispose of such
tanks. While these large tanks are less familiar to storage tank substances as hazardous fuels).” The MRI for category III
designers, they are becoming more common as costs and structures is 1700 years, which has a 3% probability of being
regulations limit the number of new tanks. Finally, the exceeded in 50 years (50/0.03 = 1700). The 1700 MRI is an
strength of tank components that resist wind loads, such as increase from the 100 MRI used in ASCE 7 before 2010, but
wind girders, has been inconsistently addressed in tank because it is accompanied by a 0.6 factor on wind load when
design standards such as API 650, ‘Welded Tanks for Oil used for the allowable strength design method used in
Storage’. Consequently, API is considering changes to API 650, there is no change in wind loads.
modernise 650’s wind load provisions.
Wind pressures
Wind speeds The pressure exerted by the wind over a surface at a given
As pressures are difficult to measure, wind is usually wind speed depends on the average height of the surface,
recorded in terms of wind speed. Wind speed measurement, surface shape, elevation above sea level, structure symmetry,
however, is elusive, because speeds vary over measurement structure spacing, surrounding terrain, and other factors.
time, height, type of terrain, and geographic location. In the While these parameters vary among tanks, simplifying
US, wind is measured 10 m above the ground and over a assumptions can be made for their values for typical tanks to
3 sec. averaging period, referred to as the 3 sec. gust wind establish design wind pressures for tank standards. For
speed. To further complicate matters, the maximum wind example, the terrain may be assumed to be ASCE 7 category C,
speed for a given location depends on how often this open terrain with scattered obstructions that have heights
maximum is expected to occur, called the mean recurrence generally less than 30 ft. This includes flat, open country and
interval (MRI). grasslands. For ASCE 7 category B terrain (urban and suburban
Design loads for US locations are established in the areas, wooded areas, or other terrain with numerous, closely
American Society of Civil Engineers standard ASCE 7, spaced obstructions that have the size of single-family
‘Minimum Design Loads and Associated Criteria for Buildings dwellings or larger), wind pressures are 25 – 30% less, but it is

1
19 Spring 2019
 conservative to use category C and more typical of tank „ The vertical wind pressure acting upward on horizontal
sites. projected areas of roofs with a rise to span ratio greater
Wind pressure is proportional to the square of the wind than 0.05 is:
speed, so any wind pressure must be stated in terms of the PWR = [24 lb/ft2– (0.03 lb/ft2)D](V/Vr)2
wind speed on which it is based. Long ago, when wind speed
maps were not available and wind speeds were measured by Where Vr = 120 mph, V = design wind speed from
averaging over the time it took one mile of air to pass an ASCE 7-16 for risk category III, and D = tank diameter.
observer (called the fastest mile wind speed), designers often
just used a 100 mph wind speed. When wind speed These wind pressures differ from those currently in
measurements changed to averaging over a 3 sec. time API 650 in two ways: the roof pressures for supported cone
interval, 100 mph became about 120 mph. At 120 mph, the roofs are less than the roof pressures for all other tank
averaging time is the 30 sec. it takes air to travel a mile. The roofs (which have higher profiles than supported cone
shorter the averaging period, the faster the average speed, so roofs), and the roof pressures decrease as the tank diameter
the wind speed measured by averaging over 3 sec. is greater increases.
– as it happens, about 20% greater – than the wind speed API 650’s 12th edition and the proposed roof pressures
measured by averaging over 30 sec. Therefore, API 650 uses can be compared with an example. API’s current design wind
120 mph as a reference wind speed Vr for which pressures are speed is 110 mph for Houston, Texas, US; in ASCE 7-16,
stated, and factors that pressure for other wind speeds. Houston’s wind speed is given as 140 mph. For a 120 ft dia.
Using ASCE 7-16’s methodology and values for the wind supported cone roof tank, API 650 currently specifies a roof
pressure parameters that are typical of API 650 tanks: uplift pressure of:
„ The horizontal wind pressure on the vertical projected PWR = (30 lb/ft2)(110/120)2 = 25.2 psf
area of tank shells is:
PWS = (11 lb/ft2) (V/Vr)2 The proposed roof pressure is:
PWR = [(18 lb/ft2) – (0.03 lb/ft2)(120 ft)](140/120)2 = 19.6 psf
„ The vertical wind pressure acting upward on horizontal
projected areas of roofs with a rise to span ratio of 0.05 API 650 currently has a shell pressure of:
or less (typical of supported cone roofs) is: PWS = (18 lb/ft2)(110/120)2 = 15 psf
PWR = [(18 lb/ft2) – (0.03 lb/ft2)D](V/Vr)2
The proposed shell pressure is:
PWS = (11 lb/ft2)(140/120)2 = 15 psf

For roofs other than supported cone roofs, the proposed

roof pressure is:
PWR = [(24 lb/ft2) – (0.03 lb/ft2)(120 ft)](140/120)2 = 27.8 psf

This shows that the proposed roof uplift is less for

supported cone roofs, the roof pressure is slightly greater for
other roofs, and the shell pressure is the same. Uplift
pressures are compared in Figure 2 for a range of tank
diameters.

Compressive strength of shells

The 6th edition of the ‘Guide to Stability Design Criteria for
Metal Structures’ published by the Structural Stability
Research Council (SSRC) provides the strength of cylinders
Figure 1. Cone roof tank damage. with and without circumferential (ring) stiffeners. Section
14.3.5, ‘Cylindrical Shells Subjected to Uniform External
Pressure’, provides a criterion for determining whether such
cylinders buckle elastically and their elastic buckling
strength. When typical API 650 tank dimensions are used in
these strength equations, shells are shown to buckle
elastically, and the external pressure causing buckling is
well-approximated as:
2.1E
P=
(H/D)(D/t)2.5
Where E = the modulus of elasticity of the shell,
Figure 2. Roof uplift pressure as a function of tank H = the shell height, and t = the shell thickness.
diamater. This buckling pressure accounts for the reduction
caused by API 650’s dimensional tolerances on the tank’s

Spring 2019 20
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 Table 1. Buckling strength of ring-stiffened cylindrical shells subjected to uniform external pressure
Tank diameter D ft 50 100 150 200 300
Shell height H ft 48 48 48 48 48
Minimum shell thickness tmin in. 0.250 0.250 0.312 0.312 0.375
Shell thickness assumed t in. 0.250 0.250 0.312 0.312 0.375
Number of buckles n - 7 8 10 11 14
Distance from shell to wind girder centroid c in. 4 9 16 20 20
API 650 wind girder section modulus S in.3 12 48 108 192 192
Wind girder moment of inertia = Sc I in.4 48 432 1728 3840 3840
Shell pressure resistance ps lb/ft2 189 523 492 525 389
Shell portion of pressure resistance ps/P - 0.24 0.36 0.22 0.21 0.29
Ring pressure resistance pr lb/ft 2
602 914 1701 1,933 931
Ring portion of pressure resistance pr/P - 0.76 0.64 0.78 0.79 0.71
Total pressure resistance P lb/ft2 792 1437 2193 2458 1320

cylindrical shape. This is the same formula documented The first term is the contribution to the buckling
by Raymund McGrath in a paper given at the 1963 strength from the shell, and the second term is the
midyear API Refining meeting, which has been used contribution to the buckling strength from the stiffener.
successfully for API storage tanks for many years. The The second term is also called the Levy formula for
compressive strength of tank shells, thus, has been well buckling of a circular ring under uniform external
understood. pressure. The number of buckle waves, n, is determined
by minimising the buckling strength.
Wind girders Very conservative approaches to wind girder buckling
The design of circumferential stiffeners for the shell, were recently incorporated in API 650 Section 5.9.6.2,
called wind girders, on the other hand, has not been as neglecting the shell stiffness, assuming the number of
well understood by tank designers. Wind girders are used buckling lobes n = 2, and neglecting the shape and load
at the top of the shell on all open top tanks and near the factors for wind pressure on the shell. Table 1 provides
mid-height of both open and closed top tanks if the shell the accurate buckling strength, and shows that the wind
thickness is insufficient to resist the wind pressure. The girder size determined by API 650 for yield strength in
former are called top wind girders and the latter Section 5.9.6.1 is much greater than that required for
intermediate wind girders. Because labour costs have buckling. For example, for an open top 50 ft dia. tank, the
increased more rapidly than material costs, intermediate buckling pressure is 792 psf, over 70 times greater than
wind girders are becoming less frequent, and it is often the wind shell pressure of 11 psf for a design wind speed
more cost-effective to thicken the shell than to provide of 120 mph. For a 300 ft dia. tank, the buckling pressure is
an intermediate wind girder. Wind girder design is critical 1320 psf, or 120 times the wind shell pressure. Therefore,
to open top tanks, which require a top wind girder a wind girder buckling check is unnecessary – only the
regardless of shell thickness. API wind girder yield check is needed.
While the wind-induced bending moment in wind The required wind girder section modulus can thus be
girders has been known, the strength of the wind girder written as:
has been debated. API 650 has included the paradoxical S = 0.00877PWSHD2Ω/Fy
provision that the top wind girder’s size be a function of
the tank diameter squared for diameters up to 200 ft, Where Ω is the safety factor (1.6 in API 650) and Fy is
while over 200 ft no increase in wind girder size was the yield strength of the wind girder.
required. (To further confuse, intermediate wind girders
had no such exemption for diameters over 200 ft.) Summary
Just as the shell strength is given in the SSRC Guide, Revisions to wind roof pressures are being proposed for
wind girder strength can also be established using the API 650. The proposed uplift pressures decrease as the
Guide. For a ring-stiffened cylinder, the SSRC Section tank diameter increases. For all diameters, they are less
14.4.2 gives the uniform external pressure P over the than API 650’s current uplift pressures for roofs with rise to
circumference of the shell causing elastic buckling as: span ratios less than 0.05, and they are less than API 650’s
current pressures for higher profile roofs for diameters
2E λ4 EI(n2-1)
P= + over approximately 190 ft. Changes to the wind girder
D/t (n2+(λ/2)2-1)(n2+λ2)2 HD3
requirements are also being considered to eliminate the
Where I = the moment of inertia of the ring stiffener, unnecessary buckling check and generalise the expression
and λ = πD/(2H). for tanks of any diameter and material strength.

Spring 2019 22
 Bruce A. Kaiser, Lightning Master, USA, explains how geodesic domes
on storage tanks can be protected from lightning using systems that
meet industry standards and recommended practices.

T
here has been discussion recently concerning protecting these structures point to studies regarding
the need for a dedicated lightning protection other types of aluminium structures, including aircraft.
system on aluminium geodesic domes covering However, the occurrence of even one storage tank fire
petroleum storage tanks. This is partly due to argues persuasively against the relevance of such
recent lightning-caused fires in such structures. studies to storage tanks.
Discussions tend to focus on two areas of concern:
direct lightning attachment and conducting lightning Referenced documents
energy to ground. The lightning attachment debate Throughout this discussion are references to both
centres on the ability of dome components to sustain a American Petroleum Institute (API) and National Fire
direct lightning strike without damage, particularly Protection Association (NFPA) documents. The
burn-through. The current conducting discussion API-recommended practices are API 2003, ‘Protection
centres on the ability of the dome structure, roof Against Ignitions Arising Out of Static, Lightning, and
attachment to the tank rim, and the tank shell to safely Stray Currents’ and API 545, ‘Recommended Practice for
conduct lightning energy to ground. Arguments for not Lightning Protection of Aboveground Storage Tanks for

2
23 Spring 2019
 The structural parts of the dome, including the
nodes and beams, can usually meet the thickness
requirements to serve as strike termination devices.
However, the panels and node covers usually do not.
One of the principles of conventional lightning
protection is that any portion of a structure not
meeting the requirements of a strike termination
device must fall within the zone of protection of a
portion of the structure that does meet those
requirements. The zone of protection is defined as the
space adjacent to a lightning protection system that is
substantially immune to direct lightning flashes. For
example, a lightning rod’s zone of protection is the
space around it wherein lightning will attach to that
Figure 1. Geodesic dome storage tanks.
lightning rod in preference to anything else around it.
As long as the entire protected structure is located
within the zone of protection, lightning will always
attach to the lightning rod and be harmlessly conveyed
around the protected structure to ground, thereby
sparing attachment to the parts of the structure that
are subject to burn-through or other damage.
There are three methods that determine the zone
of protection of a lightning rod: layout, angle and
rolling sphere. The requirements of these methods are
not met by the structure of a geodesic dome.
Therefore, there is nothing on the dome that will
protect the panels, leaving them subject to direct
attachment and burn-through. However, the
requirements may be met by installing lightning rods on
Figure 2. Aftermath of a direct lightning strike. the dome in such a manner that all areas of the dome
are within the zone of protection of one or more
lightning rods. The easiest way to accomplish this is to
Flammable or Combustible Liquids’. The NFPA standard install lightning rods on the nodes, spaced so that all
is NFPA 780, ‘Standard for the Installation of Lightning panels are protected.
Protection Systems’.
Since this article centres on petroleum storage Conduction of current
tanks and the API documents specifically address these, NFPA 780, 4.9 describes the conductor system intended
the API documents should be considered primary. to convey lightning strike energy from the air terminal
However, they offer little guidance regarding location to ground. Section 4.9.3 allows certain metallic
and spacing of lightning protection system structural members to be substituted for a wire or
components. While NFPA 780 does provide such cable conductor system. If structural steel is
guidance, the designs contained in the document were electrically continuous and greater than 3/16 in. thick, it
originally intended to provide protection for wood may be used as the conductor system. However,
barns and houses, not industrial facilities. As such, conductors are not subject to the burn-through caused
NFPA 780 is somewhat lacking when applied to tanks. by a direct lightning attachment. They only conduct
lightning current, so the thickness requirement is
Lightning attachment probably a holdover from that for a strike termination
The attachment issue concerns the acceptability of device. A thickness requirement of 0.064 in. is specified
substituting the dome structure for air terminals in NFPA 780, 4.9.3.2 for metal handrails and ladders and
(lightning rods) or other strike termination devices. in 4.6.5.3 for metal masts, so it follows that the
Reviewing applicable standards and recommended minimum thickness of any substituted metal need only
practices, NFPA 780 is the lightning protection standard be 0.064 in.
for the US. NFPA 780, 4.6.1.4 states that metal parts of a NFPA 780, 4.19 addresses structural metallic systems.
structure that are exposed to direct lightning flashes and This section allows the metal framework of a structure
that have a metal thickness of 3/16 in. (4.8 mm) or greater to be utilised as the main conductor in a lightning
only require connection to the lightning protection protection system. The framework of a geodesic dome is
(conductor) system. That thickness requirement ensures analogous to the structural steel in an ordinary
that the structure is adequate to accept lightning structure. This section also contains the 3/16 in. thickness
attachment without burn-through or other damage from requirement, but again, the argument can be supported
the heat or impact of a direct lightning attachment. for allowing the substitution of 0.064 in. thickness.

Spring 2019 24
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 Once the current is conducted to the perimeter of Although not required by any standard, some
the domed roof, it must be transferred to the tank operators have, as best practice, installed bypass
shell. There are several sections contained in NFPA 780 conductors between the internal floating roof and the
offering guidance. If the attachments between the roof tank shell as described in API 545 and 2003 and
and tank shell are considered equivalent to down NFPA 780. Some may consider this unnecessary, but it
conductors in a conventional lightning protection can help to eliminate arcing between the floating roof
system, the requirement is for bonding the roof to the and tank shell.
rim of the tank shell at intervals not to exceed 100 ft
(NFPA 780, 4.9.10.1), or at intervals not to exceed 60 ft, Certifications
if considered structural metal framework connection Often an owner or operator will desire a third-party
to ground (NFPA 780, 4.19.4.1). This spacing requirement certification of a completed lightning protection
is supported by the 100 ft maximum spacing of bypass installation. Underwriters Laboratories (UL) is the
conductors contained in NFPA 780, 7.4.3.2.2.4 (2). These nationally recognised testing laboratory (NRTL) in the
bonding conductors should be as short and straight as lightning protection industry, and should be consulted
is practical, and allow for full motion of the tank roof if third party certification is desired.
on the tank shell rim. UL converts NFPA 780 into materials and
installation guidelines. UL 96 covers lightning
Grounding protection components and UL 96A covers
Once the lightning energy reaches the base of the installation requirements. Based on compliance with
tank shell, it must be safely dissipated into ground. these documents, UL can issue certifications of
For lightning protection purposes, flat-bottom metal completed installations, the best known of which is a
tanks and other structures are considered inherently UL Master Label. However, the UL documents
self-grounding, per API 545, A.2.1 and API 2003, 5.4.1. specifically exclude from their scope any “structures
This applies whether or not a containment liner or used for the production, handling, or storage of
barrier is installed either in or under the tank or ammunition, explosives, flammable liquids or gases,
structure, per API 545, A.2.2. and other explosive ingredients including dust”.
There are several different types of grounding Therefore, in place of a Master Label, UL will issue a
electrodes allowed by the standards, including ground Letter of Findings or Engineering Inspection Report,
rods, ground plates, ground loop conductors, plant which have the same import as a Master Label but
grounding grids and buried metal piping. One way to reference this exclusion.
look at the grounding properties of a flat-bottom
steel tank is to compare it to a flat plate grounding Conclusion
electrode, as allowed in NFPA 780, 4.13.6. The tank In addition to other, more prosaic risk factors, the
bottom has a much larger area than a flat plate following conditions should also be considered:
electrode, and is pressed against ground by the weight „ Problematic: sites that have experienced a
of the tank and stored product. Therefore, it is an previous static or lightning event.
effective connection to ground. „ High exposure: sites located in exposed locations
If a ground grid is installed at a site, each tank such as hilltops or historically high-lightning
should also be grounded to that grid at a minimum of locations.
two locations, and preferably at additional intervals „ High consequence: sites located in
not to exceed 100 ft around the tank perimeter. Metal environmentally sensitive locations or populated
piping attached to a tank and buried for a minimum areas.
length of 10 ft may also be considered ground. „ Accessibility: sites with limited or difficult access
This does not address grounding for purposes for remediation and repair.
other than lightning protection. Grounding for other „ Regulation: sites where a local/municipal/regional
purposes, such as AC power grounding, should be construction code requires lighting protection.
considered by the owner/operator. „ High visibility: facilities that are in a particularly
sensitive area (urban or otherwise high-profile).
Reality check „ Operational importance: high production or
The main concern with this design is lifting the heat otherwise operationally important sites.
of a direct attachment off of the geodesic dome „ High investment: sites with significant equipment
panels. This could cause a burn-through and result in investment.
molten roof material falling onto the internal floating
roof where, if the seals are not adequately If tanks, by virtue of these or any other factors,
maintained, an explosive atmosphere may be present. exceed the owner or operator’s risk threshold, they
Another concern is to prevent arcing, particularly may consider adding air terminals and bonding to
at the juncture of the geodesic dome and the tank their geodesic dome tank. As things stand, the best
shell rim where an explosive atmosphere may also be way to do so and to meet standards is to apply a
present. The use of the system described above structural lightning protection system as described
reduces these possibilities. above.

Spring 2019 26
 Jason Hayes, Trimble, USA, explains how
laser technology adds efficiency and
detail to storage tank inspection.

W
hen tank inspectors arrive at a job site, they be conducted. The work includes extensive physical
have a single focus: get the work done measurement of a tank’s floor, shell and roof. The
quickly, safely and correctly. In the field of measurements are used to look for issues including
aboveground storage tank inspection, out-of-vertical or out-of-roundness of the shell, settlement
however, speed and accuracy sometimes seem mutually around the base of the shell, and settlement or depression
exclusive. But by adopting new technologies for collecting of the tank floor. Other inspection work tests the thickness
and analysing tank inspection data, US-based inspection of tank walls and floors as well as the condition of welds,
company TechCorr has significantly reduced time spent nozzles and other tank appurtenances. In addition to
onsite without cutting corners. concerns for safety, regular inspections provide information
that helps clients maximise the performance and lifetime
The nuts and bolts of inspection of a tank.
TechCorr conducts tank inspections in accordance with An out-of-service inspection requires a tank to be
standards established by the American Petroleum Institute emptied and cleaned to allow inspectors to work inside the
(API). The standards specify time intervals between tank. This downtime, plus additional time for repairs or
inspections as well as how inspections should maintenance revealed by the inspection, can add up quickly.

2
27 Spring 2019
 By using light detection and ranging (lidar) technology to calls for a maximum distance of 32 ft (9.7 m) between
save time during the inspection process, TechCorr can stations. Large tanks with diameters of more than 300 ft
increase the value it provides to tank operators. (91 m) may require more than 30 stations. The stations are
Each inspection begins by identifying at least eight defined in diametrically opposed pairs and serve as the
stations around the circular tank shell. The API 653 standard basis for measurements on the tank floor and shell.
The traditional approach to the measurement work
begins by using a rotating laser level to measure the floor.
At each station, an inspector walks along a radial line from
the shell to the centre of the tank, measuring the floor
elevation at 1 ft intervals. Each reading is recorded by hand.
To check the shell, they use a surveying total station to
measure each station, where a series of points is captured
on a vertical line from the bottom of the shell up to the
roof. The inspector may need to set up the total station in
several different locations to gather the required
information.
In the office, the handwritten measurements are
entered into spreadsheets to produce finished elevations
for the points on the tank floor. Technicians review the
numbers to check flatness and look for any settlement or
depressions. A similar process handles the total station
data, which is analysed to detect any bulges or departure
from vertical. The results are plotted in pairs of opposing
stations.
As well as being time-consuming and tedious, manually
recording data introduces the potential for error both in
the field and office, so crews must check their work
thoroughly. In the office, even using customised
spreadsheets, data processing usually takes a few hours
before the results can go to CAD operators to prepare
finished drawings.
Figure 1. A finished point cloud provides a detailed
view of a storage tank. Laser scanning is used for both Shifting gears on tank measurement
interior and exterior scans. Things change when lidar, also known as laser scanning, is
used for tank inspections. Before starting the scanning, an
inspector walks the area to identify optimal locations for
the scanners. Generally, four scanner setups are required
to capture a tank interior, although larger tanks may
require additional setups.
TechCorr uses Trimble TX5 or TX8 3D scanners for the
work. The instruments are fully automatic and can
measure over 1 million points per second. Each scan takes
about 12 min. and covers a 360˚ area around the scanner.
The measurements capture the tank floor, shell, roof and
any piping or structures. The result is a point cloud of
tightly spaced 3D points; each point is measured to an
accuracy of a few millimetres. Compared to manual
measurements, the scanner cuts the time in the field by
75%.
While the savings in the field are significant, the larger
payoff comes in the office. Data from the scanner can be
downloaded directly to Trimble RealWorks software. The
software then combines (or ‘registers’) the multiple scans
into a single large point cloud. To make viewing easier, the
cloud can be colourised using photographs taken by the
scanner or colour information captured with each point.
After cleanup to remove extraneous points – the
Figure 2. Storage tank exterior with comparison to a scanner’s rapid measurement often captures other
vertical cylinder reveals deformation. technicians and their equipment in the area – the finished
point cloud is ready for analysis.

Spring 2019 28
 The software is next used to identify the
floor, shell and roof, as well as interior
deadwood such as piping and structural
members. Built-in functions analyse
verticality, out-of-roundness and settlement
or subsidence around the tank’s edges and
floor. The stations desired for verticality
analysis can be selected and RealWorks will
produce the two-station plots equivalent to
those created by the manual process. The
plots and reports are readily incorporated
into the final report that the inspection
company provides to its clients. In addition
to the results of the scanning, these reports
contain information on floor thickness,
pitting or corrosion, welds, nozzles and Figure 3. Scanner data of tank interior showing floor and interior
other issues noted by the inspection team. piping. White dots indicate individual measurements on the floor.
The automated software can save about half
a day in processing compared to the
traditional method.
Because scanning captures the entire tank, it can reveal
issues that would not show up in a conventional
inspection. For example, the software can compare the
tank shell to a cylinder to reveal any deformation. It can
also fit a plane to the base of the shell to compare the
measured floor with a flat surface. Screenshots of any
problem areas are included in the reports.
The finished point cloud provides a comprehensive
depiction of the tank. As a result, it can be used for other
applications. Tank analysis can develop information on
capacity and fill levels. Scanning is also used on the exterior
of in-service tanks to produce reports on roundness and
Figure 4. A tank model with stations for API 653
report. Stations can be created in software during
verticality. The scanners can also capture surrounding office processing.
conditions, including berms for secondary containments.
The software can identify low areas or spill points in the
containment berms and then compute the capacity of the
containment. The analysis can also account for any
expected rainfall and adjust the containment capacity
accordingly.
One of the most valuable aspects of scanning is the
ability to conduct a virtual revisit at any time. When a
client requests additional information or questions a
report, technicians can quickly access actual measurements
and field data to assess the issue. This is especially valuable
in assessing tanks that have been returned to service.
The rapid time frame and low costs of scanning create
new applications as well. For example, scanning new tanks
creates precise baseline data on tank dimensions and
capacity. The information can be compared with
subsequent scans to assess the tank health and
performance. Clients can be supplied with free viewer
software to enable them to view their tanks from any angle
and make measurements within the point cloud.

Conclusion
While laser scanning helps meet goals of speed, safety and
Figure 5. An inspection uses colour coding (heat
accuracy, it also enables reports to come out faster and maps) to reveal bulges or deformation in a tank shell.
include much more information than the older reports. The dimensions of the region may be measured
With this technology, inspectors can offer clients more for directly from the scanning data.
their money.

29 Spring 2019
Spring 2019 30
 Phil Buchan, Cyberhawk, UK, overviews the growth of drone-based
inspection methods for tank and terminal operators.

S
torage tanks are subject to many challenging environmental contamination and safety risks to
conditions, from adverse weather to the personnel, as well as a serious knock-on effect to other
containment of materials such as oil, chemicals or assets.
wastewater, all of which can cause a tank to Good tank management is critical not only to avoid
become quickly corroded and not perform to its these problems, but to maximise the life of the tank and
requirements. avoid the cost implications associated with downtime.
This means that regular inspection is needed, and even Tank and terminal owners must ensure that their
more frequently as a tank ages. Implementing a rigorous assets are inspected to (and comply with) specific
inspection and maintenance programme means that any industry standards. Typically, this is done using techniques
problem areas can be identified, closely monitored and such as rope access, scaffolding/staging or elevated work
addressed at the appropriate time before failure occurs. platforms. While these solutions have been developed
This is particularly important because failure of the tank and become more sophisticated over the years,
can result in many problems, such as loss of containment, fundamental safety concerns still exist around working at

3
31 Spring 2019
 inspection onboard the Gryphon floating production
storage and offloading (FPSO) vessel. The inspection was
completed in just one day – a major time reduction
compared with the traditional rope access inspection,
which would typically take 3 – 4 days. This project also
highlighted how a drone could be used to conduct a
safe, first audit of a tank and from there, any tactile
inspection, repair or maintenance required could be
focused into priority areas.
The successful completion of this workscope meant a
full tank inspection service could be introduced to the
marketplace. Since then, multiple projects have been
completed around the world in the upstream and
downstream oil and gas and chemical sectors.

Figure 1. Collision resistant drone. What is involved in the inspection

process?
A two man team is typically mobilised, including a highly
experienced drone pilot with hundreds (if not thousands)
of hours of flight experience and an industry qualified
inspection engineer. This means that the pilot can focus
on flying the drone while the inspection engineer can
ensure that relevant visual data from the correct areas is
captured. The latter is an important factor in providing
the end client with engineering analysis, reporting
outcomes and evidence that can be used for further
planning and decision-making.
Hardware developments were also a key factor in
enabling internal tank inspection to become possible. For
the external surface of tanks, a multi-rotor drone,
designed for outdoor use, is typically used. However, for
the tank’s internal surface, a more robust, collision
resistant drone is required in order to get into tight spaces
and obtain detailed, close-up imagery. The introduction
of such technology significantly advanced how inspection
in confined spaces is conducted (Figure 1).

Tank inspection case study

Following the introduction of the tank inspection
Figure 2. Water storage tank. service, Cyberhawk was tasked with a tank inspection
project for a leading chemical manufacturer in
North Teesside, UK. The workscope required an
height and for lengthy periods of time. In the case of examination of the quality of the welds for the entire
internal tank inspections, personnel are also exposed to internal surface of an oil storage tank.
confined, hot, low visibility environments. This type of inspection would usually be conducted
As well as safety issues, inspections using these by rope access technicians who are suspended on ropes
techniques usually take weeks, if not months, which leads to inspect the internal structure. However, drones were
to escalating costs. selected as the preferred method of inspection for this
Across the industry, there is an ongoing drive to project, primarily to reduce the safety risks posed to
develop and apply new technologies to counter these personnel working at height and in a confined space.
problems. One such technology which has significantly With the added challenges of limited GPS signal inside
challenged the norm in recent years has been unmanned the tank and dark conditions, the pilots had to work with
aerial vehicles (UAVs), more commonly known as drones. an extremely high level of precision during the inspection
to ensure a successful end result.
First internal tank inspection The company successfully completed the workscope,
Cyberhawk has been using drones to inspect high, delivering high resolution images which enabled the client
hazardous and difficult-to-access locations for more than to understand any defects present within the tank. The
a decade. client reported that the project was carried out within
In 2015, the company partnered with Maersk Oil budget and with significant time savings, along with other
(since acquired by Total) to conduct an internal tank positive feedback.

Spring 2019 32
 As further inspections are
conducted, a visual database of
the tank can be built up and
allows known problems and
defects to be monitored,
tracked and compared over
time. This enables temporal
analysis and the identification
of any trends and patterns.
This solution is beneficial to
asset teams as it allows them to
see the full tank, as well as any
defects in the context of the
tank, without having to be
physically present. Not only
Figure 3. iHawk tank software.
does this mean a complete
asset record is available at the
Man-less entry to the tank touch of a button, but also that fewer site mobilisations
A further project saw Cyberhawk conduct an internal are required, thus lowering costs.
inspection of a large water tank for a major oil and gas Communication between asset teams and contractors
company in the east of England (Figure 2). is also improved, no matter their geographical location.
The quality of several pipe support fittings was Working from one central source of data, visual
inspected, along with the entire internal surface of the inspection results can be easily accessed, shared,
storage tank. This project was particularly significant in interrogated and used for activities from contract
that the interior of the asset was fully inspected by a tendering to maintenance and repair planning.
team that did not enter the tank, remaining on the
outside to fly and control the drone. The future of drone inspection
Man-less entry to this tank required a great deal of The pace of development in robotics, drone technology
precision to ensure that inspection data was not and software is rapid and contributing towards some
compromised, since there was no GPS signal and little major efficiency gains across multiple industries. However,
light inside the tank. The team had to draw upon while these unmanned aircraft have enabled the visual
experience to complete this complex workscope and inspection industry to advance leaps and bounds,
ensure a successful end result. non-destructive testing (NDT) technicians are still
This type of inspection would have previously been required to perform certain tasks. For instance, in tank
conducted by rope access technicians and would have inspection, technicians are still required to conduct
taken at least a week to complete. The company was thickness measurements using conventional techniques
able to safely and efficiently undertake a first audit of such as ultrasonic testing (UT).
the structure, which allowed further inspection and Once again, however, drone technology is
maintenance to be prioritised. The project was progressing quickly to address this limitation, with
completed in one day, which further emphasised the solutions being developed that will enable drones to
cost and time benefits of drones for internal tank take thickness measurements. Cyberhawk has already
inspection. trialled a prototype on a live project which
demonstrated that with further development, this is a
Creating value from data feasible solution.
Drones have the ability to capture terabytes of data A future phase of development is also man-less entry
which can be used for much more than just viewing the to the tank. As highlighted in the previous case study, it is
status of an asset at one specific point in time. possible to perform man-less entry, however varying
Based on years of inspection experience and through conditions within different tanks means offering this as a
working closely with customers, Cyberhawk developed a standardised solution is difficult at present. Again, with
cloud-based software that allows asset integrity data to the R&D efforts happening at present, this is expected to
be hosted as an intuitive, visual, digital inspection become more common in the future, which will mark a
report, rather than the traditional paper-based massive shift in the field of confined space and internal
equivalent. This is particularly useful for internal tanks, tank inspection.
which can be difficult to access and to visualise. The industry has experienced a major growth in the
Users can log in and view the inside of the tank in a use of drones for tank inspection, which will only increase
360˚ view with the ability to pan round the tank, from as the technology matures. Tank and terminal owners
different levels and viewpoints, and navigate directly to have demonstrated a real desire to adopt new technology
areas of interest. From there, high-definition imagery of to work safely and more efficiently. Unmanned aircraft are
defects and problem areas can be accessed and analysed expected to become a regular fixture at terminals over
(Figure 3). the coming years.

Spring 2019 34
 Pouya Kamalinejad and Reza Tavakoli, Avestec, Canada, discusses the
advantages of adopting robotic technology for asset inspection.

I
ndustries are changing at a rapid pace and one of the Novel robotic inspection technologies enable platforms
primary drivers of this change is robotic technology. that submerge, crawl and fly. These unique capabilities are
Robots are no longer the bipedal walking machines seen being deployed throughout industry and are poised to have a
only in science fiction. They play a key role in a wide significant impact. The applications are broad: today’s robotics
range of industries including automotive, aerospace, inspection will impact people and companies through aerial
electronics, food and many more. Robotics is helping photography and visual inspection, measurement and remote
companies increase their bottom line, reduce their risk of sensing, mapping and surveying, environmental monitoring,
exposure and keep a more watchful eye over their assets. data analysis, disaster risk management, and 3D modelling, etc.
An emerging application scenario for the technology is Companies follow routine, standardised inspections of
the use of robots in demanding or dangerous environments. their plant, processes and assets. This is an efficient method
Robots can safely replace humans in undertaking hazardous of maintaining their assets and preventing unforeseen
activities in radioactive environments, military operations, dangers. Industries including power generation, refining,
rescue missions and industrial inspection. In addition to chemicals, process plants, etc., require frequent inspection of
safety advantages, robotic industrial inspection presents the machinery, large pipes, tanks, pressure vessels, wind
numerous economic benefits by reducing workforce costs turbines, mixing vats, power transmission lines, posts and
and increasing data acquisition speed. other equipment.

3
35 Spring 2019
 Reduced operation time
Aerial robotic solutions directly tackle one of the most
challenging aspects of industrial inspection, namely
operation shutdown. Traditional inspection methods
typically require an operation to be closed down for
preparation, safety and access before and during inspection.
The long shutdown leads to loss of production and revenue.
Aerial robotic inspection significantly relaxes preparation
and safety requirements while facilitating access to
hard-to-reach spaces and accelerating the inspection. This
technology could potentially bring down the inspection
time from weeks to days or even hours.

Improved worker safety

Figure 1. Aerial robotic platform performing tank
Aerial robotic solutions address inspectors’ and workers’
inspection at high elevation.
safety by enabling a complete and industry-standard remote
inspection. Traditional inspection methods put inspectors at
a variety of risks including potential falls, slips, trips, toxic or
explosive environments, excessive heat, lack of oxygen and
many more. Aerial robotic technology offers modular
sensory technology which enables different types of
remotely operated inspections including visual, gas, surface
profile, coating and wall thickness.

Lower employment cost

Aerial robotic solutions lower employment costs by
simplifying the inspection process. Traditional inspection
procedures typically involve several people to deal with
different aspects of the project including preparation, safety,
inspection, analysis and report generation. Aerial robotic
inspection is a cost-efficient, two-person operation, which
entails a short setup time and fast inspection due to quicker
movement speeds. Web-accessible measurement results,
software-based analysis and automated report generation
Figure 2. Aerial robotic platform inspecting corroded further reduce inspection costs.
plates in confined space.
Inspection quality
Traditionally, qualified personnel are employed to enter Aerial robotic solutions offer new data collection features
or climb up whenever routine or emergency inspections are that are not traditionally available. Traditional inspection
needed. Despite all the training these personnel receive, methods are limited in quality and quantity of
these inspection processes are very dangerous. Moreover, measurement data. Particularly for hazardous or
human inspection of inaccessible or hazardous spaces inaccessible places, data collection may be limited to a few
usually requires lengthy and expensive planning, including spot measurements and/or few pictures. Aerial robotics
potential shutdown of the normal operation of the unit and eases access to otherwise unreachable locations. Aerial
preparation of hazard analysis, safety procedures and rescue robots can collect high quality visual data. Moreover, the
plans. Even with extensive care, a high number of fatalities modular sensory mechanism allows different types of NDT
and incidents is reported annually. measurement to be performed. Automated data collection,
processing and report generation, along with accurate
Aerial robotic technology location tagging and sophisticated flaw detection
Aerial robotic inspection offers accurate surface inspection algorithms and time series analysis, make aerial robotic
to fulfil mandatory American Petroleum Institute (API) technology an effective tool for high quality data
inspection standards. This technology can be used for collection.
various asset inspections, onshore and offshore, such as Avestec’s aerial robot is equipped with the following
storage tanks, cargo tanks, floating production storage and NDT sensors:
offloading (FPSO) tanks, semi-submersibles and more. This is „ Ultrasonic thickness (UT) sensor with liquid couplant
implemented by a robotic drone capable of executing dispenser.
non-destructive testing (NDT) inspection. „ Coating sensor.
Avestec offers aerial robotic technologies for the „ Surface profilometry.
inspection of inaccessible and hazardous industrial spaces. „ Mechanism for surface cleaning (surface preparation)
This novel concept offers significant benefits. prior to measurements.

Spring 2019 36
 The sensors are modular and can be changed based on the rangefinders along with a detect-and-avoid algorithm that
type of the inspection. The robotic arm employs a mechanism runs on top of flight control stack. Collision avoidance
that moves the NDT transducer in three dimensions, which effectively guarantees a safe flight and helps mitigate human
enables an area, as opposed to one spot, to be measured. error in dense industrial environments.
Another robotic apparatus implements surface preparation, Highly reliable results from surface measurement sensors
which is beneficial when NDT measurements are to be along with high quality visual images, all without deploying
performed on rough or dirty surfaces. The robotic arm also any scaffolding or requiring rope access, make the data
embeds a miniature, refillable couplant dispenser, which is a delivery and decision-making process much faster and more
required part of UT measurement. accurate.
The aerial robot offers full visual inspection using an Aerial platforms generally suffer from limited payload
HD imaging camera spanning a wide range from the floor to and flight time. In view of their high energy density and low
the ceiling. This camera is mounted on the platform using a weight, lithium-based batteries are commonly used as the
customised 2D gimbal which enables stable pictures and power source for aerial platforms. However, battery-driven
videos to be captured. Various lenses may be used on the aerial platforms can only fly for 20 – 30 min. before their
camera according to inspection requirements. High batteries run out. The short flight time is exacerbated for
intensity and remotely adjustable LEDs facilitate flight, heavier industrial platforms. To overcome this shortcoming,
navigation and visual inspection in dark and confined Avestec has developed a smart tethered power transfer
spaces. system which enables unlimited flight time by continuously
The aerial robot features collision avoidance technology, delivering power to the aerial robot through an ultra-light
employing a combination of laser-based and ultrasonic and flexible cable. The tether system automatically adjusts
the tension on the cable in order to prevent it
from tangling with the platform or obstacles.
Integration of the robotic aerial platform with
the smart tether system results in high payload
capacity and stable, indefinite flights.
In addition to a wide range of NDT sensors,
visual inspection sensors and the tether system,
the hardware platform is accompanied with
analysis, reporting and controlling software. The
interface software provides visual feedback and
NDT readings in real time. Additionally, the
interface implements robotic control features
for gimbal and lighting remote control, surface
cleaning, transducer 3D movement and the
couplant dispensing mechanism. The software
uploads the images and readings to a local (and,
Figure 3. Real time high definition video and robotic control optionally, a cloud) server for post-processing.
interface. Post-processed results are automatically tagged
with location data and inspector comments and
are linked with associated images of the
measured area. The software generates a custom
report based on user requirements.

Conclusion
To summarise, aerial robotic inspection
significantly facilitates industrial inspection.
With the help of robots, inspections are
performed faster and hard-to-reach spaces are
accessed in a safer manner. Robotic inspection
increases productivity by minimising operation
shutdowns. Furthermore, time- and
cost-effective inspection, facilitated by the use
of aerial robots, enable higher frequency
inspections with shorter downtime. This
reduces the risk of unforeseen complications
and keeps management more aware of the
integrity of assets. Replacing humans with
Figure 4. Post-processed inspection data and automated robots for hazardous jobs eliminates the risk of
industry-standard report. fatalities and injuries occurring during industrial
inspection.

Spring 2019 38
Chris Beatty, Crown Oil Environmental,
UK, explains how a multitude of
measures can be taken to protect against
troublesome tank corrosion.

M
ore and more frequently, engineers are called when compared to plastic tanks. They are a sturdier option
out to instances where steel tanks have for fuel storage so are able to withstand more impact
become victims of corrosion and rusting, when onsite and they are generally non-porous, meaning
which is generally due to chemical or they will not absorb any of their contents.
electrochemical reactions between a tank and the
environment. Hot stuff
The oil industry is certainly no exception, with Unfortunately, despite their comparable strengths, steel
corrosion seen as a major cause of expensive equipment tank properties also mean that they are more prone to
failures and reduced operational functionality. corrosion from weather conditions, such as UV light, heat
For example, in 2018 the UK experienced an extremely and condensation. Water in fuel tanks is particularly
cold winter which was followed by an incredibly dry common during spring and summer due to heat gain and
summer. This led to a 23% rise in callouts to instances of evaporation. When the temperature increases,
corrosion and reports of fuel contamination. condensation forms internally and causes the tank to
More often than not, steel tanks are used to store bulk breathe. This exacerbates contamination and causes water
amounts of fuel due to their preferable characteristics and bacterial microbial contamination to build up.

3
39 Spring 2019
 Corrosion forms from the inside out, so the extent of Corrosion culprit
the problem is not generally known until external There are several types of corrosion, including: general,
problems manifest, which can often be too late to rectify. local, pitting and weld metal corrosion. General corrosion
As a rule, diesel fuel should be stored for no longer than occurs throughout a tank whereas local corrosion appears
six months without being checked by fuel testing to in specific areas where water collects or flows. Pitting is
ensure that it meets specification before it is used. found along horizontal surfaces, the bottom of tanks and
In a 12-month period, Crown Oil Environmental was where water accumulates. Once pitting corrosion becomes
called out to 482 instances of corrosion. The vast majority thicker than one-third of the wall depth, it manifests as a
of these cases could have been avoided by regular checks, problem. Weld metal corrosion occurs when welding
simple tank maintenance and keeping fuel levels to a metal interacts with metal in the fuel tank, triggering an
maximum to reduce the risk of moisture. electrolytic action.

Troublesome tanks and pipework

Good practice when storing fuels onsite dictates that
tanks and pipework should be regularly tested to ensure
integrity. While many different types of corrosion can
occur, most are not visible by exterior examination only
and further internal testing is required.
Internal testing should be done by confined space
entry using a trained specialist team to ensure health and
safety.
The contents of the tank should first be removed,
followed by a full internal clean down by pressure jetting
to eradicate any loose metal exposing any pitted or rusted
areas. This should then be checked by non-destructive
testing (NDT) to test the metal thickness at various points
Figure 1. Aboveground tank storage. in the tank. This process looks specifically at the base
plate as this is not clearly visible unless the tank is
cleaned.
Tank thickness can range between 6 – 12 mm
depending on the overall size of the tank or the site
specification. If the tank thickness has reduced by over
20% once tested, then action should be taken.
Pipework should be checked as frequently as tanks by
pressure testing and where possible by NDT if the
pipework is above ground and clearly visible.

Suffering from sludge?

When a tank becomes corroded, the oxidation of
hydrocarbon ingredients is increased, which reduces the
quality of fuels contained and leads to sludge, bacteria
and fungi build-up. Corrosion on the bottom of a tank
Figure 2. Industrial tank clean. reduces fuel lubrication and clogs filters, whereas in the
upper filter spaces it can obstruct the operation of release
detection and ultimately lead to equipment failure.
Corrosion of tanks and build-up of damaging bacteria
such as fuel algae and sludge are responsible for 62% of
equipment failure.

Modern matter
Fuel tanks also face a number of challenges due to the
nature of products stored. The introduction of ultra low
sulfur diesel (ULSD), coupled with the increase in
bio content and modern refining techniques, means that
the risk of contamination and general corrosion or pitting
is now higher than ever.
While some corrosion is inevitable, a wide range of
techniques and materials have been developed to prevent
Figure 3. Man entry tank clean. it. A proactive over a reactive approach must be adopted
to maintain fuel quality.

Spring 2019 40
 So what can be done to protect tanks problems such as tank bottom perforation. This can cause oil
and fuel? to leak into the environment, which can result in significant
clean-up costs.
Double up Oil pollution harms plant and marine life, damages rivers,
A high-performing liner, either a single or double skin, provides natural habitats and drinking water supplies. Tank owners
leak detection and acts as a safety net, offering an excellent have a legal duty to ensure that the fuel stored is safe and
return on investment. A double skin offers twice as much secure, without posing a risk to the environment.
protection and ensures that the original tank is contained
within a vacuum to combat corrosion as there is no moisture Secondary containment availability
or air within. The thicker the skin, the better the protection. A bund (secondary containment) is constructed from
concrete or brick and is legally required to contain and
Filling the tanks prevent spillages that can occur due to tank penetration. The
As well as structural preventative measures, fuel tanks must extra outer protective layer will protect the inner tank and
be kept full, especially during the hotter months. This will must be able to hold 110% of the contents under UK law. If
give less space for air, meaning there is less humidity and there is a leak or breach of the inner tank such as overfilling
therefore less condensation. Water build-up encourages or water forming in the tank, the outer bund has the capacity
corrosion in the top half of the tank. to fully contain it safely.
Outside bunds are exposed to natural elements so are
Paint protection likely to become filled with rainwater. Over time, this builds
Implementing an effective coating solution from the start, up and decreases the containment capacity. This increases
such as Hammerite Direct to Rust Metal Paint, will protect the likelihood of oil escaping by surpassing the bund wall if a
the tank for much longer and help prevent corrosion. Its tank fails, so it is vital that robust measures are implemented
corrosion-resistant finish limits surface damage by repelling to extract rainwater from exposed bunds. For example, a
water and preventing rust from forming underneath. valve should be kept closed at all times but can be opened
According to the UK Spill Organisation, an oil spill costs to drain uncontaminated water.
a typical business up to £30 000 in fines, clean up charges
and production losses. Wave goodbye to water
Over time, corrosion will decrease tank integrity and Tank dewatering at outlet pipes such as a bung is esssential
eventually penetrate the tank structure, causing serious to detect liquid interfaces between oil and water. A bung

Crown Oil Environmental is an independently Nationwide Fuel Supply Innovative Tank Cleaning
owned, family-run business offering environmental Fuel Oil Polishing Tank and Pipework Testing
services to large blue chip industrial businesses Fuel Oil Testing Technical Advice
across the UK. Fuel Oil Uplifts ISO Accredited Company

Our highly-experienced specialist teams are

available 24/7 to provide environmental support. Call us 24/7: 0845 872 3344
Call us or visit our website for more information. or visit www.crownoilenvironmental.co.uk
should be fitted 0.25 in. from the base of the tank, which Case study
provides an outlet for water to escape, while keeping the Onsite fuel storage is often used as a back-up in case the
oil contained. Tanks need to be dewatered every power goes out. Within seconds of an outage, a sensor
six months to prevent water from building up and causing detects the power loss and transfers the electrical load to
severe corrosion. the back-up generator. This commands the generator to start
and transfers electrical load to the back-up generator.
Proactivity over reactivity A UK university had four small fuel tanks, which
To ensure that machinery performs at its optimum, fuel must individually powered four separate back-up generators. The
be regularly tested to detect any contamination early on so tanks were only 40% full, and after an initial oil test, it was
that any faults can be sourced, diagnosed and repaired. Fuel clear that the empty space had resulted in a significant
analysis assesses water, fatty acid methyl ester (FAME), sulfur amount of condensation and water build-up.
content, viscosity, density and the level of microbial Due to the fuel being hydrolysed (spoiled with water),
contamination. there was an increased likelihood of internal corrosion and
If left untreated, contaminated fuel can cause havoc even worse, equipment failure when it is needed more than
within machinery’s internal compartments, bringing ever.
operations to a halt or damaging it beyond repair. Crown Oil Environmental engineers carried out a fuel
uplift and polish, followed by a man-entry tank clean, which
Polish to perfection revealed a subsequent amount of internal corrosion in the
If a considerable amount of tank sludge is detected, it may dead-legs due to the fuel being sat dormant. This meant that
be necessary to filter out contaminants on a regular basis. the fuel tank had to be replaced. If the clean fuel was put
This involves filtering the contaminated fuel through a series back into the corroded tank, it would have almost instantly
of increasingly fine filters, and progressively removing water, been contaminated again.
sediment and microbial contamination until it is ‘clean,’
ideally down to a filtration level of 1 μm absolute. Conclusion
When fuel degrades, its molecules join together to form If substandard fuel is used in a generator, the impact on
new polymers, which reduces the quality of the fuel. operations can be catastrophic. This highlights the importance
Advanced depolymerising technology then breaks down the of getting fuel, tanks and storage infrastructure checked
particulates and polishes the fuel until it is clean and regularly: every six months at a minimum, or more frequently
optimised. for critical sites to help guarantee a reliable power supply.

CONTACT US AT
STOCEXPO 2019
Rotterdam, 26 – 28 March

[email protected] | (+351) 912 295 084

Rua da Indústria 1, 7500-220 Vila Nova Sto André - PORTUGAL
Some of our partners:
Simon Daly, Hempel A/S, UK, outlines the importance of
immunising against the threat of corrosion under insulation.

T
he onset of corrosion under insulation (CUI)
poses an unseen, costly and
difficult-to-manage threat for every terminal
operator, and every petroleum, gas and
petrochemical supply chain. CUI occurs when moisture
becomes trapped between insulating materials and the
pipework, ductwork, valves or other key external
equipment vital to the operation of storage tanks and
refining assets.
This moisture can be external water, which seeps
through leaking and poorly maintained joints in the

4
43 Spring 2019
 this temperature – the so-called ‘sweating pipe’
syndrome. However, temperatures vary considerably
across the constituent parts of each refinery, or
adjoining processing and distribution infrastructure,
and must be accounted for separately. This makes
preventing CUI across an asset, and specifying a
coatings solution to meet the precise needs of each
piece of equipment, a challenging process.
Furthermore, when specifying coating systems for
new construction projects, protecting against CUI is
just one of many coating considerations which
require individual review.
Figure 1. Preventing CUI across an asset and
specifying the right coating solution to meet the exact Assessing the treatment options
needs of each piece of equipment is a challenging When it comes to preventing CUI in oil, gas and
process. petrochemical processing and storage facilities,
there are three coating systems that are commonly
used. These are epoxy/epoxy phenolic, thin film
outer cladding, or condensation formed during the silicones and zinc silicates. Each has its own benefits,
refining or purifying process. As this moisture but there are also some limitations. Firstly, it is
accumulates beneath the insulation, the water does important to consider the relevant influencing
not have the opportunity to evaporate and so chemical, environmental or operational factors that
settles on the metal surfaces in the space between have the greatest impact on the effectiveness of
the insulation and the equipment substrate, coatings in tackling CUI.
subsequently leading to corrosion. Epoxy/epoxy phenolic coating systems offer
This type of corrosion is difficult to detect and excellent performance when operating in the CUI
test for without interrupting the day-to-day temperature range, generally defined as being
operation of midstream and downstream assets and between 50 – 175˚C. However, when temperatures
will inevitably manifest in serious maintenance and exceed this range, the coating is more likely to crack.
safety issues. Although CUI is difficult to predict, it This means water and moisture can get below the
is possible to manage. Ineffective processes can coating and directly onto the surface material, which
potentially limit the lifecycle of the extremely is then susceptible to corrosion.
expensive tanks, terminals and refining infrastructure Thin film silicone paints are based on silicone
that are essential to the global energy supply chain. resins and are ideally suited to hot and dry
Recognising and understanding what the triggers conditions (up to 540˚C). Beyond these specific
of CUI are helps to create precautionary measures to environmental conditions, such as during process
reduce the chances of it developing by putting cycling, the ability of thin film silicone paints to
suitable protective solutions in place. Prevention, as protect against corrosion is limited.
with all unseen threats, is the most suitable defence. Zinc silicate systems can also resist a wide
This is where protective paints and coatings come in. temperature range – up to 400˚C. However, the
drawback with this solution is that zinc silicates are
Understanding CUI ‘sacrificial’ in their defensive approach, and degrade
Operators in the process industries are aware of the rapidly when exposed to hot, wet CUI environments.
potential damage that can occur in high heat and CUI
environments. However, as an ‘out-of-sight, Developing the right antidote
out-of-mind’ issue, CUI is often left unattended or These coatings – dependent upon the asset in
unaddressed for too long, or in some instances, the question – are still suitable options for some
wrong type of coating is selected in the first place or equipment or installations. Following a rigorous R&D
inadequately applied. process, a new solution has been developed that
It is therefore important for owners and should be considered. Versiline CUI 56990 has been
operators of refining and storage assets to properly specifically formulated to deliver optimal protection
understand the influencing factors that contribute without the drawbacks and it is designed to provide
to CUI. They ought to work with their coatings better immunity under all environmental,
manufacturer to explore the suitable products, operational and atmospheric conditions.
review the testing and inspection procedures The technology is a fibre-reinforced, single
available to them, and develop a plan for ensuring component, inert modified inorganic copolymer. It
cost-effective and timely routine maintenance. has been developed to provide better resistance to
While CUI generally occurs in the temperature CUI as well as a unique resistance to micro-cracking,
range between 50 – 175˚C, in high humidity and meaning less maintenance is required and assets are
cryogenic environments corrosion can occur below protected for longer and in a wider range of both

Spring 2019 44
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 Thorough examination and testing
There are a wide range of testing procedures that
should be explored, as determining risk and exposure
to CUI must consider every possible variable, threat
or mitigating circumstance. An ASTM D 2485 test, for
example, determines a coating’s resistance to heat by
exposing coated panels to a range of temperatures
over a period of time. These panels are then allowed
to cool off, before being inspected for signs of
blistering, cracking, flaking or delamination. The
panels are then exposed to a corrosive environment
via accelerated corrosion testing. This seeks to
identify any areas where cracks have developed and
may have penetrated the substrate – creating a bed
for corrosion. Optical microscopy can then also be
used for even more detailed inspection.
A Houston pipe test – technically known as a
cyclic insulated pipe test – should also be used for
testing CUI resistance. Although this testing
procedure does have its limitations, valuable insight
can be gained by testing a section of pipe, insulated
with materials such as mineral wool or calcium
silicate. The pipe is heated, insulated, and then
saturated with a salt solution before it is heated to a
higher temperature on a hotplate for a sustained
period. Finally, it is cooled again.

Improved immunity
These are just two examples of the many and varied
Figure 2. Versatile coating solutions such as testing procedures that should be carried out in the
Versiline CUI 56990 help to simplify the review
process of developing coating solutions for tanks,
process between the coatings provider and asset
manufacturer. terminals and processing facilities and for guarding
against CUI. Several other testing procedures,
including cyclic corrosion testing and cyclic testing
predicted and unpredicted temperatures and incorporating immersion, can and should also be used
environmental conditions. This coating is formulated to select the optimal coating solution for every
for resistance against temperatures of -196 – 650˚C, component.
making it suitable for almost all oil, gas and A new ISO (International Organization for
petrochemical processing and storage facilities, Standardization) standard, 19277:2018, was introduced
including offshore floating facilities and assets in last year for the qualification testing and acceptance
harsh environments. criteria for protective coating systems under
An inert multi-polymeric matrix type material, the insulation. This new standard brings together for the
coating contains a silicone backbone that delivers a first time all the test methods and acceptance
high temperature resistance. The material is also criteria required to prequalify a coating for CUI
faster drying than silicone aluminium coatings and so service.
can reduce downtime during maintenance and Having examined the performance of coatings in
increase productivity when applied from new. detail, and with a multitude of protective solutions
Inert multi-polymeric matrixes can be specified available, asset owners and operators can ensure
for a number of temperature and performance adequate protection from the elements. This will
categories, making them suitable for bulk items such fortify assets for longer and harden equipment to
as pipework and valves, or any items where the exact threats that cannot be controlled. While the process
operating temperature may not be known at the of CUI is a slow one, it is extremely invasive and can
design stage. cause significant damage, disruption and delay.
Due to its versatility, the coating helps simplify Enforced downtime, expensive corrective procedures
the review process between the coatings provider and therapies will be required if CUI does occur to
and asset manufacturer. Testing of the coating and critical equipment, and owners and operators will
the construction materials is of vital importance have to carry the cost. Immunising against the threat
here, as it helps to better characterise the material in the first place and looking after the overall health
and its behaviour under a wide range of thermal of facilities is the best means of ensuring a long,
conditions. productive and prosperous lifecycle.

Spring 2019 46
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 Townsend Hilliard, Purgit,
USA, discusses how to reduce
emissions at tank terminals
with vapour recovery.

F
or over two decades, select US states and not the best choice or not an appropriate choice at
non-attainment areas have required the all.
degassing of stationary storage tanks that Refrigerated vapour recovery systems (RVRUs)
most recently contained volatile organic have seen a steady increase in use at storage tank
compounds (VOCs) with vapour pressures of greater degassing in refineries, chemical plants, and barge
than 0.5 psi. Significant VOC emissions are generated terminals since 2010. At least four separate tank
during maintenance start-up and shutdown (MSS) degassing groups have a RVRU offering. This article
activities (cleaning, repair, inspection and change of will highlight the safety and operational incentives
cargo), and generally when landing or floating a roof. for this new approach.
Several US states have specific regulations covering
these activities and the American Petroleum Institute Alternative to flaring
(API) has developed generic language in API RP 2016. Prior to the development of RVRUs, the most
These requirements should be familiar to anyone common vapour control system used in refineries and
operating a terminal or refinery in the US. Some tank terminals for hydrocarbon degassing was
terminals in Texas and California have been utilising combustion based. Portable, skid-mounted flaring
‘degassing’ contractors since the mid-1990s. Most of units and thermal oxidation units allow operators to
the cargos subject to these regulations are flammable comply with degassing regulations established by US
and as such a common technology for degassing has state environmental organisations (California, Texas,
been combustion based – trailer mounted thermal New Jersey, North Carolina, etc). However, field
oxidisers and flare units are brought on site and flaring has several safety and operating problems.
flammable vapours are pulled from the vessel and These units burn flammable vapours inside large
destroyed. This satisfies environmental regulations in ground-level combustion chambers. This raises the
many applicable tank locations and cargos. However, concern about having a very large ignition source at
there are times when a portable combustion device is ground level within the tank terminal.

Spring 2019 48
4
49 Spring 2019
 The RVRU system addresses this important
safety concern and is available at comparable cost
to the flaring units. A few plants and terminals on
the Texas and Louisiana coasts have established
the RVRU as the best practice for storage tank
degassing for the safety advantages. The RVRU has
no ignition source, but instead draws the VOC
vapour from the tank, cools it to the point of
condensation and recovers the hydrocarbon in
liquid phase for return to the operating process or
sale. Liquid nitrogen is generally used as a
refrigerant and the whole system often has only
one moving part, the non-sparking vapour blower.
Therefore, the safety concerns related to
Figure 1. Typical site layout of RVRU storage tank combustion-based degassing are eliminated. Some
degassing project. RVRUs can even be used in a classified area,
allowing work to be done in tight terminal
settings. The US Coast Guard (USCG) has even
certified RVRU systems for work on flammable
barges and ships without a distance requirement
from the vessel in the flammable range.
Additionally, the RVRU can operate in an inert gas
atmosphere – it can degas a tank vapour space
that is completely inert (no oxygen) and since
nitrogen gas is a byproduct of the refrigeration,
the RVRU can pad the tank with more inert gas
during the degassing operation, maintaining an
inert tank vapour space.

Emissions
The RVRU addresses another key concern:
emissions inventory. The implementation of a
temporary or portable recovery system during
storage tank turn arounds eliminates the emissions
associated with combustion. RVRUs are often
operated in a ‘closed loop’ by circulating the tank
vapour though the RVRU then back to the tank,
Figure 2. Generic 'closed loop' layout of RVRU storage filtering the VOC out of the background gas
tank degassing project. (either clean air or nitrogen gas) by condensation.
The vapour is collected as liquid condensate and
pumped into totes at the job site. In this case
there is no exhaust to atmosphere – no exhaust
to calculate and add to operating or MSS
emissions. The VOC saving can be documented,
resulting in a considerable reduction in yearly
operating emissions that can equate to real money
in tradable or bankable VOC emissions as well as
valuable recovered hydrocarbons. Close to 6000 t
of VOC vapour is flared annually in degassing
applications in the Houston area alone – much of
this source of VOC emission can be eliminated
with the RVRU.
Recovering storage tank operating emissions
can be another benefit of using a permanent
RVRU. Some hydrocarbons targeted by
environmental regulators are easily liquefied by a
low cost, electric powered RVRU. Vapours can be
Figure 3. Capturing benzene vapour in an internal leaned out above a floating roof during the heat
floating roof (IFR) to reduce operating emissions. of the day to reduce or eliminate emissions while
filling a tank.

Spring 2019 50
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101 North Spooner 888-621-3132 TOLL FREE
Pasadena, Texas 77506 7 1 3-621-31 12 FAX
Purgit.com [email protected]

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and Commissioning
Speed Furthermore, both the customers and Louisiana
The third meaningful operating benefit associated Department of Environmental Quality (LADEQ)
with the use of an RVRU is the speed of the specifications were met before disconnecting.
operation. Proper use of an RVRU can cut tank
degassing time in half when compared to the largest Plastics production
available skid mounted combustion units. This means Finally, there are applications that do not allow for
faster tank turnaround times. A case study of the combustion as a vapour treatment option.
Purgit RVRU here shows a significant decrease in the Chlorinated solvents are used heavily in plastics
time required to degas a gasoline storage tank on the production. These compounds break down, in part, to
Gulf Coast. hydrochloric acid (HCl) when sent to a combustion
system. The RVRU allows these solvents (ethylene
Case study dichloride [EDC], chloroform, trichlorethylene [TCE],
Purgit was paired with a local hydroblast company to perchloroethylene [PCE], and others) to be
clean a gasoline storage tank next to a process unit at condensed and recovered in short order and at a
a Louisiana refinery. Purgit was engaged to bring the minimal cost when clearing a storage tank for
concentration of the product vapour inside the tank maintenance or inspection. Tank terminals storing
down below the lower explosive limit (LEL) (degas these products have few, and time-consuming
the tank) using a RVRU. Purgit began to condense and options for vapour degassing. Refrigeration vapour
recover the gasoline vapour before the hydroblast recovery brings their maintenance costs back in line
company began to wash the remaining product off with more easily flared cargos, which can be passed
the floor using a man-way cannon. The wash water along to the customer.
was periodically pumped into a vacuum truck while
the RVRU condensed and pumped the recovered Conclusions
hydrocarbons to totes. After 12 hrs of run time, In conclusion, portable refrigerated vapour recovery
multiple meter readings of 35% LEL were recorded. A can be safer, cleaner, faster, and at the same cost or
total of 505 gal. of liquid gasoline was recovered cheaper than the most common combustion systems
from the vapour alone by the RVRU and pumped into currently available for vapour control work. Efficient
totes. This work was accomplished without any tank and clean RVRUs may be an important tool missing
emissions and without a flame in the refinery. from a terminal’s operation.
 Victor Hoffman, Terry McElroy and Matthew Vuong, John Zink Co. LLC, USA,
explore how US terminals can meet new throughput levels while also managing
the associated environmental impacts.

A
culmination of the highest ever proven allows for increased throughput at lower emission
crude oil reserves and oil production in the rates, while also helping keep production and
US, along with changes in legislation on the midstream partners within their environmental permit
country’s crude oil exports, has been thresholds.
transforming the US into a significant exporter of
crude oil. In fact, as of April 2018, Citigroup Inc. Crude oil production reaching new
projected the US to surpass Saudi Arabia in crude oil heights
exports in 2019 to become the world’s largest US proven reserves of crude oil set a record in 2017 of
exporter of crude oil.1 This presents compelling 39.2 billion bbls, overtaking the previous record of
challenges to export terminals. The limited port 39 billion bbls from 1970.2 This comes due, in large
depth along the Gulf Coast is a major hindrance that part, to horizontal well drilling and hydraulic
has a couple of viable solutions as will be discussed fracturing (fraccing) which has provided access to
later in this article. Another issue, which will be the large reserves of crude oil in low-permeability shale
major focus of this article, is how these terminals can formations. The advent of horizontal well drilling and
meet these new throughput levels while also fraccing drastically changed the economics of crude
managing the associated environmental impacts. The oil production. Since horizontal wells, by their nature,
direction of the market demands a technology that provide more formation contact than vertical wells,

5
53 Spring 2019
 higher production rates can be achieved per well. As a „ The possibility that non-US production decreases
point of reference, according to the US Energy as a result of state instability and possible
Information Administration (EIA), in 2017 only 1% of sanctions.
vertical wells produced at least 100 bpd, while an
estimated 30% of horizontal wells produced at least In fact, the EIA projects the US to be a net energy
100 bpd.2 exporter by 2022.2 While this projection accounts for
While independent producers now have the ability all energy, crude is a major contributor, and this would
to access the largest proven reserves on record, the be a significant swing. In November 2018, the EIA
US is simultaneously at the highest crude oil estimated the 4-week average for US crude oil imports
production levels in its history. In November 2017, and exports at approximately 7.6 million bpd and
monthly US crude oil production exceeded 2.2 million bpd, respectively.2
10 million bpd, setting the highest monthly level of
crude oil production in US history. 2 Furthermore, the Challenges arise
EIA estimates US crude oil production for 2018 at Of course, there are existing factors that currently
10.9 million bpd, and projects 2019 production at limit just how much US crude oil exports can grow.
12.1 million bpd, demonstrating a growing trend.2 One hindrance is marine vessel size as the
Notably, in September 2018, the EIA announced that US Gulf Coast ports are too shallow to allow very
the US became the largest global crude oil producer large crude carriers (VLCC) with approximate volume
(Figure 1).2 capacities of 2 million bbls to pass when they are fully
loaded. Dredging and offshore loading terminals
Exports: a change in policy appear to be viable solutions to this restricting facet
Accompanying these factors is a recent change in and smaller Suezmax (approximately 1 million bbls) and
legislation on US crude oil exports. In December 2015, Aframax (approximately 750 000 bbls) vessels fill in
the US enacted legislation authorising the export of meanwhile.
US crude oil without a license, which drove up exports Expanding supply networks from production sites to
as expected. As a reference point, from 2000 to 2015, export terminals represents another obstacle. Currently,
US crude exports averaged approximately 86 000 bpd there are major on-going strategic projects to increase
with a range of approximately 2000 – 600 000 bpd.2 the pipeline infrastructure from the Permian region to
Since 2015, US crude exports averaged approximately the US Gulf Coast area. These projects are planned to
1.1 million bpd with a range of approximately be operational in the latter half of 2019, which will
450 000 – 2.2 million bpd.2 This drastic rise can be bring on more supply available for export.
seen in Figure 2. Another challenge is environmental compliance. In
This all comes at an interesting time, as of this a petroleum products terminal setting, evaporative
writing in early 2019, when there is wide and varied hydrocarbon liquids will routinely contact air or inert
speculation on global crude oil supply and demand gas, generating vapour laden with volatile organic
market forces. Many expect US crude exports to compounds (VOC). Specifically, in the case of a crude
continue to grow based upon: oil export terminal, ship exhaust, which is used to
„ The assumption that the US will become the render the cargo hold of a ship inert, comes into
balance for global crude oil demand while the contact with the crude oil, yielding a vapour stream
agreed upon OPEC and non-OPEC production cuts which the terminal facility must process via a vapour
are honoured. control system.

Vapour control
systems
Vapour control systems abate
the emission of VOCs to the
atmosphere because VOCs, if
uncontrolled, through a series
of photochemical reactions
with nitrogen oxides (NOX) and
energy from the sun, can
produce ozone – the primary
constituent of smog. Two
alternative technologies may
be employed for such a
purpose: vapour recovery
systems and vapour
Figure 1. Comparative monthly crude oil production by leading countries combustion systems. Whereas
(source: US EIA).3 recovery systems offer a return
on investment for the crude oil

Spring 2019 54
© 2019
2018 Hexagon AB and/or its subsidiaries and affiliates. All rights reserved
 both high volumetric
throughput and low
NOX formation.

Problem of
NOX in terminal
applications
Low NOX vapour
destruction in a
petroleum products
terminal setting
Figure 2. US exports of crude oil (source: US EIA).4 presents broad technical
challenges. A variety of
techniques often
employed in ultra-low NOX process burner design
cannot be utilised in vapour combustion service. For
example, in contrast to process burners, the waste gas
in vapour combustion service tends to be available at
very low pressure, resulting in low potential for mixing
energy. Additionally, the flow rate and composition of
the waste gas can vary considerably. In terminal service,
hydrocarbon vapours can fluctuate from very lean to
very rich, they may have an inert balance gas or air as a
balance gas (non-inert), and they may span an extremely
wide range of flow rates.
Having high turndown capabilities from a low NOX
vapour combustion system is imperative. As crude oil
export facilities seek to push ship load-out rates to
higher and higher levels, the turndown ratio, which
Figure 3. NOxSTARTM vapour combustion systems in must be handled by the end control device(s), must
crude oil ship loading service. scale in kind. Generally, the end control device must
process vapours generated from a slow, gravity-fill
scenario at beginning of load (a lean composition, often
product owner and no combustion byproducts, these at just a few thousand bbl/hr) all the way up to a peak
projects can be technically complex and more load-out rate at end of load ( a rich composition,
capital-intensive. Conversely, combustion systems offer sometimes at 100 000 bbl/hr or more). Accommodating
process flexibility and versatility but generate all of the aforementioned operational scenarios at high
byproducts such as carbon dioxide (CO2), carbon destruction efficiency rates and low NOX and CO
monoxide (CO), and NOX . Marine bulk distribution production rates is the challenge that John Zink Co. LLC
facilities utilise both types of technology; however, faced in the development phase of its vapour
vapour combustion is more commonly applied in the US combustion technology.
market, and this trend is expected to continue as crude
oil export operations expand. Combatting NOX formation
Unsurprisingly, significant increases in product The three primary sources of NOX formation in
throughput yield higher pressure on environmental combustion systems are thermal NOX , prompt NOX , and
permitting. Terminal operators typically have emissions fuel-bound NOX . Thermal NOX , the largest contributor
restrictions for VOC, CO, and NOX – oftentimes both in combustion systems, is formed by the Zeldovich
annual and hourly targets – that must be met. When mechanism – a reaction of the nitrogen and oxygen in
vapour combustion end control devices are utilised, ‘hot spots’ of the combustion zone. Prompt NOX is
designing systems to achieve extremely high VOC generated by the Fenimore mechanism – a reaction of
destruction efficiencies and low rates of CO hydrocarbon radicals with nitrogen present in the
production can be achieved with traditional atmosphere at the flame front, typically occurring at
technologies in order to offset volumetric throughput lower combustion temperatures. Lastly, fuel-bound NOX
growth. Decreasing NOX to a substantial extent, (also generated by the Fenimore mechanism) involves a
however, is quite difficult to accomplish and cannot be nitrogen-containing fuel molecule that, when oxidised,
achieved with long-standing vapour combustion can form a cyano-compound intermediate which leads
technologies. Given that NOX participates in to NOX formation.
photochemical reactions, which lead to smog Recognising the need for a low NOX , high capacity,
formation, it is ever more important to source new high turndown combustion solution that is safe and
combustion technology to meet market demands of flexible, John Zink conducted an analysis to reduce

Spring 2019 56
LOW-NOX
PERFORMANCE
AND HIGH-
CAPACITY?
THAT’S
SMART.
Our NOxSTAR Vapor Combustion
System offers emissions control
of less than 0.02 lbs NOx/
MMBtu and less than 0.015 lbs
CO/MMBtu. Plus, our unique
design also allows for a
significantly higher heat
release in an individual
combustor so you can
achieve very high
stack capacity, often
eliminating the need
to stage multiple end-
control devices.

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thermal NOX in vapour combustion service. A lean achieve the same performance standards. The
premix solution proved to be the best answer, as it technology is suitable for terminal users requiring low
yields a reduction in the peak flame temperature, NOX and high destruction efficiency all while achieving
which dramatically reduces the production of thermal high stack capacity and greater than 10:1 turndown.
NOX in this application. High heat capacitance in a single end control device
often eliminates the need to stage multiple end
Home-grown solution control devices, making regulatory compliance testing
The company set out to test and develop a lean premix much easier.
technology that would have all of the aforementioned
advantages. The initial goal was to reduce NOX in vapour NOX my problem
combustion service from 0.15 lbs NOX/million Btu to As production reaches new heights and crude oil
0.02 lbs NOX/million Btu. export policies evolve, meeting new throughput levels
To do this, multiple conceptual designs were will become ever more challenging for US terminals.
researched and tested at John Zink’s headquarters in Now, more than ever, reducing the magnitude of NOX
Tulsa, Oklahoma, US. Ultimately, the solution that came emissions through vapour combustion technology is
to be named as NOxSTAR TM vapour combustion imperative. With new solutions such as NOxSTAR
technology proved to be the most safe, effective, and vapour combustion technology, the US crude oil export
reliable. The technology builds on traditional vapour market can avoid bottlenecks in throughput – and
combustion technology, incorporating anti-flashback profits – to take advantage of the favourable economic
burners, pressure-staging control, flashback arrestors, climate.
and reliable energy-efficient pilots sighted with
interlocked flame scanners. References
1. CHO, S. 'Citi Says US May Become World's Top Oil Exporter
Next Year.' Bloomberg, (April 2018), www.bloomberg.com/
Defeating NOX formation news/articles/2018-04-26/citi-says-u-s-may-become-world-s-
The vapour combustion system is a robust solution for top-oil-exporter-next-year
2. US Energy Information Administration (www.eia.gov)
many services including ship/barge loading, 3. US Energy Information Administration, https://www.eia.gov/
truck/railcar loading, and tank venting applications. It todayinenergy/detail.php?id=37053#
4. US Energy Information Administration, https://www.eia.gov/
has been designed to utilise multiple fuel gas types and dnav/pet/hist/LeafHandler.ashx?n=PET&s=MCREXUS2&f=M
Marco Puglisi, AEREON, Italy, discusses vapour
control solutions for the storage industry.

T
he objective of vapour control is to put in place products; only recently has the focus shifted onto
technologies aimed at reducing emissions of regulating emissions resulting from crude oil. There are
substances harmful to human health and the two primary reasons for this:
environment. Vapour control is applied in a „ Only in the last 5 – 10 years have petroleum-exporting
variety of industries, with particular emphasis on volatile countries, mainly in the Persian Gulf region, enforced
organic components (VOCs) emissions resulting from VOC emissions legislation.
end-of-pipe operations, i.e. loading, storage and „ Due to the extreme volatility of crude oil price, it is
distribution of volatile organic liquids such as gasoline, financially convenient to store large crude oil
naphtha, kerosene and diesel. volumes in caverns and move it by ship during
Almost all environmental authorities worldwide have shortage periods.
enforced legislation (e.g. the US Clean Air Act and
EU directive 94/63/EC) to limit VOC emissions from In 2015, approximately 3 billion t of crude oil were
end-of-pipe operations – and these limitations are produced worldwide, and more than 60% of it was loaded
becoming more stringent (e.g. the German TA Luft II and onto large sea vessels to transport and distribute it. The
the Dutch NeR). However, so far the storage industry has process of loading crude onto a seagoing vessel emits
applied vapour control technologies mostly on refined vapours with harmful VOCs into the atmosphere: the

5
59 Spring 2019
 Table 1. Composition of the vapours of gasoline and two qualities of crude
Composition Gasoline Stablised crude from Middle East Crude from Southern Italy
Inert gases (% vol.) 58.1 68.0 58.3
Methane (% vol.) 0.0 0.3 2.4
Ethane (% vol.) 0.0 0.3 3.6
Propane (% vol.) 0.6 7.9 4.8
N-butane (% vol.) 17.4 2.2 6.2
I-butane (% vol.) 6.1 10.2 1.3
N-pentane (% vol.) 7.1 2.9 8.3
I-pentane (% vol.) 7.7 4.5 6.9
C6+ (% vol.) 3.0 3.7 8.2
H2S (ppm) 0 <100 350

to evaporate. Since crude oil is not a

standardised product (hundreds of qualities
exist), it has a very wide distillation curve, from
low initial boiling point (IBP) to very high final
boiling point (FBP). In practice, this translates
into the presence of light components not found
in gasoline vapours, in particular methane,
ethane and hydrogen sulfide (H2S). Table 1
illustrates the difference between gasoline and
crude oil vapours, as well as between different
qualities of crude.
H2S is a colourless, toxic gas. It can be
detected by its odour at concentrations as low
as 0.005 ppm. Concentrations above 50 ppm are
harmful to human health; those above 800 ppm
are lethal. H2S presence in vapours during
loading of crude oil may vary from 10 ppm
Figure 1. Process diagram of a standard carbon adsorption VRU. (sweet crudes) to 1000 ppm (sour crudes),
depending on the quality of the crude.
Therefore, it is one of the most important
emission components to control and reduce.
Vapour control technologies can be grouped
under two basic categories: vapour recovery and
vapour destruction.
Carbon adsorption, a vapour recovery
process, involves VOC adsorption onto activated
carbon followed by vacuum regeneration and
ultimately VOC absorption back to the liquid
phase (Figure 1). It has been recognised by several
environmental agencies worldwide as a best
demonstrated technology (BDT) for recovering
VOC from gasoline vapours. This is mainly due to
low CAPEX, OPEX and its simplicity of operation.
But the presence of light components and
Figure 2. Process diagram of a VCU. H2S in crude oil vapours makes recovery by
carbon adsorption ineffective at controlling VOC
emissions. This is because these components
more than 2 billion m3 of vapours discharged in 2015 have a low boiling point (i.e. they are light) and are
worldwide contained over 2 million t of VOCs. not effectively captured by the activated carbon,
resulting in unacceptable VOC emissions.
The chemistry behind vapour control These issues set new challenges in vapour control
Liquid crude oil has more or less the same vapour for the storage and distribution sector and establish
pressure of gasoline, i.e. the same tendency the basis for further technological developments.

Spring 2019 60
 Methods of vapour control
One solution lies in applying vapour recovery
followed by vapour destruction to thermally
oxidise the VOCs not recovered in the first step
(consisting mainly of methane and ethane).
Firstly, the vapour recovery unit (VRU) will
recover the C3+ hydrocarbons, after which the
vapour combustion unit (VCU) will oxidise
(combust) the C3- hydrocarbons not recovered by
the VRU.
The combustion of the exhaust vapours occurs
in a safe and temperature-controlled process under
an enclosed stack (Figure 2); the system is equipped
with safety and control devices to cover the
operational range set by the design basis.
But the thermal oxidisation of H2S emits Figure 3. AEREON vapour control system (two VRUs and one
harmful sulfur oxides (SOX), which are major air VCU) installed in the Far East.
pollutants that contribute to acid rains. SOX
emissions are regulated by law in most countries
and with the concentration of H2S typically found in the An effective and simple solution for H2S removal is the
majority of crude vapours, these regulations prevent it use of sacrificial guard beds filled with special activated
from being discharged into the atmosphere. Therefore, it carbon, as illustrated by the following formulae:
must be eliminated prior to combustion. „ Carbon impregnated with potassium hydroxide (KOH),
The traditional method of removing H2S in refineries in the presence of oxygen and for low H2S
or chemical plants is amine or sodium hydroxide (NaOH) concentration (up to 30 ppm):
solution scrubbing. These processes are costly, complex, H2S + 2(KOH) Æ K2S + 2(H2O)
require utilities (e.g. steam, waste water treatment) and „ Carbon impregnated with potassium iodide (KI); also
are mainly applicable in continuous and steady state effective with stoichiometric presence of oxygen and
operations. These conditions are not typically found in with higher H2S concentration (up to 1000 ppm) in the
the storage and distribution industry. vapours: 2(H2S) + O2 Æ 2S + 2(H2O)
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 floating roof). As such,
during loading
operations, vapours are
displaced and must be
sent to vapour control
treatment. The design
loading rate, from a single
Figure 4. Process scheme of a vapour control solution installed in the Far East. ship loading or unloading,
is 11 000 m3/hr.
During ship loading,
from the dock where the
ship is moored, vapours
are moved by two 50%
centrifugal blowers to
two 50% VRU trains; each
VRU discharges the
exhaust vapours into a
Figure 5. Process scheme of a vapour control solution installed in Europe. single VCU. During crude
unloading from ship to
cavern, vapours are
moved from the cavern to the two VRUs by means
of over-pressure.
This solution has been operational since 2009
(Figure 3).
Intermediate and alternative operational cases
are possible during maintenance and emergency, as
shown in the process sketch of the adopted
configuration (Figure 4).
A more recent case study concerns an
application in Europe, involving ships loading sour
crude. The design loading rate is 6000 m3/hr from
Figure 6. 3D model of the vapour control plant installed in a maximum of two ships loading simultaneously.
Europe. The vapour control solution engineered and put in
place is summarised in the following configuration
(Figure 5):
KI-impregnated carbon is extremely selective „ Three blowers (two 50% and one spare) to move the
towards H2S and allows for very high efficiency, vapours from the ship tankers through the system.
removing more than 99.9% of H2S. „ Two 50% twin carbon adsorption VRUs.
KI is not consumed during this process and acts as a „ Two upstream sacrificial carbon beds (one
catalyst for the chemical destruction of H2S into operational and one spare) per VRU to remove H2S.
elemental sulfur (in solid state), which builds up on the „ Both VRUs discharge exhaust vapours in a single
pores of the activated carbon, clogging them over time common VCU.
and making the diffusion of molecules into the pores
almost impossible. Alternative operational cases are not possible
When this happens, the activated carbon is because of the stringent emission requirements of the
exhausted and must be replaced. Such carbon beds can industrial area where the unit has been installed.
be designed to accommodate for the desired or This unit (Figure 6) was installed in 2018 and
convenient replacement period (from 6 months to recently started up.
2 years).
Conclusion
Case studies VOC emissions from crude oil loading operations at
All of these methods of effectively controlling VOC storage and distribution terminals have a significant
emissions resulting from crude oil loading have been impact worldwide. Traditional vapour control
used by AEREON in applications within the storage and technologies applied to crude oil are not always
distribution industry. effective at controlling VOC emissions, thus setting the
One project in the Far East involved unloading basis for further technological developments. One
sweet crude oil into a storage cavern from sea-going solution lies in H2S removal using a sacrificial bed and a
ships and subsequent ship loading from the cavern. combination of recovery and combustion, a process
The cavern provides a fixed large storage volume, that has been successfully carried out at two loading
which is not vapour balanced (i.e. there is not a applications worldwide.

Spring 2019 62
 Ben Barker, Cool Sorption, Denmark, outlines methods
of improving the availability of vapour recovery units
through smart arrangement and maintenance.

L
ooking back at the first wave of vapour recovery units The focus of this article is VRUs based on adsorption on
(VRUs) installed in Europe some 30 years ago, what was activated carbon followed by regeneration under vacuum. For
then state-of-the-art would largely be deemed several decades, this has been the most commonly used
‘experimental’ today. Focus was on testing and process for vapour recovery.
verification of the overall concepts and not always on There are many ways of improving the availability of a
reliability. Since then, attention on emissions has sharpened system. One strategy, often seen in VRU specifications, is to
considerably and most truck depots and onshore ship request installed spares (redundancy) of all rotating equipment.
terminals are no longer allowed to operate without a While this seems to be a straightforward approach, it is costly in
functioning VRU. terms of installation and becomes relatively complicated in
For the VRU manufacturer, reliability has therefore become terms of control, operation and maintenance; equipment
the single most important sales parameter. Often, the terms cannot be expected to kick in when needed unless it is used
‘availability’ or ‘up-time’ are used instead of ‘reliability’, since it frequently. Therefore, the controls must be set up to ensure that
is easier to quantify (‘availability’ = hours available/hours the back-up equipment runs regularly, but still less often than
required [percentage]). the primary equipment. This in turn means uneven service

63 Spring 2019
 intervals, which can be difficult to arrange in practice. And even Through years of trial and error by different VRU
if rotating equipment, and perhaps control valves, control manufacturers and clients, the outcome has been that over
systems and instruments, are made in redundant design, then 90% of all new VRUs are based on adsorption onto activated
other elements such as on/off valves and solenoid valves are carbon, regeneration by vacuum and re-absorption of the
still vulnerable to failure. recovered hydrocarbons in a steady flow of fresh absorbent
In some cases, a degree of redundancy can be obtained at (typically gasoline). The process is relatively simple and after
little additional cost by installing 2 × 50% or 3 × 33% capacity on many years of refining the design and controls, the process
rotating equipment instead of 1 × 100%. This arrangement can has proven extremely safe and reliable.
enable the entire system to run on reduced capacity instead of
being completely stopped in case of equipment failure. Component selection
Since the total cost of an installation will always be a strong Components should be robust and well-known, with a good
driver, the goal is to maximise reliability while minimising track record and long maintenance intervals. It is also
investment and operational costs, including service and important to ensure that chosen equipment can be serviced
maintenance. onsite and does not require regular factory overhaul, since
The following is a list of important drivers for ensuring this will severely impact the overall VRU availability.
maximum availability at reasonable cost. A long-term strategy
with good maintenance and continuous feedback from existing Condition monitoring
installations ensures an average VRU availability of above 99%. The VRU control system should not only control the process
and alert if any parameter is moving beyond pre-set limits
Technology selection but also monitor and record key process parameters for
Several different unit processes can be applied for vapour further analysis (Figure 1).
recovery, each having their individual advantages and As an example from a pressure swing system based on
draw-backs. The most widely used have been condensation by adsorption of the hydrocarbon on activated carbon, a
means of temperature and/or pressure, adsorption, absorption detailed analysis of the pressure curves can disclose a lot of
and membrane filtration, very often in different combinations. information about VRU load and status of carbon, vacuum
pumps, valves, actuators and instruments. This information
should be used as an integral part of the maintenance
concept.

Periodic preventive maintenance

A firm scheme for regular, onsite preventive maintenance is
crucial for the long-term reliability of a VRU. To ensure
reliability and the overall safety of the system, the service
job should not only include replacing lubricants and seals
but also contain a careful check of all instrument and control
loops.
On VRUs where sufficient data from the condition
Figure 1. Logged data from a pressure-swing based monitoring is available, the onsite services can be
VRU.
supplemented with regular remote or virtual service visits
where an expert uses the logged operational data to make
an in-depth analysis of relevant key parameters (Figure 2).
Such a virtual visit can very often be used to determine
which parts are beginning to show signs of wear and should
therefore be ordered in advance and brought to the next
onsite service.

Spare part strategy

Even with the best preventive maintenance, a risk of
unplanned stop due to failure of a component will always
remain. Every VRU owner is different and there are many
ways to tackle readiness of spare parts. But it is advisable
that a spare part strategy is in place so that at least the most
likely situations are planned for in advance. A sensible spare
part strategy should – for each group of parts – include an
evaluation of the following:
„ Most common type of failure (slow decline or sudden
failure).
„ How failure will be detected (via control system, daily
Figure 2. VRU maintenance. inspection by local staff, regular remote service visit or
regular onsite service).

Spring 2019 64
 Table 1. Example of spare part contingency plan from pressure-swing based VRU „ Criticality (will the VRU
stop or can operation
Equipment type Source
continue for some time?).
VRU local VRU central/ VRU supplier Part-manufacturer Part-manufacturer
stock sister stock stock stock order „ Delivery time for repair
and/or new part.
Activated carbon1 × „ Who will fix it and how
Process pumps – bearings
and seals × long will it take?
Process pumps – rotor/
housing/motor/coupling × Furthermore, it is
advisable to have a
Instruments 2
× × contingency plan for
Valve seals (butterfly) × × acquiring necessary parts in
case of unplanned
Valve actuator repair kits3 × × breakdown (Table 1).
Vacuum pumps –
bearings and seals × × Conclusion
Vacuum pumps – rotor/
housing/motor/coupling4 × When keeping things simple,
PLC/power supply/I/O sticking to well-known
cards5 × × solutions and having a
Notes dependable maintenance
1. There is a slow, constant degeneration of activated carbon. The VRU should be designed with additional capacity, ensuring that
it will not become an issue for a long time after the VRU is commissioned. In a well-designed system, the carbon has a lifetime of
scheme, there is every reason
10 – 12 years and in many cases the emission is still below the limits after 17 years. Under all circumstances, degeneration is a to expect a VRU to have an
slow process which should be monitored and logged via regular carbon samples analysis – typically starting after 6 – 8 years.
2. Even if it only happens very rarely, instrument failure is likely to be the most frequent reason for unplanned stops in VRUs. The
availability of 99%, meaning
failure is typically sudden, and the control system should be designed to pick it up at once. The VRU supplier will often have the that it is online 99% of the
most common spare instruments on stock but it is also advisable to keep spares onsite to ensure minimal downtime.
3. Due to the very high number of cyclic operations, even the best high performance, double eccentric valves will begin to leak at time it is expected to be
some point, typically after 5 – 10 years. Valve failure is almost never acute but will grow slowly over time. A leak can be seen by online. Planned and
studying the trend curves in the system and will be detected in the periodic preventive maintenance which includes a leak test.
4. As an example, Cool Sorption has used the Busch R5 rotary vane pump in the majority of VRUs for around 15 years. In this period, unplanned maintenance can
not one breakdown of that pump type has been recorded. The R5 is a relatively slow running (1500 rpm) and quiet pump. A major take up less than 1% of the
overhaul is typically done after 10 years.
5. Errors on the PLC itself are extremely rare, but faults on input/output (I/O) cards and power supplies are not uncommon on older time as an average over the
VRUs. The VRU supplier should have most spare components on stock. lifespan of the VRU.

Emission reduction
solutions
Cool Sorption is dedicated to VOC emission
reduction and has an extremely high expertise
in vapour processing, vapour treatment,
vapour recovery and product recovery.

[email protected] +45 43 45 47 45 www

www.coolsorption.com
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 Allyson Golden and
Caitlin Geisinger,
Burns & McDonnell, explain
how a few simple steps can
streamline the certification
process for marine vapour
control systems.

I
n order to begin or continue operations in the US, The certification process requires collecting and auditing
hundreds of facilities – and potentially thousands of assets volumes of mandatory documentation. Moreover, the audit
– nationwide must achieve or maintain certification with often reveals documentation that must be updated. Needless
US Coast Guard (USCG) marine facility and vessel vapour to say, this labour-intensive process requires dedicated
control system safety regulations. This is a labour-intensive resources focused on scheduling and facilitating onsite
process, as it involves a complete operational review of the operational reviews and leading preparation efforts.
vessel vapour control system at each marine facility. Though not required, many facility owners have found it
Facilities that must be certified are defined in necessary to engage third-party consultants who have
33 CFR (US Code of Federal Regulations) 154 Subpart P as any expertise in verifying system compliance, managing
that control vapours emitted to or from vessel cargo tanks. documentation and coordinating directly with certification
Certification of marine vapour control systems (MVCS) is entities. With facility owners focused on safely executing the
applicable to all tank farms or terminals that have vapour day-to-day operations of a marine facility, this step can take
recovery systems as a component of marine loading to or much of the risk out of the certification process.
from ships or barges.
With fewer than two dozen USCG-approved certification Facilitating operational reviews
entities, any error or omission within the required Subpart P requires that every facility with an MVCS completes
documentation, or inconsistencies between documentation an operational review every five years at minimum; additional
and operations, could result in significant and costly delays. reviews are required following any system modification. It is
New facilities are required to be certified before operations imperative that all certification documents remain current
can commence, while existing facilities must be recertified with facility procedures, as they detail how the applicant
every five years or after system modifications. meets the rules and requirements of the CFR. The operations

67 Spring 2019
 manual details transfer operations and spill, testing, and safety to audit and prepare documentation and conduct onsite
procedures, which are required for each certification or testing to prepare staff for the official review. Finally, the
recertification. During the operational review, the certifying consultant can be authorised to facilitate the onsite review
entity will review all applicable documentation, including: with the certification entity. This process can take anywhere
„ Operating guidelines and operating manual. from a few weeks to a few months, depending on the level of
„ Facility plans. complexity of the system and the amount of pre-reviews
„ Piping and instrumentation diagrams. conducted by the certifying entity.
„ Process calculations and product properties.
„ Specifications for instrumentation and equipment. Achieving efficient recertification
„ Cause-and-effect diagrams. For facilities or assets that were built and certified prior to
„ Control narratives. 2013, the updated safety regulations may require some
„ Qualitative failure analysis (QFA). physical modification for compliance. Additionally, any
changes made beyond replace-in-kind to an operating system
In addition to the documentation review, the certification must be recertified before the facility is allowed to resume
entity reviews all technical properties of the products handled operations.
and the enriching, inerting and diluting systems. This is another step that may justify the investment in a
A critical piece of documentation is the QFA, which third-party consultant. The scope of this assignment would be
includes a report of all plausible disaster scenarios and to identify, quantify and document mechanical and control
safeguards for each. system changes, as well as any downstream effects, to support
The QFA also verifies that all required safeguards listed in the recertification process. Some of these changes might
Part 154 are in place and functioning properly. The QFA must include alterations to valve or mechanical system
demonstrate that the vapour control system (VCS) can operate configurations as well as control configurations and safety
safely and continuously and has all the proper alarms and systems. Other changes may include handling new products,
automatic shutdowns to prevent unsafe operation and to making system modifications not directly correlated to facility
minimise damage if an accident were to occur. equipment, or expanding loading profiles to include new
Owners and operators, or third-party consultants product types, new vessel types or multi-breasted barge
authorised to act on their behalf, must complete the QFA to loading.
identify potential compliance issues well in advance of the Conducting an initial evaluation of changes being made
official operational review. In completing the QFA, the loading with the certifying entity is highly recommended. This step
process must be walked through and documented from start will help determine whether changes qualify as replace-in-kind
to finish. Dry test runs of the logic as well as detailed or will change the system and require it to comply with the
documentation reviews are necessary prior to the loading new regulations.
operation with the certifying entity to ensure that the loading Onsite testing dry runs are essential to successful
operations and associated safety systems function properly. operational reviews during the recertification process. If a
In addition to mechanical and control system third-party consultant is involved, these dry runs should
documentation, the certifying entity also reviews training include onsite reviews to verify that operations match
procedures and record keeping to verify compliance with documentation and to simulate loading and safety shutdown
USCG safety regulations. After reviewing all documentation, test scenarios.
the certifying entity will visit the facility to observe a loading
operation to confirm that the maximum certified loading rate Certifying new facilities
is being observed and that all safety shutdowns and alarms are Greenfield facilities must comply with all requirements listed
in place and working properly. The onsite certifying entity in 33 CFR 154 Subpart P, and compliance begins at the design
review will: stage. It is critical for the design engineer and all equipment
„ Verify that the actual built system matches engineering manufacturers to understand detailed requirements and verify
design plans. that they are met. It is imperative that the design engineer and
„ Ensure that maximum vacuum levels are not exceeded. the certification entity remain autonomous to protect the
„ Verify that vacuum breakers are in proper working order. integrity of the certification process. The certification entity
„ Observe all normal start-up, operational and shutdown cannot be involved in the design of the system or conduct the
procedures. QFA.
„ Observe a dry test and wet test. If an additional consulting engineer is engaged to oversee
„ Ensure that the liquid emergency shutdown valves certification processes, it will be critical for that additional
operate properly. engineer to also work closely with the design engineer and
equipment manufacturers to ensure that shop and factory
As facility owners and operators must ensure that all testing of equipment is conducted prior to arrival and
required documentation is on hand and easily accessible, installation at the facility.
pre-reviewing these required steps with a third-party For example, the vapour collection system must be
consultant may be beneficial in preventing issues that equipped with a remotely operated cargo vapour shutoff
otherwise would be uncovered by the certifying entity. The valve with position indication that closes within 30 sec. of a
consultant can serve as the asset owner’s primary point of shutdown event, or if the signal or power is interrupted. A
contact with the certification entity. Other steps can be taken manual shutoff value must also be provided. It is strongly

Spring 2019 68
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 recommended that the remote shutoff valve be tested and For operational reviews, the process should begin three to
timed with a stopwatch after field installation to ensure six months in advance. For recertification of existing facilities,
compliance. much of the documentation preparation and test simulations
Other manufacturer requirements include spark-resistant can be done in concert with the implementation of facility
materials for blowers or fans used to assist in transporting upgrades. For new facilities, documenting requirements
vapours in the VCS. Another design requirement is that throughout the design, construction and commissioning
detonation arresters must be installed. These cannot have line phases will streamline the certification process.
expansions within a distance equal to 120 times the pipe Because the certification process is labour-intensive, it
diameter of the detonation arrester. It is critical that these and may be beneficial for asset owners to engage third-party
similar requirements are clearly understood in the design engineering consultants. The consultants can serve as the
phase and accounted for prior to fabrication and installation primary point of contact with certification entities and should
of the system. work on behalf of the owner to verify that all certification
As facilities are designed, the consulting engineer develops artefacts are in place, confirm compliance with safety
required certification documentation and coordinates with requirements, and coordinate onsite testing and scheduling
equipment manufacturers to verify that manufactured items with the certification entities.
meet all specified requirements. It is important to note this is In choosing a third-party consultant, owners should be
a collaborative process between the manufacturers and sure to verify that the consultant has a demonstrated track
consulting engineer, but the manufacturers have primary record of frequently working with certifying entities.
responsibility for their equipment meeting certification Consultants with established relationships can help speed up
requirements. Working with parts and system manufacturers the process and remove much of the risk of operational
on the front end, and documenting new system designs and downtime caused by failed inspections or delays due to the
operational procedures throughout the process, minimises risk lack of certifying entities available for onsite reviews.
of delays related to compliance issues and streamlines the It is important for owners and operators to understand
certification process. that inspections must be scheduled weeks or months in
advance, and that a failed inspection could result in additional
Conclusion delays of a month or more.
Preparing for facility operational review, recertification, or A realistic view of this important yet time-intensive
certification of new facilities is an intensive exercise in process can eliminate worry and prevent an expensive
document preparation, review, audit and formal testing. shutdown until compliance is achieved.

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Anton Albrand, SkyBitz, a unit of AMETEK Inc., USA, explores
how level gauging intelligence can improve tank accuracy.

R
emote tank monitoring (RTM) solutions are made oil, propane, water, lubricants, diesel, gas, and more.
up of many hardware components, all of which There are hundreds of gauges on the market today,
are continually evolving as technology improves. including mechanical float gauges, sight gauges,
One of the simplest concepts behind how a tank electronic gauges (open air radar, guided wave radar,
monitoring solution works and often the backbone of magnetostrictive, capacitive), and hydrostatic gauges.
measuring product level is the tank level gauge. These The application type, compatibility with other required
instruments provide the owner with real time data on measuring components, and the shape of the tank also
how much product is left in the tank, regardless of play a role in equipment requirements.
product type, in order to ascertain when the tank In the oil and gas industry, measurement
requires service. This article will address how this data requirements dictate the type of solution required, and
can be used to provide better insight across the entire compatibility with additional pieces of equipment such
operation. as controllers, fuel adapters, pressure gauges, and alarms
Tank level gauges vary based on a number of are critical factors in determining what to install. There
features, such as media type, which can range from fuel are products designed to meet specific, intrinsically safe

7
71 Spring 2019
 or explosion-proof environments. Monitoring the While gauges may vary depending on the product
temperature of certain products may be necessary to measured, the key takeaway is the same – optimal
ensure the equipment can handle extreme conditions. efficiency, safety and cutting costs. Benefits include:
Also, the speed of measurement is a factor in specific „ Avoid run-outs and overfills.
applications such as frac fluids and logging, with „ Improve dispatch to client sites.
individual instruments such as transmitters capable of „ Visibility to tank level, pressure, temperature, etc.
meeting faster response times. „ Predictive analysis and scheduling.
„ Accountability to ensure safety protocols.
„ Improved communication between distributors and
customers.
„ Consistency across all assets, regardless of above or
underground tanks.

A piece of the RTM puzzle

It is important to understand how these tank level gauges
fit into the overall monitoring solution and how the data
from the tank can be used. The device is feeding
information from inside the tank over a cellular network
into a cloud-based platform. Tank level data is dispersed
in a variety of ways through the application, which can
be accessed by both distributors and their customers.
Security is of the utmost importance when it comes to
remote tank monitoring solutions, so there are multiple
safeguards in place by most providers that allow
Figure 1. Bulk tank farm. hierarchal access to the platform, among a host of other
security parameters.
Developers spend countless hours improving remote
tank monitoring platforms as technology changes and
new products are released. Most are built for the desktop
user, while mobile products are designed to ease in-field
operations and supplement the desktop version.
Designed to provide users with the best possible
experience when viewing tank data, the information
offers users the ability to see basic features such as
battery status, levels, and cellular signal strength to more
complex features like time stamp fills and threshold
reporting.
The hardware itself factors in many complex variables
for measuring accuracy in the harshest environments and
across a number of products. For instance, there are
multivariable liquid level sensors that meet either
regional or worldwide approvals for hazardous areas, yet
Figure 2. Lubricant storage. they are easy to install and are extremely smart systems
immune to faulty sensing elements or internal/external
obstructions. These gauges are built using the highest
calibre materials, but also provide digital capabilities
proven to keep employees safe and the product moving.
It can be said that the data from tank level gauges are
some of the most critical data sets when it comes to
remote tank monitoring because it can affect almost
every aspect of the organisation. Safety aside, some users
(dependent on the application) only require daily
reporting but can check the status of their tank every
minute for instant reporting, if necessary. This will affect
the battery life, but most batteries offer a five-year life
with warranty, so unless the tanks are high-fill tanks, once
a day is typically the standard.
Some of the essential data points extracted into
Figure 3. Oil and gas refinery. applications include:
„ Tank location.

Spring 2019 72
 „ Tank height and type. specific details about each tank on which they plan on
„ Tank capacity. installing a device during the set-up phase. This
„ Pressure. includes tank location, the height, the type of product
„ Temperature readings. it contains, capacity of the tank, and an estimated
„ Fill event history and draw rate. current level. For some tanks, it is usually as simple as
„ Critical thresholds and alarms. opening the tank monitor device with a screwdriver at
the lid, connecting the battery that provides the
Most remote tank monitoring partners integrate with cellular signal, looking for an LED light that confirms
the industry's common back office software packages the unit is working and then closing the lid. Now, the
and offer API integration for the hardware and software installer can slowly lower the sensor, which usually
setup. This is helpful in meeting the desired reporting looks like a cable that drops directly into the tank. The
goals, primarily if the customer engages in more cable is affixed to the monitoring unit which screws
traditional business practices, works in silos, or they right onto the opening of the tank. Most remote tank
have not yet invested in addressing their digital strategy. monitoring partners provide ‘how-to’ videos on their
website, so technicians can view it on their mobile
Installation made easy device during installation.
Installation of tank level gauges has come a long way However, applications used for the production of
with the use of mobile applications and cloud-based natural gas or oil refining may require a little more than
platforms. It is typically straightforward and can take a screwdriver so it is best to consult with an experienced
less than 30 min. per tank, which is helpful when remote tank monitoring partner that can offer options
customers want to install multiple gauges at once but for multi-facility installation or large-scale roll-outs.
cannot afford the downtime. The mobile application
includes some useful features during installation, such as All about the data
taking a photo of the container and verifying that the One of the main reasons companies invest in remote
set-up happened correctly, which will help eliminate the tank monitoring is because of the insight they obtain
need to go back after the installation. from these small, yet extremely robust pieces of
There are a couple of things that need to happen equipment. Tank level gauges can be set to report on a
before the hardware installation to ensure the accuracy number of features including fill level, draw rates, critical
of the data from the start. Customers need to record thresholds, and more. The reporting features are set up

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 through a cloud-based platform, so anyone in the from various tanks and identify which others are nearing
company with a mobile phone or desktop device has fill efficiency is even better. This now allows distributors
access to this data based on permissions, set goals, and not only to see the levels of each tank, but form fill
reporting requirements. This level of insight is beneficial patterns based on customer locations and dispatch to
when distributors are establishing dispatch efficiencies several tanks along the same route.
across the supply chain. Companies are also increasing their savings by
Tank level gauges ensure tanks are running at specifying the average delivery cost against a pre-set
optimum efficiency, usually based on efficiency goals set target efficiency model developed when they
forth by the organisation as it aligns with industry implement their system. This way, they can see the
standard regulations. The industry today delivers on a efficiency data for the current month and
40 – 45% tank efficiency rate, with the average delivery cross-reference that to the data from last month to see
to a 1000 gal. tank around 400 – 450 gal. By monitoring, if they have improved the average delivery cost or not.
the efficiency can be increased to 70 – 80%, so instead Having this information readily available to management
of taking 450 gal., 700 – 800 gal. can be delivered. This provides a more realistic picture of whether or not they
will increase fleet efficiency while also increasing profit are meeting their target deliveries when compared to
margins over the fixed delivery costs. This information actual deliveries performed. This is helpful when it
can be used to create reports that will improve comes to ensuring they have achieved their efficiency
operations. goals and for better streamlining their organisation.
Predictive analysis encompasses the analysis of a
variety of statistics and historical facts in order to make Conclusion
predictions about future or unknown events. RTM While software has taken centre stage in most
applications take tank level gauge data, among other conversations and justifiably so, there is no mistaking
useful information, and combine it to perform a variety that the hardware components that pull the data from
of reporting algorithms that help an organisation run mobile or stationary assets are equally important. Tank
more efficiently. level gauges are an integral part in providing accurate
One of the more essential pieces of data that RTM data to the tank industries’ supply chain. As technology
applications can help identify is how to meet efficiency continues to develop, it is important to ensure that
targets among multiple tanks. Seeing one tank that activities such as installation and reporting are becoming
needs to be serviced is great but being able to pool data easier for the end user.

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 Joachim Toffolo, AUMA, Germany, explores how electric actuators
in tank farms can take valve automation to the next level.

V
alve actuators are critical to the safe and efficient are clearly important in tank farms, which often have several
operation of tank farms, as they are to almost hundred actuators (Figure 1), and electric actuators have the
every other part of the hydrocarbon supply chain. advantage of a comparatively low total cost of ownership.
Actuators must perform reliably and accurately at Electric actuators are typically equipped with powerful
all times, often in demanding environments, so it pays to built-in electronics as well as interfaces to communicate with
choose them with care. This article explains how modern plant control systems. They also provide intelligent
electric actuators meet the needs of flammable liquids diagnostics that facilitate efficient asset management.
storage. Actuators are available that meet safety standards for
On tank farms, valve actuators are primarily used for hazardous atmospheres, and often provide functional safety
controlling hydrocarbon streams for storage and blending. and fire safety too. Their robust design and effective corrosion
However, tank farm applications for electric actuators also protection allow them to withstand very high or very low
include fire protection systems, wastewater treatment and temperatures, high humidity, and the often highly saline
site utilities. atmospheres found in tank farms located close to the sea.
Over the last decades, electric valve actuators have
proven to be a reliable and efficient solution for automating Reliable flow control
the valves needed in all of these applications. Most tank farm operators are service providers that do not
First of all, electric actuators are easy to install as they own the crude oil or fuel they store. Only by delivering the
need only an electrical supply to operate. Unlike pneumatic required service within the time constraints can they make
or hydraulic systems, the actuator is virtually a profit. Individual transfers involve complex sequences of
maintenance-free. Low operational and maintenance costs pump and valve operations, with no time for mistakes or

7
75 Spring 2019
 breakdowns, necessitating high standards of robustness and
reliability from valves and actuators.
Tank farms typically rely on gate valves to route
hydrocarbons into and out of the tanks, plus ball and
butterfly valves for piggable pipelines and emergency
shutdown (ESD) applications. Gate valves require multi-turn
actuators (Figure 2), while part-turn actuators (or multi-turn
actuators with part-turn gearboxes) are used for ball and
butterfly valves.
Valve sizes range from 4 to 32 in. (DN100 – DN800),
with operating pressures up to 600 psi (40 bar).
The chosen actuators must be able to deliver the
necessary torques consistently and reliably, even for the
Figure 1. Electric actuators provide precise and largest valves. Large electric actuators can deliver torques
reliable valve control on tank farms. of up to 500 000 ft-lb (675 000 Nm).
Actuators used for flammable liquids storage are
certified for use in potentially explosive atmospheres.
Depending on the site location, regionally applicable
standards include IECEx, FM (US), ATEX (Europe), EAC
(Russian Federation), or NEPSI (China).

Sourcing, installation and maintenance

Ease of installation and commissioning is important. Ideally,
a small number of actuator models in different sizes and
configurations will cover all the valves on the site. AUMA
has adopted a modular design approach, thus reducing the
number of different actuator types and spare parts required
and bringing advantages in terms of inventory. Consistency
in the user interfaces also facilitates operator training.
A modular actuator concept meets varied demands
with a set of standard components. A broad range of
Figure 2. Gate valves are one of the most common multi-turn and part-turn actuators is available for different
valve types used to control the flow of hydrocarbons torque ranges, power sources and valve attachments.
in tank farms. Modular design, including the ability to mount the
actuator controls at some distance from the motor and
gearbox, also makes it easier to install actuators in
locations that are difficult to access. Modularity includes
features like plug-and-play electrical connections, which
simplify cabling, commissioning, maintenance and repair.
A non-intrusive setup, which allows actuators to be
configured without opening their housings, is another
feature that is valuable during commissioning, maintenance
and repair. Usually, the valve’s open and closed end
positions need to be calibrated, and limit switches for valve
travel and/or maximum torque need to be set. With
non-intrusive setup, this can be done quickly and easily
using integral local controls with intuitive user interface.

Case study 1: NWO Wilhelmshaven tank farm

NWO Wilhelmshaven, Germany’s largest crude oil terminal,
started deploying AUMA actuators more than 25 years ago.
Now, about 250 actuators provide reliable 24/7 service
(Figure 3). Robust mechanics, a modular actuator design and
a wide variety of actuator sizes have allowed the plant
operator to fulfil the needs of all of its valve control
applications from a single supplier.
Figure 3. Approximately 250 AUMA electric
valve actuators provide reliable service at NWO Advanced valve control
Wilhelmshaven, Germany’s largest crude oil terminal. Tank farms typically rely on large numbers of valves in
manifolds to create many different fluid transfer routes

Spring 2019 76
 over limited numbers of physical pipes. Delivery of a different speed requirements in different applications. The
specific liquid stored in any particular tank to any specific operating speed can be adapted retrospectively onsite
outlet – such as a ship, pipeline, or refinery intake – must depending on the process requirements.
be possible at any time.
In storage and pumping applications, valves typically Prime connectivity
operate slowly to avoid the risk of pressure surges in Tank farms generally require a high degree of valve
pipelines, bearing in mind the large diameters and high automation and tight integration with distributed control
flowrates. Standard electric actuators are the perfect fit for systems (DCSs) or supervisory control and data acquisition
these requirements. To avoid faulty operation, integral (SCADA) systems. Electric actuators form the crucial
interlock functions with reliable end-position feedback interface between the process and the control system,
ensure that the valves are opened or closed in the right acting as the ‘brain’ of the motor operated valve (MOV)
order and at the right time. package. In most cases, electric actuators are equipped
Recent innovations include electric actuators with with intelligent integral controls that assume
variable motor speeds. These provide an ideal solution when communication with the DCS. Controls are available with
high operating speeds are required. AUMA’s SARV actuators, various interfaces to the DCS, allowing both parallel signal
for example, can operate at high speed across most of the transmission and fieldbus communication, including
valve travel and then slow down when approaching the end Profibus DP, Modbus RTU, Foundation Fieldbus, HART and
position. This gives the advantage of rapid operation while WirelessHART.
preventing any risk of pressure surges. These characteristics Powerful electronics allow electric actuators to act as
are also beneficial for control valves in blending and information hubs for both process-related data, (e.g. valve
metering systems, which place the highest requirements on position feedback) and actuator-related data, based on
flow control accuracy and high operating speed. Here, the advanced self-diagnostics to enable condition-based
operating speed over valve travel can be adjusted according predictive maintenance. Asset management based on
to the valve characteristics, even for complex valves such as device-specific data boosts plant reliability and reduces
double block and bleed valves. ‘Soft start’ and ‘soft close’ unexpected downtime.
functions can be programmed to reduce mechanical stress Further benefits can come from using a master station
and prolong the life of actuators and valves. as a decentralised automation solution for controlling and
Variable-speed actuators also provide more freedom in monitoring actuators within networks, especially in the
project planning, since a single size of actuator can meet case of large numbers of actuators and long distances.

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 AUMA’s SIMA master station, for example, avoids 296 km long and containing up to 247 actuators. Built-in
limitations on cable length that may hamper standard redundancy in the fieldbus communication and
fieldbus systems. The master station allows rings up to hot-standby configurations further enhance data
transmission reliability. The use of open fieldbus standards
not only gives the SIMA excellent performance but also
ensures long-term future compatibility, in contrast to
proprietary communication protocols.

Case study 2: Shell Oman tank farm

AUMA has supplied 74 electric valve actuators with
Modbus RTU communications and a SIMA master station
control system for a tank farm operated by Shell Oman
Marketing Company near Muscat, Oman.
The 15 tanks at the Mina al Fahal tank farm store crude
oil, fuel oil, and refined hydrocarbon products. For the
upgrade project, AUMA supplied SAEx .2 multi-turn
Figure 4. 500 AUMA actuators with separate ESD actuators with ACExC .2 actuator controls. All 74 devices
inputs have improved the speed, flexibility and safety are centrally controlled by the SIMA master station.
of flammable liquids transfer at the Koole Tankstorage Redundant Modbus communication on a ring network
Minerals terminal in Rotterdam, the Netherlands. ensures that all the actuators remain accessible even in the
event of a fault or cable break.

Safety at multiple levels

Overfilling, which can create explosive atmospheres and
contaminate soil and groundwater, is a constant hazard in
tank farms. Managing the risk of overfilling may require not
only multiple level sensors in the tanks but special
attention to the reliability of the associated valves and
actuators. Depending on the application, different safety
concepts may be implemented at actuator level, including
hard-wired additional ESD inputs, SIL-certified actuators
and fail safe solutions.

Case study 3: Koole Tankstorage Minerals

terminal, Port of Rotterdam
As an application example, actuators with separate inputs
Figure 5. AUMA offers TÜV-certified electric actuators for ESD have been installed at the Koole Tankstorage
suitable for safety-related applications up to
Minerals terminal in the Port of Rotterdam, the
SIL 2/SIL 3.
Netherlands. AUMA supplied around 500 explosion-proof
electric valve actuators linked by a Profibus network. These
have improved the speed, flexibility and safety of
flammable liquids transfer at the terminal (Figure 4).

SIL requirements
Often, the designers of a tank farm will carry out a formal
functional safety assessment based on the principles of
safety instrumented systems (SISs) as defined by the
IEC 61511 and IEC 61508 standards.
The safety functions relevant to electric actuators in
these circumstances include Safe ESD and Safe Stop.
Individual actuators are available with certification up to
safety integrity level 2 (SIL 2), typically based on a separate
ESD input controlled by a dedicated safety PLC (Figure 5).
For applications requiring even higher reliability, redundant
Figure 6. AUMA’s anti-corrosion coating complies setups can achieve SIL 3.
with the requirements for the highest corrosivity
categories C5-M certification according to
ISO 12944-6. Without high-quality sealing and
Fail safe solutions
corrosion protection, actuators in harsh conditions are A special safety case concerns the risk of power failures.
likely to fail prematurely. Critical valves have to be able to open or close in an
emergency even without electrical power. Actuators with

Spring 2019 78
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and goals. While most ous settings—namely Takes? and The Sink: Radical
companies have a written avalanche-prone areas. Transformation with One
strategy, team members Bridging his decades of Small Change, Nusbaum will
often fail to understand research on avalanche examine the seven critical
how the strategy ties into their jobs. Little fatalities with his knowledge of risk man- traits of successful leaders and teams and
will share lessons and demonstrate how agement, Hendrikx will demonstrate how show how success can be accomplished by
having a clear strategy can ensure alignment focusing on human-dimensions and decision anyone willing to do the work. Nusbaum will
across all functional areas and bolster team making can help reduce fatalities and injuries challenge everyone to evaluate themselves,
morale. Attendees will learn how a clear in any risky setting. Hendrikx has spent the and he will discuss how they can continue to
strategy can provide a platform for senior last 20 years working on snow and avalanche develop each of the seven critical elements
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outcomes and ensure that resources are truly Antarctica to the Arctic. His work has been strategic management, leadership and philos-
focused in areas that will provide the best featured by Nature, The Wall Street Journal, ophy, along with his ability to see the problem
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 a purely mechanical energy buffer provide a perfect Actuators mounted below ground level face the special
solution; for example, incorporating a spring motor that risk of flooding by heavy rain or firefighting water –
generates the torque required to operate the valve into a conditions that already indicate an emergency. Special
safe position when the power goes off. AUMA’s FQM fail actuator versions designed for continuous underwater use
safe unit, for example, provides ESD with full withstand full and prolonged submersion without problems.
independence from electric power.
Conclusion
Fireproof housings Modern electric actuators provide the reliability and the
Additional safety considerations may call for actuators advanced automation functionalities necessary to
that can continue to operate even when engulfed in operate tank farms both safely and economically. They
flames. Actuators equipped with a fire-resistant are sophisticated devices with powerful diagnostics and
enclosure that meets standards such as UL 1709 remain data-logging to aid condition-based predictive
functional at external temperatures of 2000˚F (1100˚C) maintenance. DCS integration using open-standard
for 30 min. Closing valves at the heart of the fire shuts fieldbus technology offers the flexibility required to
off the flow of flammable liquid that would otherwise control large numbers of actuators over long distances.
feed the fire. Precise valve positioning ensuring exact flow control can
be achieved using variable-speed actuators. The choice
Resisting climate and corrosion of safety features includes separate ESD inputs,
Tank farm actuators often need to withstand decades of mechanical fail safe solutions, functional safety
salt-laden atmospheres, very high or very low certification, and fireproof housings.
temperatures, and high humidity (Figure 6). They should Finally, many tank farm projects are highly international
preferably be rated to IP68 to keep out humidity and in scope: actuators may be specified in one country,
dust. Excellent corrosion protection is equally important mounted to valves in a second country and installed on
to ensure a long service life. AUMA actuators, for site in a third. An actuator manufacturer with a worldwide
example, are equipped with a highly resistant two-layer sales and service network can ensure that fully trained and
powder coating which has passed stringent corrosion accredited service technicians are available at every point
tests. The actuators are TÜV-certified and meet the along the engineering, procurement and construction (EPC)
requirements of the highest corrosivity category C5-M chain, providing local support wherever in the world the
according to ISO 12944-6. company is operating.

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 Thomas Ernst, Implico Group, Germany, examines Big Data and
outlines the real-world opportunities that arise for tank storage
operators from large-scale data processing.

il and data are wedded to each other. Without a voice. They are all equipped with sensors and
leveraging the latter, purveyors of the former transmitters for a continuous exchange with the terminal
will lose their competitive edge sooner rather management system. Everything is being recorded, from
than later. In the age of Big Data, this bears fill levels and stock volumes to temperatures and other
more truth than ever before. The logic behind this is values. Online connectivity means that tank storage
simple: the more data that tank storage operators can operators not only have access to their own units’ data
fetch from an ever-growing number of sources, the more pools, but also to those of associate plants and affiliate
set screws they can turn to optimise their businesses. But companies. The supply chain of the future will no longer
that is only one side of the coin. Accumulating a wealth be divided into independent segments that follow up on
of data has only limited value of its own. Only when this each other individually. It will be shaped by
data is put to effective use does its real potential unfold. collaboration and take the form of a continuous stream,
The data centres of modern tank farms are filled to in which all processes are connected to one another and
the brim with information. Inventory, logistics, transport, all data is readily shared between the partners. While
property, sales, economy and partnerships are but some the industry has yet to arrive at this point, it is already at
of the many areas that could – and should – be tracked. a stage where the information available is a lot deeper,
With the arrival of the Internet of Things (IoT), almost broader and more colligated than it was in the past. This
every machine and component in a tank farm has opens up a wealth of possibilities. But it also calls for

8
81 Spring 2019
 novel approaches. As the sheer vastness of information have emerged. Only through innovation could Big Data
has become too much for traditional databases to blossom.
handle, new storage and processing means
Storing data in-memory
At the heart of Big Data, which is both a concept and a
technology, lies a fundamental change in where the
collected data is stored and how it is accessed. Instead of
being put away in tabular databases, the information is
shifted to in-memory data pools, such as HANA by SAP. In
there, individual data bits can be located, processed and
synchronised in real time. Among other benefits, this allows
for flexible usage, configurable dashboards, scalable
expansion and quick reportings. Operations that took
several days in the past can now be performed within
minutes or even on the fly. In the context of a tank farm,
this has real consequences. Once the elicitation and
evaluation of Big Data have settled at the core of the
downstream industry, the storage and trade of oil products
will undergo a renaissance – heaving transparency,
Figure 1. In the age of the IoT, almost every knowledge and collaboration to new heights.
component of a tank farm has a voice. Ultimately, this development will culminate in the
establishment of the ‘transparent’ tank terminal. In this
reached-for environment, all relevant information will be
readily available at any time. By drawing all data from the
cloud and feeding it into dashboards, tank terminal
operators will be able to analyse and cross-reference their
key numbers whenever and wherever they want. At a
glance, they will not only know how much product they
have stored in which tank, but also how much the product
is worth and to whom they could sell it at what margin.
The fusion of logistics data from the terminal
management system with financial information from sales
is only one contribution Big Data can make to give tank
storage operators a whole new perspective on their
business.

Minimising loss
Figure 2. To make the most of their collected data, For someone managing a tank farm, no thought is more
tank farms must use it smartly.
menacing than the idea of losing product – be it through
leakage, theft or false accounting. This is another field in
which Big Data can provide remedy. Traditionally, inventory
is taken physically with the aid of measuring rods or float
balls. While this gives reliable information about the actual
value, it does not say much about the target value. For
maximum accuracy and transparency, the figures gained by
physical measurement need to be cross-referenced with
data obtained by accounting. In doing so, deviations
become visible immediately. This gives tank storage
operators the chance to react swiftly and effectively to
out-of-the-ordinary occurrences. In an industry where time
is money, spotting any derivation from the usual routine as
early as possible can be a door-opener, a business-booster
or – most importantly – a life-saver.
In a pre-digitalisation tank farm, it might take weeks
before losses get noticed. In a fully automated plant,
however, the respective dashboard would indicate a
difference between the real value and the target value as
Figure 3. Implico's terminal management system soon as the two figures diverged. A controller would then
OpenTAS TMS in use. double-check the connected data and flag the loss straight
away.

Spring 2019 82
Planning ahead Becoming digital
Well-oiled data processing machinery not only enables When tackling the subject of Big Data, it is important to
downstream oil and gas companies to react to unexpected keep in mind that the size of the accumulated information
surprises in time; it empowers them to plan ahead. The only marks one side of the equation. Big Data is inseparably
better-informed tank storage operators are about their connected to Smart Data. Consequently, tank terminal
stocked products and incoming as well as outgoing operators that plan to leverage Big Data to gain a
deliveries, the more accurate predictions they can make. competitive advantage must not only focus on collecting
Big Data provides instant answers to crucial questions such and storing data, but also on analysing and processing it. If
as ‘how much product do I have in this very second?’, ‘how they master this challenge, their daily operations – and
much product will I receive from haulers in the coming with it their efficiency and profitability – will benefit
days?’ or ‘how much product will my customers pick up tremendously from the achievement. Ultimately, Big Data
this week?’ But it does not stop there. It will also state the promotes safety, simplicity, transparency and innovation in
current value of the stored goods and the demand for tank terminals. In short, it promotes digitalisation.
them. On the grounds of these
insights, tank storage operators
can optimise their stock and make
meaningful predictions in the
fields of goods movement, sales
or taxes.

Offering new services

Besides the optimisation of
existing processes and the
reduction of given threats,
Big Data also facilitates the
provision of new services. After
all, tank storage operators cannot
just use their fetched data
themselves, they can also share it
with their business partners. This
means that they can, for
example, use web or app services
to inform incoming haulers about
products and quantities held in
stock. If the forwarding agents
knew this information
beforehand, they could decide in
advance when and where to load
which product. A procedure like
this would help to streamline the
associated work steps and make
product loading more efficient.
Simultaneously, forwarding
agents could send their
registration data to the plant
they are heading for while on the
way there. If the personnel at a
tank farm knew all the carriers
that would visit them on a
certain day (plus the estimated
times of arrival and the desired
goods), this so-called ‘slot
booking’ would not only reduce
paperwork, but also clear up
access to the unit. Especially on
busy days, where there is a lot of
traffic, such a workflow would
save all involved parties a
significant amount of time and
hassle.
 Ahoy Rotterdam
26 - 28 March 2019

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Serving the tank storage community globally Official Media Partner
 Ilan Toledano, Wattco,
Canada, discusses how
to use electric heating
in colder climates.

I
n the oil, gas and petrochemical industries, a cold become unusable or require treatment to return to a usable
climate presents serious concerns in preserving state. Either way, there is a loss of efficiency and profit.
equipment, product, and operational efficiency. Normal freeze control in this industry prevents
Outside of natural disasters, such as hurricanes, cold mediums from falling below 273.15 K (32˚F) – the
weather is one of the most damaging natural phenomena. temperature where many fuel oils begin to crystallise.
From sudden temperature drops and freezing to ongoing While some fuel oils, such as diesel, do not freeze, they still
wear and tear due to low temperatures, petrochemical experience issues. When diesel’s temperature drops too
facilities are at risk in geographies where the temperature low it begins to transform into a gel or waxy substance.
falls below 32˚F. In the petrochemical industry, petroleum and chemical
products may have different freezing points, and it is
Risks in cold climates important to account for this to prevent them from
Precise temperature control is important to many freezing.
industries. However, where outside factors such as climate
and weather come into play it becomes especially Equipment failure and damage stops process
important. Oil, gas and petrochemical facilities often have Freezing is known for its ability to cause burst pipes or
processes, storage, or transportation of mediums outdoors, break storage tanks. When ice gets into cracks or spaces it
which leaves them especially vulnerable to the elements. expands and weakens equipment, compromising the
structural integrity. However, proper temperature control
Freezing or crystallisation of medium can prevent the ice from forming.
Freeze protection is a common use of electric heating in When a storage tank breaks it also means that the
the petrochemical sector. Once the medium freezes it may contained medium is lost. If the storage tank is

8
85 Spring 2019
 outdoors, this is both a financial and environmental matters. Placing the thermocouple too close to the heater
issue. The oils generally cannot be recovered for or the surface may skew the temperature reading.
industrial use, and the environmental impact of a spill These areas may show a higher temperature than
can be severe. other areas of the tank. As a result, the thermocouple can
Operation in the immediate area may also need to be read that the temperature is above freezing, while product
stopped until the spill is cleaned. When a pipeline bursts, deeper in the tank begins to crystallise. This is especially
the halt in production can be worse as all movement likely in colder climates because there is a higher chance
through the pipeline needs to stop until the section is of discrepancy between temperature near the heater and
repaired or replaced. deeper in the tank.
Exposure to ice storms and inclement weather is When installing thermocouples, their placement
another source of damage especially for vulnerable should reflect the average temperature of the entire
equipment such as heater trace cables. vessel.

Reduced efficiency Take advantage of automation

In colder climates, heaters need to work harder to With digital controllers, thermocouples, and sensors,
maintain the desired temperature. Sudden drops in modern electric heaters are fully capable of automation,
temperature can be devastating without a method of meaning they are more convenient and safer than manual
rapidly reacting and achieving temperature. Resultant controls.
changing viscosities can slow down or halt processes, and Automatic shutoff switches prevent potentially
may result in equipment overheating. flammable or explosive mediums from reaching dangerous
temperatures. Furthermore, automatic heater controls
Preparing electric heaters for use in engage the heater if temperatures dip too low. This is
cold weather especially useful in climates where it is likely for the
Electric heaters are a popular choice for industrial heating temperature to suddenly drop. An automated system can
solutions in cold climates. They offer precise temperature respond immediately, avoiding potential issues.
control and monitoring to keep mediums at the desired
temperature without sacrificing efficiency. They are also Power considerations
capable of achieving temperatures quickly, which is ideal In any heating application, power is an important
when there is potential for sudden and severe consideration. Cold climates push the consideration
temperature drops. further as there is a greater potential for shifts in
Even with these advantages, it is important to prepare temperature and power requirements. For example, in
electric heating solutions specifically to handle cold cold weather heating projects, Wattco bases its power on
weather. Delta temperature calculations.
The first power consideration the company accounts
Insulation is essential for is power vs volume (gallons in the tank). Once this is
In any tank, there will be some degree of heat loss and established, the change in temperature over time can be
cold climates exacerbate this issue. Any heating measured. This change gives the Delta temperature by
performed needs to account for this heat loss. Without subtracting the initial temperature from the final
proper insulation, heaters need to work harder to make temperature. Also factored into this equation is the
up for this lost heat, which creates a higher operational specific environmental considerations.
cost and reduces the heater’s lifespan. Using the Delta temperature for calculating power in
The oil and gas industry is the most susceptible to this cold climate heating provides a more accurate estimate of
issue. Wattco has advised companies in cold climates requirements. It allows for the fluctuation of temperature
such as Edmonton, Alberta, Canada, on insulation use: that can be expected in such an environment.
Edmonton can reach temperatures below -46˚C (-50˚F),
making it among the coldest places on Earth during the Use resilient equipment
winter months. In harsh climates, equipment is more susceptible to
Even in these extreme temperatures, insulation is damage, especially if they are kept or operated outdoors.
highly effective. A well-insulated tank only experiences It is important to use equipment that can withstand the
about 5% of heat loss in temperatures below 32˚F. conditions.
Adjusting heating for a 5% threshold compensates for the A good example of this is heater trace cables, which
heat loss of an insulated tank. offer heating at a low cost for tanks or pipelines. In a
A properly insulated container keeps the operational protected environment they can be an ideal solution, but
costs of heaters low and reduces waste. Selecting the they are easily damaged. In extreme cold, or even
right insulation materials and thicknesses for the climate turbulent weather, trace cables are likely to be damaged,
helps maximise the efficiency of a heating solution. which can mean constant repair or replacement.
In these environments, an electric pipe heater may be
Placement of thermocouples a better solution. Pipe heaters are more sturdy and can
For an accurate reading and to maintain the desired use protective sheathing so they can withstand extreme
temperature, the correct placement of thermocouples temperature. They offer greater efficiency than heater

Spring 2019 86
 21st ANNUAL
ANNUAL
I N T E R N AT I O N A L A B O V E G R O U N D S T O R A G E TA N K
CONFERENCE & TRADE SHOW
INTERNATIONAL ABOVEGROUND STORAGE TANK
April 2-4, 2019 |& Orlando,
CONFERENCE Florida
TRADE SHOW
Rosen Shingle Creek | Orlando, Florida | March 27-29, 2018
This conference is designed for engineers, managers or other individuals
involved with operations, construction, environmental compliance,
NISTM
spill prevention • Free
and Trade Show
response • Tanks
or management 101 Course
activities associated
• AST Conference Sessions • Golf Tournament
with aboveground storage tanks.
• NACE Conference Session • Welcome Reception
• Free EPA SPCC & FRP • Cocktail Mixer on the
Short Course Trade Show Floor

SCHEDULE OF EVENTS:
EPA SPCC & NETWORKING MIXER
FRP SHORT COURSE April 2, 2019
April 1, 2019

NISTM
FREE TRADE SHOW ENTRY
WELCOME RECEPTION April 2-3, 2019
April 1, 2019
AST CONFERENCE NATIONAL INSTITUTE FOR STORAGE TANK MANAGEMENT
12TH ANNUAL GOLF April 2–4 2019
TOURNAMENT

NISTM
April 1, 2019
Visit the Website or Call to Register
To Register, Call or Visit the Website:
FOR ADVERTISING, SPONSORSHIPS, AND www.NISTM.org | 800.827.3515
NATIONALSPEAKER OPPORTUNITIES,
INSTITUTE FOR STORAGE TANK MANAGEMENT
800.827.3515 | www.NISTM.org
International 011.813.600.4024
CALL 800.827.3515 OR 011.813.600.4024 International 011.813.600.4024
 trace cables and also provide the ability to repair, replace, present in the gas it is likely to freeze and the ice can clog
or perform maintenance on them without emptying the system and cause inefficiencies or damage.
vessels or halting production. Electric heaters apply the Joules-Thomson coefficient
to manage this issue. This is used to determine how much
Keep it simple the temperature will drop, on average, after throttling. The
When it comes to deciding on a heating system, simple is electric heater then preheats the gas by the same amount
best. The more complex the system, the greater the it will drop, right before throttling. This effectively prevents
opportunity for failure or complication. In a harsh climate, the risk of freezing.
these risks are exacerbated. For example, a pipeline transporting gas at 1200 psig
One of the advantages of an electric industrial heater is and 68˚F, draws 1000 lb/hr and is throttled down to 15 psig.
that it is less complex than a fossil fuel system. There are By applying the Joules-Thomson coefficient, the
fewer moving parts and they have a simple design. Without temperature would drop to -15˚F without preheating. This
internal combustion, they also experience less wear and would have a high risk of freezing the supply system.
tear. The simple design helps them last longer and makes Preheating is then set to account for this drop.
them easier to maintain. Generally, the Joules-Thomson coefficient will add a
25% safety margin to account for any changes or
Preventing freezing after throttling irregularities.
Another cold weather issue that can occur with natural gas
is freezing after throttling. When natural gas is throttled it Using electric heat in colder climates
has a sudden pressure drop – known as the Joules-Thomson Using electric heat in colder climates is an ideal solution
effect. This drop in pressure results in a significant drop in for most oil, gas and petrochemical companies. However,
temperature. to be used to its full potential it is essential that the
This presents a problem should the temperature drop systems, processes, and heater settings are selected with
below the freezing point of water. If there is any water the climate in mind.

AD INDEX
Page Number | Advertiser 16 & 17 | Matrix Applied Technologies

15 | AMETEK Drexelbrook 33 | Matrix Service Company

37 | ATEC Steel, LLC 83 | MESA Products

45 | Auma 04 | Midwest Steel Co. Inc.

77 | BREEZE 87 | NISTM

OBC | Burns & McDonnell 11 | Oreco

61 | BUCHEN-ICS GmbH 66, 70 & 74 | Palladian Publications

65 | Cool Sorption 42 | Plexus

41 | Crown Oil Environmental Ltd OFC & 51 | Purgit

80 & 84 | Easyfairs 73 | Rembe® GmbH Safety + Control

IFC | Gauging Systems Inc. 09 | Rosen

55 | Hexagon PPM IBC | Swiss Fire Protection Research & Development AG

02 | HMT 52 | Tanco Engineering, Inc.

79 | ILTA 58 | Tank Connection

57 | John Zink Hamworthy Combustion 25 | TEAM Inc.

07 | JT Thorpe 69 | Turbomachinery & Pump Symposia

47 | Kanon Loading Equipment 21 | Varec

Spring 2019 88
 Fuel your projects with speed,
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