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Climate change and its impact on cotton (Gossypium sp.)

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 Research Review Article
Indian Journal of Agricultural Sciences 80 (7): 561–75, July 2010

Climate change and its impact on cotton (Gossypium sp.)

K SANKARANARAYANAN1, C S PRAHARAJ2, P NALAYINI3, K K BANDYOPADHYAY4 and
N GOPALAKRISHNAN5

Regional Station, Central Institute for Cotton Research, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu 641 003

Received: 1 August 2009; Accepted: 29 April 2010

ABSTRACT
The earth temperature has increased by 0.74°C during the last century (1906 to 2005) due to increase in greenhouse
gases through anthropogenic emissions as reported by IPCC. Thus, the increase in temperature is likely to be 1.8–4.0°C
by the turn of 21st century resulting in anticipated greater instability in food, feed and fibre production. Increase in
temperature can reduce crop duration, change pest populations, hasten mineralization in soils and increase
evapotranspiration. It is reported that 40 and 50% less biomass is anticipated in cotton (Gossypium sp.) at 20/10°C and
40/30°C, respectively, with optimum temperature of 30/20°C. However, increase in atmospheric CO2 increases the
quantum of yield produced photosynthetically, net photosynthesis, biomass production and ultimate output. Besides
higher output, increasing inputs-use efficiency in cultivated crops is also realized and the same at much greater pace in
C3 plants (cotton). Study showed that increase in seed cotton yield up to 43% was realized at elevated CO2 of 550 ppm
throughout the crop-growing period. Severe sucking pest problem and dominance of weeds are expected in cotton.
Thus, in total, elevated CO2 favours cotton growth and yield but higher temperature influences these negatively. The
effect of climate change on national cotton production system interpreted that increasing CO2 concentration could help
to increase cotton production in all the 3 zones. However, increasing precipitation with decreasing temperature may
prolong the vegetative growth and extend the crop duration, which pose difficulties in timely sowing of succeeding rabi
crops in north zone. The expected increasing of temperature, decreasing rainfall with erratic distribution in central and
south zone leads to frequent wet and dry spell with high evapotranspiration demands. Prolonged dry spell during
critical crop growth periods may affect yield. The projected waterlogging coupled with drought by increasing intensity
of rainfall may further induce reddening in Bt cotton. Shortening of crop growth periods induced by increasing temperature
may facilitate to fit cotton crop into rice (Oryza sativa L.)–fallow cotton system in south zone.
Cotton belongs to the C3 plant, which releases CO2 during photorespiration. High external input and overuse of N
fertilizers lead to more emission of nitrous oxide. The mitigation strategies should aim to reduce inorganic inputs utilization
with more emphasis to nitrogen includes following of integrated nutrient management practice, use of N-fixing Azotobacter
and Azospirillum, legumes rotation, application of slow-release nitrogenous fertilizers, adoption of drip-fertigation,
incorporation of cotton stalk could reduce fertilizer nitrogen usage. It is evident that application of farmyard manure,
mulching greengram (Vigna radiata L. Wilczek), glyricidia sp. and sunnhemp (Crotolaria juncea L.) as green manure
recorded 15–32% increase in yield over control and there was considerable build-up of soil available nutrients.
Cotton crops grown in future environments will be subjected to a climate for which they are not bred. Cotton species
of G. barbadense showed more sensitive than G. hirsutum. G. arboreum is suitable for low and erratic rainfall with
drought situations. In saline environment G. herbaceum showed better adaptability. The available drought tolerance
hirsutum genotypes, like ‘LRA 5166’, ‘KC 2’ and ‘AKH 081’ may show better adaptation. The risk and uncertainty
imposed by climate change could be managed by adoption of location-specific intercropping and multi-tier cropping
system. In situ soil moisture conservation techniques include contour bunding, graded, narrow or broad ridges or beds
separated by furrows, ridges and furrow, opening of furrow after every rows of cotton, black polythene mulch (25
microns), and spreads of crop residue were found to be promising
Key words: Adaptation, Climate change, Elevated CO2, Mitigation, Soil moisture, Temperature, Ultra violet-B radiation
1Senior Scientist (email: [email protected]) (Agronomy),
3 Senior Scientist (email: nalayiniganesh @gmail.com) India has achieved the rare distinction in becoming first
(Agronomy), 4 Senior Scientist (Soil Science) (email:
in acreage of cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) in the world
kk.bandyopadhyay @gmail.com), 5Project Co-ordinator and Head
(email: [email protected]); with 9.5 million ha under plough engaging nearly 5 to 5.5
2 Principal Scientist (email: [email protected]) million farmers. Although India’s cotton area represents 25%
(Agronomy), Indian Institute of Pulses Research, Kanpur, Uttar of the global area, it contributed to only 12% of world
Pradesh 208 024. production in the past, because our yields were low in
3
562 SANKARANARAYANAN ET AL. [Indian Journal of Agricultural Sciences 80 (7)

comparison to many countries in the world. Cotton is the 80 ppm/m 2 of air, since the beginning of the industrial
major cash crop of India as it accounts for 75% of the fibre revolution towards the end of the 18th century. The current
used in the textile industry with 1 500 spinning mills, thus value is about 379 ppm in 2005 and continued to increase
contributing towards 4% of GDP. Cotton impacts the lives further. This increase in CO2 has profound implications on
of an estimated 60 million people in India, including farmers global warming and shifts in precipitation at regional and
who cultivate the crop, and a legion of workers involved in continental scale. In general, increase in atmospheric CO2
the cotton industry from processing to trading. With such an increases the quantum of yield produced photosynthetically,
importance in national economy for providing livelihood net photosynthesis, biomass production and ultimate output
security to 60 million people including all the stakeholders in term of grain, seed, oil and fibre. Besides greater output,
of cotton value chain, the climate change and its likely impact higher inputs (light, nutrient and water) use efficiency in
on cotton crop is fast gaining momentum. cultivated crops are expected to be realized and the same at
Reports of Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change a much greater pace in C3 plants (cotton, rice, wheat) over
(IPCC 2007) revealed that the earth temperature has already C4 plants (maize, sugarcane).
increased by 0.74°C between 1906 and 2005 due to increase In a typical cotton field, the plants will extract about 11.34
in anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases. For Indian tonnes of CO2/ha to make the fibre (lint), oil (seed), protein
region under south Asia, the IPCC has projected 0.5–1.2°C (feed) and other plant parts. Out of it, nearly one-tenth that
rise in temperature by 2020, 0.88–3.16°C by 2050 and 1.56– is taken from the air is used to produce cotton fibres and
5.44°C by 2080 depending on the pace in future development about 0.5 tonnes is extracted to produce some 0.19 tonnes of
scenario. Study showed that global temperature increase vegetable oil. In the process, around 7.9 tonnes of O2 is
might exceed to the extent of 1.8–4.0°C by the turn of 21st released back into the atmosphere. Thus more than 450
century resulting in anticipated greater instability in million tonnes of CO2 were removed by cotton plants during
agricultural (food, feed and fibre) production (Aggarwal whole growing season while more than 36.3 million tonnes
2008). The increase in mean air temperature is influencing of CO2 that removed from the air were used to form the
reduction of snow cover and discharge of river water. The cellulose in the fibre and was bound in fibres for a
expected rise in temperature in higher latitudes will be much considerable period of time and most of the CO 2 was
more than at equatorial regions. Amongst the seasons, the deposited back as an amendment to the soil through carbon
temperature increases are likely to be much higher in winter sequestration (return of carbon). Carbon sequestered in the
(rabi) season than in rainy (kharif) season. world cotton fibre supply is equivalent of taking 7.25 million
Agriculture contributes about 28% of greenhouse gas passenger vehicles from the highways (ICAC 2009).
emissions, primarily due to methane emission, especially in Higher CO2 concentration increased final leaf size and
rice cultivation, enteric fermentation in ruminant animals, rate of leaf expansion (Reddy et al. 1994). Greater
and nitrous oxides from application of manures and fertilizers assimilation rate of plants grown in elevated CO2 enables in
to the soils. Increasing atmospheric concentration of CO2 at incorporating 30% more biomass during the first 36 days of
alarming rates (1.9 ppm/year) in recent years than the natural growth. Higher assimilation is due to higher chlorophyll—a
growth rate cause a concern. Although global atmospheric concentration following CO2 enrichment (550 ppm) than
concentration of methane (CH4) was at 1774 parts/billion ambient condition even under different moisture regimes.
(ppb) in 2005 and remained nearly constant thereafter, yet, Study showed average chlorophyll content was higher both
increase in nitrous oxide concentration to 319 ppb in 2005 in the wet (7.1%) treatment and dry (8.2%) treatments (Pinter
from pre-industrial value of about 270 ppb again switch on et al. 1994b). The results clearly indicated that elevated CO2
the alarm (IPCC 2007). Accordingly increase in rainfall or its enrichment produced higher chlorophyll content and
commensurating with the global climate change is also consequently, higher output in cotton plants. The increase in
expected to be variable. Many dry regions may experience a whole plant leaf area with doubling of CO2 was due to small
decrease in precipitation, while some others will become increases in individual leaf sizes and a large increase in the
wetter. number of leaves on fruiting and vegetative branches. At
Changes in the major independent variables, viz CO2, 720 ppm of CO2 enriched atmosphere, the plants had about
temperature and water to the extent that they actually occur 40% more squares and bolls across temperatures than the
may alter plant growth rates, biomass reservoirs and plant 360 ppm (Reddy et al. 1999).Effect of elevated CO2 on cotton
community composition at local, regional and global scales. growth and development is more apparent through
significantly greater leaf area and higher net photosynthetic
Elevated Co2 rates associated with lower dark respiration and light
Of the 4 major greenhouse gases causing a concern compensation point than plants grown in ambient CO2 (Zhao
regarding the global climate change, CO2 is by far the most et al. 2004).
significant one in respect of cotton production. CO2 in Cotton plants grown under elevated CO2 atmosphere fixed
the atmosphere is observed to have increased by about 16% more CO2 than the ambient grown plants (Khader et al.
4
July 2010] CLIMATE CHANGE IMPACT ON COTTON 563

Table 1 Effect of elevated CO2 and water stress on photosynthetic rate (μmol/m2/s) in cotton

Treatment Days after imposition of stress (d) Mean

1 2 3 4 5 6

Elevated CO2 (650 ppm) Unstressed 25.1 25.4 24.9 25.6 25.5 24.8 25.2
Stressed 23.7 24.6 21.5 14.3 7.7 5.2 16.1
Ambient (330 ppm) Unstressed 21.0 21.4 20.8 21.5 21.8 22.0 21.4
Stressed 20.5 21.6 18.5 16.7 9.8 6.5 15.5

Source: Khader et al. (2004)

2004). At the onset of water stress, the photosynthetic activity under full irrigation and 34% under deficit irrigation. The
declined from the initial level of 24 µ mol CO2 to a level of free air carbon dioxide enrichment treatment improved the
5 µmol CO2/m2/s within 6 days (Table 1). Even diurnal water-use efficiency to the same amount in well irrigated
changes in photosynthesis rate were also observed under free- and water stress plots. These were confirmed in many studies
air carbon dioxide enrichment (FACE). Mid-day net also (Radin 1992 and Kimball and Mauney 1993).
photosynthesis rates of both leaves and canopies were 19– Free air CO2 enrichment was also found to increase root
41% higher in the CO2-enriched plots than in control plots dry weight and densities in cotton (Prior et al. 1994). Vertical
since mid-day stomatal conductance values of leaves were root-pulling resistance, larger diameter taproots, dry weight
13–44% greater in control plants than in CO2-enriched plants and volume were also higher under CO2 enrichment. The
(Hileman et al. 1994). There was no effect of CO2 enrichment development of more robust taproot systems under CO2-
on transpiration of crop, grown under well-watered and high- enriched environments may allow for greater carbohydrate
fertility conditions (Dugas et al. 1994) although the CO2 storage to ensure root growth for continued exploration of
fluxes were significantly higher in the free-air carbon dioxide the soil profile to meet nutrient and water needs during peak
enrichment (550 ppm) than at ambient level and also higher demand periods (Prior et al. 1995).
with wet than dry irrigation level (Nakayama et al. 1994). Evapotranspiration (ET), a better crop water-use
Biochemical constituents in plants, viz leaf carbohydrate parameter for water relation studies, was, however, not
content were also increased by free air carbon dioxide significantly influenced by CO2 enrichment. This implies
enrichment and the increments were much more pronounced that irrigation water use would not have to be increased to
in the stems and roots. Starch and soluble sugars in leaves in produce cotton in a future high-CO2 world. However, if a
free air carbon dioxide enrichment tend to be consistently concomitant change in climate occurs, such as global
greater than in control leaves. Thus, the significant effect of warming, ET in cotton may change in response to the changed
CO2 enrichment on starch-accumulating plants is through weather condition (Hunsaker et al. 1994).
increase of non-structural carbohydrate, especially starch, Cotton plants, grown in elevated CO2, had significantly
in non-leaf storage pools (Hendrix et al. 1994). Although N higher seed cotton yield over that in ambient CO2 as increase
and protein concentrations in leaves, stems and roots were in harvestable yield by 43% was observed at 550 ppm of
significantly lower in CO2 enriched plants than in control, CO2 throughout the growing seasons (Nagy and Hendrey
yet C : N ratios were higher for the free-air CO2 enrichment 1994). Similar results were also reported (yield increase to
plants than the control (Huluka et al. 1994) and there were the tune of 40 and 43%) by Mauney et al. (1994) and Khader
no significant effects of interaction involving irrigation and et al. (2004). Here, the increase in biomass and yield is
CO2. Reduction in tissue N and protein concentration and attributed to increase in leaf area, more profuse flowering
increase in C : N ratio following CO 2 enrichment has and longer period of root retention. Boll growth and
important ramifications in agriculture and natural systems. developmental parameters under elevated atmospheric CO2
Physiologically, leaf water relations in a cotton plant under did not affect any of the fibre parameters (Reddy et al. 1999).
CO2 enriched environment was also improved (Bhattacharya Available data from greenhouse and laboratory studies
et al. 1994). The atmosphere enriched with 550 ppm during suggest that leaf photosynthesis, crop growth and water-use
the day light hours under full irrigation produced decreased efficiency of tropical plants might increase at higher CO2
stomatal conductance leading in increased leaf water concentrations. However, under field conditions, abiotic
potential. Under water stress conditions, free air carbon (light, water or nutrients) or biotic (competition or herbivory)
dioxide enrichment decreased the conductance throughout factors might limit these responses. In general, elevated
the season although the effect on leaf water potential is not atmospheric CO2 concentrations seems to increase plant
consistent. Thus, free air carbon dioxide enrichment tolerance to stress, that include low water availability, high
increased the season long biomass accumulation by 39% or low temperature and photo inhibition.
5
564 SANKARANARAYANAN ET AL. [Indian Journal of Agricultural Sciences 80 (7)

Temperature in the natural environment and exposed to daytime

Tropical plants may be more narrowly adapted to temperatures of 30, 35 or 40°C during the fruiting period
prevailing temperature regimes than are temperate plants, accumulated 47, 5.7, and <1%, respectively of their mass as
hence expected changes in temperature might be relatively bolls. Three-week exposure to 40°C for 2 or 12 hr/day
more important in the tropics. Reduced transpiration due to resulted in 64 and 0% bolls, respectively retained on the plants
decreased stomatal conductance could modify the effects of (Raja Reddy et al. 1992). Developmental rates, as depicted
water stress as a sign for vegetative or reproductive by the number of main stem nodes produced, were sensitive
phenology of plants in seasonal tropical areas (Hogan et al. to temperature at 40/32°C although the number of fruiting
1991). branches did not increase above 30/22°C. All flower buds
Cotton requires warm days and relatively cool nights for abscise from the plant grown at 40/32°C (Reddy et al. 1994).
optimum growth and development. Temperature significantly High temperatures reduce the viability of the pollen at
affects phenology, leaf expansion, internodes elongation, flowering. This reduces boll size and can reduce yield. The
biomass production and the partitioning of assimilates to result is small bolls with uneven seed numbers between the
different plant parts (Reddy et al. 2000). In the crop growth locks caused by poor pollination/seed set, particularly in one
front, the seedlings were insensitive to rise in temperature lock (Mc Rae et al. 2007). Soil warming affects the rooting
from 20/12 to 40/ 32°C during the first 2 weeks of emergence, system as the soil temperature also increases.
and after that, they were temperature sensitive (Reddy et al. Changes in temperature, however, had a dramatic effect
1994) since 40 and 50% less biomass at 20/10°C and 40/ on boll set and fibre properties (Hodges et al. 1993, Reddy
30°C, respectively were observed as compared to optimum et al. 1999). Fibres were longer when bolls grew at less than
temperature of 30/20°C (Raja Reddy et al. 1992). Biomass optimal temperatures (25°C) for boll growth. As temperature
of 13, 15 and 43% were partitioned to ‘squares and bolls’ at increased, fibre length distributions were more uniform while
20/10°C, 25/15°C and 30/20°C, respectively which reflects fibre fineness and maturity increased linearly with the
to some extent slower development at the temperatures lower increase in temperature up to 26°C, but decreased at 32°C.
than 30/20°C. Most of the squares and bolls were aborted Short-fibre content declined linearly from 17 to 26°C, but
above 30/20°C. When the temperature increased from 20/10 was higher at higher temperature. To the contrary, most fibre
to 30/20°C, total plant weight increased by 36%. Yet, boll quality traits were little affected by varying the temperature
weight was greatest at 30/20°C, and least at both higher and regimes (Pettigrew 2007). If the predicted global warming
lower temperatures. Boll growth was more temperature occurs, temperature extremes are likely to be much higher
sensitive than vegetative growth (Table 2). It was concluded which will have a deleterious effects on the existing cultivars
from temperature studies that optimum temperature for adapted to a moderate temperature. Hence, heat-tolerant
maximum growth rate of leaves, main stem and fruiting cultivar will be needed even more than today.
branches was 30/22°C (Reddy et al. 1994). This was also
the optimum temperature for the quantum of squares and CO2 with temperature
bolls retained/plant since the number of fruiting branches Predicting plant responses to changing atmospheric CO2
did not increase above 30/22°C. and to the possible global warming by high temperature and
Moreover, the plants grown at high temperature regimes their interaction are more important than the sole effect.
lost their reproductive capacity to a greater extent than their Although rates of main stem node formation and the time
ability to produce biomass. High temperature environments required in producing the first square and first flower were
were also associated with cotton sterility and boll retention not little influenced by atmospheric CO2, yet these were very
problems. Cotton plants grown from seedlings at 40°C for sensitive to temperature. Similarly, carbon dioxide levels did
12 hr/day shed all their squares. Plants grown from seedlings not alter the time required producing nodes; yet, number of
branches produced was sensitive to both temperature and
Table 2 Effect of temperature on Stoneville 825 cotton plant CO2. The larger the number of bolls set on the lower branches
growth harvested at 49 days after imposition of of plants grown at high CO2, the larger is the sink for
temperature treatments photosynthesis than plants grown at low CO2. This may
explain the reason for the observed reduction in number of
Day/night temperature (°C) fruit at the upper nodes of high CO2-grown plants. More
20/10 25/15 30/20 35/25 40/30 bolls and squares were produced and retained on plants grown
in high-CO2 environments, except that none were produced
Total weight (g/p) 242 320 330 293 225 in either CO2 environment at 40/32°C (Raja Reddy and
Gain 133 211 221 184 116 Hodges 1995).
Bolls 17.4 62.7 143.3 16.7 0.8
Cotton plants showed large responses to humidity and a
Squares 12.0 1.3 0.8 6.8 2.1
very high level of CO2 (700 ppm). In cotton plants, the
Source: Reddy et al. (1992 b) enhanced dry matter yield due to doubled CO2 concentration
6
July 2010] CLIMATE CHANGE IMPACT ON COTTON 565

was 1.6 fold greater at low humidity than at high humidity had greater chlorophyll– a concentrations (7.1% greater in
(Wong 1993). Heagle et al. (1999) used field studies to the ‘wet’ treatment and 8.2% greater in the ‘dry’ treatment)
examine the impact of higher O3 levels on cotton growth over the ambient plots (with 370 ppm, Pinter et al. 1994b).
under higher CO2 conditions. They found that higher CO2 Mauney et al. (1994) reported that partitioning of the dry
compensates for growth suppression resulting from elevated weight to bolls was altered more by the irrigation treatment
O3 levels. than the CO2 treatment. The wet treatment appeared to change
The results further indicate that high temperature-tolerant the partitioning pattern by lowering the fraction of biomass
cotton cultivars would be more productive in the present- devoted to gain in boll weight while the dry plots experienced
day CO2 world, and they would be essential in the future, if a time period when more than 100% of the dry weight gain
global temperature increases. of the crop was found in bolls (Table 3). Thus, water-use
efficiency (WUE) was greater in the free air carbon dioxide
Soil moisture enrichment plots although the magnitude of the FACE effect
Well-watered plants registered higher mean light was the same as that for biomass increase. Khader et al.
utilization efficiency (LUE) of 1.97 g/ MJ for free air carbon (2004) reported that with the induction of moisture stress
dioxide enrichment and 1.56 g/MJ for controls. The deficit there was a reduction of 42% in yield and 36% in biomass
irrigation treatment produced significantly smaller plants that under normal ambient-grown plants (Table 4) as compared
absorbed fewer PARS and had lower LUE than plants in the to 15 and 17% reduction in yield and biomass, respectively
well-watered treatment (P < 0.05). No interaction was under elevated CO2 conditions.
observed between CO2 and irrigation treatments (Pinter et Irrigation in semi-arid climate is a major cause of
al. 1994a). Leaves of both well-watered and moderately water secondary salinization. Elevated CO2 may reduce the impacts
stressed plants in the free air carbon dioxide enrichment plots of secondary salinization, although experimental work shows
that any increase in temperature may negate these benefits
Table 3 Dry weight partitioning within the cotton crop during and may even exacerbate problems of secondary salinity.
selected time periods of 1991 season Globally averaged mean water vapour, evaporation and
precipitation are projected to increase (IPCC 2007).
Control + FACE + Control + FACE +
dry plot dry plot wet plot wet plot Nutrient management
Less nutrient concentration with elevated CO2 levels but
Biomass gain 10.2 17.6 14.6 18.2
(g/m2/day)
at sufficient range for all the tested elements except N, which
Boll mass gain 10.7 17.9 12.7 16.6 was below the sufficiency (Table 5) reported by Huluka et
(g/m2/day) al. (1994). Free air carbon dioxide enrichment (550 ppm)
Partitioning (boll 1.04 1.01 0.87 0.91 often decreased tissue nutrient concentration but increased
mass/total mass) total nutrient accumulation. Under elevated CO2, field-grown
Water-use efficiency (in a biomass/kg water) cotton was more nutrient efficient in terms of nutrient
1990 1.50 1.48 1.79 1.90 retrieval from the soil and nutrient utilization in the plant
1991 1.22 1.20 1.67 1.67 (Prior et al. 1998). This enables more efficient fertilizer
Source: Mauney et al. (1994). FACE, Free air carbon dioxide utilization, better economic returns for fertilizer expenditures
enrichment and reduced environmental impact from agricultural

Table 4 Effect of water stress and elevated CO2 atmosphere on morphological attributes of cotton

Character Elevated CO2 (650 ppm) Ambient CO2 (330 ppm) CD (P=0.05)
Unstressed Stressed Unstressed Stressed

Plant height (cm) 45.2 38.3 37.6 29.7 2.8

Sympodia (no.) 17.8 17.2 17.4 16.0 NS
Node (no.) 21.4 20.0 20.8 18.2 0.7
Leaf (no.) 64.6 52.0 54.4 48.2 3.2
Boll (no.) 13.8 11.8 10.6 6.6 0.6
Single boll weight (g) 2.08 1.97 1.88 1.76 0.31
Yield (g)/plant 27.4 23.2 20.0 11.6 1.5
Total biomass (g)/plant 83.5 69.0 61.7 39.4 2.8
Harvest index 32.7 33.5 32.3 29.5 1.9

Source: Khader et al. (2004)

7
566 SANKARANARAYANAN ET AL. [Indian Journal of Agricultural Sciences 80 (7)

Table 5 Influence of CO 2 levels on mean leaf nutrient within plant biomass ultimately enters the soil via plant
concentration residues. Residues of cotton (Torbert et al. 1995) growth
under elevated CO2, displayed increased C : N ratios, which
Element Control FACE Sufficiency may reduce their rate of decomposition in the soil and lead
(H≈370 μmol/mol) (H≈550 μmol/mol) range
to an increment in ecosystem carbon stocks, similar to that
N (g/kg) 46.8 31.8 35–45 observed in fertile grasslands. No significant difference was
Ca (g/kg) 55.9 24.4 20–30 observed with respect to soil respiration or P mineralization-
K (g/kg) 20.1 15.5 15–30 immobilization between CO2 enrichment against ambient
Mg (g/kg) 4.7 3.5 3–9 CO2 conditions by application of crop residues grown in
P (g/kg) 3.8 3.4 3–5 ambient condition. However, significantly greater net N
B (mg/kg) 93.6 76.2 20–60 immobilization was observed during the incubation in all
Cu (mg/kg) 8.4 6.6 5–25
soil types with elevated CO2 treatment by application of crop
Fe (mg/kg) 275.0 208.0 50–250
Mn (mg/kg) 108.0 83.6 25–250 residue. These results indicate that decomposition of plant
Zn (mg/kg) 41.0 33.4 20–200 residue may not be reduced by CO2 enrichment, but N
dynamics may be markedly changed (Torbert et al. 1995).
Source: Huluka et al. (1994) High CO2 environments without water stress, increased C
storage in soil is likely, but it is less likely where water stress
fertilization practices in the future. A significant CO 2 is a factor (Wood et al. 1994).
interaction with N observed for total bolls produced (P <
0.01) and retained (P < 0.05) (Reddy et al. 2004). The bolls Ultraviolet-B radiation
produced and retained/plant were significantly higher for the Projections indicate that solar ultraviolet-B (UV-B)
plants grown at elevated CO2 and N+ conditions. Plants radiation will reach peak levels on the earth’s surface in the
grown at ambient CO2 and N + condition and elevated CO2 coming years by climate change. UV-B radiation is readily
and N-condition performed similarly for total bolls produced absorbed by biomolecules, such as, amino acids, polypeptides
and retained (Table 6). Leaf N concentration decreased with and nucleic acids (Sullivan and Teramura 1989). Enhanced
increasing CO2 under low and high level of N. These low UV-B radiation caused a significant reduction in plant growth
leaf N concentrations did not reduce the effect of elevated (Sullivan and Teramura 1989, Teramura et al. 1991),
CO2 producing higher lint yields and the response being photosynthetic capacity (Ziska et al. 1993, Teramura and
highest for plants grown at elevated CO 2 and high N Sullivan 1994) and pigment levels (Strid and Porra 1992,
conditions (Reddy et al. 2004). Thus, the study suggests the Sullivan and Rozema 1999) and reduced crop productivity
greater possibility in realization of higher nutrient efficiency (Corlett et al. 1997). Crops subjected to UV-B radiation,
under elevated CO2. It is inferred that future elevated CO2 respond by altering their morphology and mitigate by
will not have any deleterious effects on fibre quality and adopting shielding or repair mechanisms.
yield, if N supply is optimum. Exposure to high UV-B radiation reduced both vegetative
and reproductive parameters and resulted in a smaller canopy,
Crop residue indicating sensitivity of cotton to UV-B radiation. Enhanced
Assessing the impact of elevated atmospheric CO 2 UV-B radiation increased epicuticular wax content on adaxial
concentration on the global environment is improved by leaf surfaces and stomatal index on both adaxial and abaxial
understanding the global carbon (re)cycling. Carbon fixed leaf surfaces. Leaf thickness was reduced following exposure
Table 6 Effect of CO2 concentration + N levels on boll parameters and fruiting branches

Treatment Boll parameters Fruiting branches

N CO2 (μmol/mol) Total bolls Retained bolls Retention (%) Number/plant Length (cm) Fruiting site
(no./branch)

N+ Sub-ambient (180) 20.8 12.4 55.4 19.5 19.5 3.0

Ambient (360) 50.7 24.4 45.1 20.9 31.2 4.5
Elevated (720) 58.6 30.5 49.4 22.9 29.5 4.1
N- Sub-ambient (180) 26.4 12.1 44.2 14.8 21.9 2.4
Ambient (360) 39.1 16.1 38.8 17.5 31.7 3.3
Elevated (720) 47.1 19.8 37.4 17.8 32.4 3.3
ANOVA CO2 S S NS S S S
N S S S S NS S
CO2 × N S S NS S NS NS

Source: Reddy et al. (2004) 8

July 2010] CLIMATE CHANGE IMPACT ON COTTON 567

to UV-B owing to a decrease in thickness of both the palisade 1992). Host plants growing under enriched CO 2
and mesophyll tissue, while the epidermal thickness remained environments exhibited significantly larger biomass
unchanged (Kakani et al. 2003). Zhao et al. (2003) found (+38.4%), increased C/N ratio (+26.57%), and decreased
that UV-B radiation at 7.7 kJ/m2/day did not affect cotton nitrogen concentration (–16.4%), as well as increased
growth and development, but higher levels of UV-B radiation, concentrations of tannins (+29.9%) and other phenolics
ie in the vicinity of 15.1 kJ/m2/day, significantly reduced (Heagle 2003). In contrast to the C/N balance hypothesis,
stem elongation rate, leaf area and dry matter accumulation. plants grown in elevated (700 ppm) CO2 conditions had
Forecasters predict that a 30% depletion of the ozone layer similar, or lower, concentrations of carbon-based allelo-
will enhance UV-B radiation from 7.7 to 15.1 kJ/m2/day. They chemicals than plants grown in ambient (350 ppm) CO2
also observed that elevated atmospheric CO2 could not conditions. Larvae fed with foliage grown in elevated CO2
counterbalance the detrimental effects of high UV-B radiation with low N fertilization consumed significantly more plant
on net photosynthesis and growth in cotton. material than insects fed with foliage grown in ambient CO2;
but, again, no differences were observed with high N
Pest dynamics fertilization and found that insects fed on low N plants had
Current and projected increases in the concentrations of significantly higher mortality in elevated CO2 (Coviella and
CO2 and other radioactively-active gases in the earth’s Trumble 2000).
atmosphere lead to concern over possible impacts on The production of the nitrogen-based toxin was affected
agricultural pests. All pests would be affected by the global by an interaction between CO 2 and N; elevated CO 2
warming and consequent changes in precipitation, wind decreased N allocation to Bt, but the reduction was largely
patterns and frequencies of extreme weather events, which alleviated by the addition of nitrogen, thus indicated that
may accompany the greenhouse effect. Cotton cultivation is future expected elevated CO2 concentrations by climate
a bed of roses with thorns; because it is harbored by about change, alter plant allocation to defensive compounds and
1 326 insects and mites all over the world; out of which 162 have enough impact on plant–herbivore interactions.
species are found on cotton in India; of these phytophagous Increases of carbon-defensive compounds by elevated CO2
pests, 24 have attained the pest status, out of which 9 are key or low N availability or both, adversely affected growth and
pests (Dhawan 1998). survival of Spodoptera exigua in Bt cotton, was reported by
Studies on the relationship between insect incidence and Carlos et al. (2002). It was observed that feeding guild, in
weather factors would enable an ecological maneuvering, which some species have shown increases in population
which may have economically relevant impact on pest density in elevated carbon dioxide, are the phloem feeders
incidence. The loss in seed cotton yield due to leafhopper is (John 1999). It is likely that climate change will not minimize
accounted to 390 kg/ha (Pandi 1997). Multiple regression the outbreaks; on the contrary it might benefit some pests,
analysis showed that leafhopper population on cotton plants which might increase the consumption of pesticide in the
under complete protection (during reproductive phase as well region of Andhra Pradesh (Flores Araya and Jesserina
as vegetative phase) increased with the increase in maximum 2008).Chewing insects have shown no change or reduction
temperature (R 2 =0.53, Murugesan and Manish 2007). in abundance, though relative abundance may be greatly
Morning relative humidity had positive and evening relative affected since compensatory feeding is common in these
humidity had negative influence on the larval population of groups
pink boll worm (Ramesh kumar et al. 2007). Other factors Densities of leaf miner species on host species were lower
did not contribute significantly to the larval population. The in every year in elevated CO2 than they were in ambient
contribution made by weather parameters on the larval CO2 (Peter and Tatiana 2005). The results showed that
population was 90.9% (Patil et al. 1992). These studies elevated CO2 significantly decreased herbivore abundance
further evidenced the climate susceptibility of cotton pests. (–21.6%), increased relative consumption rates (+16.5%),
Temperature is identified as the dominant abiotic factor development time (+3.87%) and total consumption (+9.2%),
directly affecting herbivorous insects. There is little evidence and significantly decreased relative growth rate (–8.3%),
of any direct effects of CO2 or UV-B. Temperature directly conversion efficiency (–19.9%) and pupal weight (–5.03%).
affects development, survival, range and abundance. Species No significant differences were observed among herbivore
with a large geographical range will tend to be less affected. guilds. To the contrary, thrips population size was not
Insect herbivores show a number of distinct life-history significantly affected by CO2, but laminar area scarred by
strategies to exploit plants with different growth forms and thrips feeding was 90% greater at elevated than at ambient
strategies, which will be differentially affected by climate CO2. Because of increased growth, however, undamaged leaf
warming (Jefferys 2002). area was approximately 15% greater at elevated than at
Plants, grown under low-nutrient conditions, do have ambient CO2 (Heagle 2003). Chakraborty et al. (2002)
higher concentrations of carbon-based allelo-chemicals than reported higher CO2 levels will increase the severity of
plants grown under high-nutrient conditions (Fazer et al. diseases, induce fungal growth, spore formation and will
9
568 SANKARANARAYANAN ET AL. [Indian Journal of Agricultural Sciences 80 (7)

destroy more plant tissue. periods between rainfall events, indicating a greater risk of
The effect of chemical action of imidacloprid under high droughts (IPCC 2007). Decrease in the number of rainy days
temperature was greater (Evangelos et al. 2008). This in western and central part. There may be overall increase in
suggestion was supported by findings of reduced glutathione the rainfall intensity by 1–4 mm/day except for small areas
reductase in the imidacloprid-treated plants, indicating that in the north-western India where the rainfall intensity may
the untreated plants were experiencing more stress, decrease by 1 mm/day predicted by Rupakumar et al. (2003).
necessitating the activation of this defense mechanism. Cotton is a heat-loving crop, hence temperature imposes
dramatic influence on cotton throughout the crop growth
Weeds periods. Extensive warming (by 4°C) in India could cause
Weeds are likely to respond directly to the increasing CO2 significant reduction in crop yields (25–40%) in the absence
concentration. Higher CO2 will stimulate photosynthesis and of adaptation and C fertilization (Rosenzeveig and Parry
growth in C3 weeds and reduce stomatal aperture and increase 1994). Rupakumar et al. (2003) reported that over the region
water-use efficiency in both C3 and C4 weeds. Respiration, south of 25°N the maximum temperature will increase by
and photosynthates composition, concentration, and 2–4°C during 2050s. In the northern region the increase in
translocation may be affected. Perennial weeds may become maximum temperature may exceed 4°C. There may be a
more difficult to control, if increased photosynthesis general increase in the minimum temperature up to 4°C all
stimulates greater production of rhizomes and other storage over the country. Kothwale and Rupkumar (2005) found that
organs. Changes in leaf surface characteristics and excess while the all India mean annual temperature has shown
starch accumulation in the leaves of C3 weeds may interfere significant warming trend of 0.05°C/10 years during the
with herbicidal control. Global warming and other climatic period 1901–2003, the recent period of 1971–2003 has seen
changes will affect the growth, phenology, and geographical relatively accelerated warming of 0.22°C/10 years, which is
distribution of weeds. Any direct or indirect consequences largely due to unprecedented warming during the last decade.
of the CO2 increase that differentially affect the growth or The recent accelerated warming over India is manifested
fitness of weeds and crops will alter weed-crop competitive equally in day time and night time temperatures. In contrary
interactions, sometimes to the detriment of the crop and to increasing trend of temperature, there was a marginal fall
sometimes to its benefit (Patterson 1995). Work done in in air temperature by –0.52ºC in the past 100 years in the
Turkey has shown that climate change will be beneficial to north-western India covering Punjab, Haryana, western
weeds due to the fact that genetic variations and selective Rajasthan and western Madhya Pradesh (Pant and Hingane
ecological adaptation are more developed in weeds than in 1988). In general, decrease in the air temperature was
cultural plants (Grenz and Uludag 2006). observed in the region at a rate of 0.05°C/year at Ganganagar,
0.02°C/year at Bikaner and 0.01ºC/year at Jaisalmer (Rao
Regional impact of climate change 2007).
Demand for irrigation water is more sensitive to climate The InfoCrop cotton model simulated the temperature
change; increased dryness may lead to increased demands increase by 8°C reduced the yield by 40% while, 8°C reduced
(IPCC 2001). Cotton in India is an important cash crop which temperature decreased the yield by 86%. Higher temperature
is grown under high evapotranspirative demand, using about in addition to reducing the crop duration reduced the retention
15% of the national water resources by providing irrigation of bolls and boll weight. On the other hand, low temperature
to 40% of area making the crop vulnerable to changes in extends the crop duration and exposes the reproductive phase
water availability. Here was a marginal increase in the rainfall to very low temperature (December to February) (Hebbar et
by 141 mm in the past 100 years in the north-western India al. 2007).
covering Punjab, Haryana, west Rajasthan and west Madhya
Pradesh (Pant and Hingane 1988). Singh and Sontakke (2002) Impact of climate change on cotton production in different
reported that the summer monsoon rainfall over western zones
IGPR shows increasing trend (170 mm/100 years, significant Global warming will have many consequences, but the 3
at 1% level) from 1900 and over central IGPR shows major impacts that are relevant to cotton production will be:
decreasing trend (5 mm/100 years, not significant) from 1939. increased atmospheric carbon dioxide, higher temperatures
Ramakrishna et al. (2006) indicated decreasing rainfall trends (both maximum and minimum) and potentially lower
in south-western and central parts of India and increasing precipitation levels and altered rainfall patterns worldwide.
rainfall trend in Punjab, western Rajasthan, Gangetic West In cotton, 60% of the yield losses is due to climate as
Bengal and sub-Himalayan West Bengal. The studies for compared to 30% recorded in other crops, like cereals,
irrigated arid region of Ganganagar revealed an increase in oilseeds and pulses (Dason 1996).Universal positive response
annual rainfall, particularly during the last 3 decades at a with increasing carbon dioxide concentration could help to
rate of 1 mm/year was observed (Rao 2007). Intensity of increase cotton production in all the 3 zones. Northern zone
precipitation events is projected to increase leads to longer comes under irrigated cotton cultivation. Increasing trend of
10
July 2010] CLIMATE CHANGE IMPACT ON COTTON 569

Table 7 Average monthly rainfall of cotton season of 6 months spell during critical crop growth periods of squaring,
flowering and boll development may affect yield of the
Centre Monthly rainfall (mm) crop. Waterlogging coupled with drought may induce
1 2 3 4 5 6 reddening in Bt cotton. Further increasing of existing
temperature range of 31.2–39.8°C (Table 8) at sowing
North zone time may hamper the germination. The regions currently
Punjab
having lower temperatures are expected to be at an advantage
Jullandhar 20.4 69.7 155.2 183.6 60.0 1.5
Ludhiana 14.7 52.0 200.2 174.3 108.4 19.8
by increasing temperature under the conditions expected to
Haryana occur in 50 or more years but the regions having high
Hisar 17.3 39.7 133.1 130.6 74.5 29.2 temperature at close to 40°C would seem to be at
Rajasthan disadvantage (ICAC 2009).
Udaipur 16.9 75.2 175.1 195.3 89.4 16.3 The expected erratic distribution leads to frequent wet
Central zone and dry spell in southern zone. Increasing trend of
Maharashtra temperature shortened the crop growth periods. Low rainfall
Akola 144.9 217.2 196.6 122.7 47.7 18.7 with erratic rain favours for production of diploid cotton (eg.
Nagpur 341.7 280.5 183.1 56.8 16.6 13.2
Kovilpatti (TN)). Shortening of crop growth periods induced
Parbhani 148.4 237.6 214.7 183.2 72.2 20.5
Madhya Pradesh
by increasing temperature may facilitate to fit cotton in rice–
Indore 131.9 283.7 276.9 183.1 40.1 13.3 fallow cropping system.
Gujarat The potential water requirement was minimum in
Surat 212.8 440.8 233.4 169.7 33.5 12.4 Khandwa, Khargone and Dhar (506.9 mm) and maximum in
Ahmedabad 88.8 280.9 296.1 185.0 36.6 9.3 Rajkot (899.1 mm), primarily owing to the differences in
South zone the potential evaporation (PE), available water content
Andhra Pradesh (AWC) and length of crop season. The seasonal precipitation
Kurnool 93 127 118 150 83 22 was more than the water requirement of cotton in Khandwa,
Nandyal 70 76 76 76 75 72
Khargone, Dhar, Nanded, Adilabad and Nagpur districts
Karnataka
Dharwad 118.0 128.8 104.0 107.8 75.3 19.8
while water deficit was the highest in Dharwad with a
Raichur 59.8 112.3 68.3 140.3 77.3 10.8 cumulative stress of 16.47, followed by Rajkot and
Tamil Nadu Kovilpatti. Decreasing and erratic distribution of rainfall
Kovilpatti 179 164 63 28 20 26 forecast may affect cotton production in Dharwad, Rajkot
Aduthurai 14 17 41 69 31 44 and Kovilpatti.
Coimbatore 28.4 57.3 136.7 119.3 40.8 6.6
Adaptation strategies
Source: IMD (2010) and Dason et al. (1996)
Climate change requires two types of measures: adaptive
precipitation may have less influence over irrigated cotton. measures and mitigation measures. A range of adoption
However, further increase in existing rainfall range of boll measures are available to reduce vulnerability to climate
development and bursting periods of 130.6–200.2 and 60.0– change by enhancing adaptive capacity and increasing
108.4 mm (Table 7), respectively may affect boll fixing and resilience. Cotton crops grown in future environments will
bursting and quality of kapas. Increasing precipitation and be subjected to a climate for which they are not bred (Hebbar
decreasing of temperature may prolong the vegetative growth et al. 2007). ‘LRA 5166’, ‘KC 2’ and ‘AKH 081’ are example
and extend the crop duration, which pose difficulties in timely of drought-tolerant cultivar as an adaptation strategy.
sowing of succeeding rabi season crops in cotton-based The risk and uncertainty imposed by climate change could
cropping systems of northern zone. The development of each be managed by intercropping and multi-tier cropping in
phonological phase in cotton has an optimum temperature cotton. Reilly et al. (2001) and Butt et al. (2006) found that
requirement (Hebbar et al. 2007). The existing maximum modified crop mix, and land use are all potential adaptation
temperature range of 39.4–41.0°C and 37.3–41.2°C (Table to climate. Multi-tier vegetable intercropping with short
8), respectively for germination and early growth periods duration vegetables like coriander, radish, vegetable cowpea,
are higher than optimum and decreasing trend of temperature clusterbean and beet root provide a suitable multi-tier
may favour for effective germination and early growth. combination along with cotton. Periodic and early harvest of
Central zone, most of the area comes under rainfed intercrops resulted in less competition within the component
cultivation. The expected increasing of temperature, of multi-tier crops leading to yield equal to sole cotton. Per
decreasing rainfall with erratic distribution leads to frequent hectare gross return of Rs 1 15 000, net return of Rs 75 000,
wet and dry spell. Heavy rain curtails the sowing of cotton, B : C ratio of 2.9, land equivalent ratio of 1.7, diversity index
particularly in black cotton soil affect the germination due of 3.5 and per day returns of Rs 500 were realized with multi-
to poor soil aeration (Raj and Dasan 1975). Continuous dry tier system involving radish, beet root, coriander with cotton
11
570 SANKARANARAYANAN ET AL. [Indian Journal of Agricultural Sciences 80 (7)

Table 8 Average monthly maximum and minimum temperature (°C) of cotton season of 6 months

Centre Maximum temperature (°C) Minimum temperature (°C)

1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6

North zone
Punjab
Jallundhar 39.4 38.2 34.1 33.1 32.6 31.5 23.8 25.6 24.7 25.8 21.8 18.3
Ludhiana 40.2 40.7 35.9 34.4 34.7 33.3 23.9 27.1 26.7 25.9 23.7 17.6
Haryana
Hisar 41.0 41.2 37.2 35.6 35.7 34.4 24.7 27.8 27.3 26.2 23.9 17.8
Rajasthan
Udaipur 39.7 37.3 32.0 30.2 32.3 33.4 39.7 37.3 32.0 30.2 32.3 33.4
Central zone
Maharashtra
Akola 37.6 32.4 30.6 32.5 34.1 31.7 25.5 23.5 23.0 22.5 19.7 15.6
Nagpur 31.2 30.5 31.7 32.6 30.2 28.1 24.0 23.6 23.1 20.0 15.3 12.1
Parbhani 36.6 31.8 30.7 31.5 32.4 30.5 24.6 23.0 22.5 22.2 20.0 15.9
Madhya Pradesh
Indore 36.3 30.3 28.5 30.3 32.2 29.6 24.3 22.7 22.0 21.0 18.0 13.6
Gujarat
Surat 33.8 30.8 30.4 31.8 35.3 34.3 26.7 25.5 25.1 24.6 23.0 19.2
Ahmedabad 39.8 34.0 32.5 33.0 33.0 29.2 28.5 26.6 25.9 25.0 20.2 13.5
South zone
Andhra Pradesh
Kurnool 35.8 32.8 32.4 30.5 32.5 31.1 25.2 26.2 23.6 23.6 22.6 19.4
Nandyal 28.6 22.3 21.8 28.6 24.8 23.5 20.6 16.8 15.9 21.8 18.4 15.6
Karnataka
Dharwad 27.6 25.0 25.3 26.3 28.1 26.4 21.4 21.1 21.1 21.2 20.2 15.3
Raichur 35.4 32.4 32.3 32.0 32.0 30.4 24.1 23.1 22.8 23.0 22.6 20.0
Tamil Nadu
Kovilpatti 31.5 31.5 30.8 31.3 33.5 35.0 22.8 22.8 21.1 20.2 20.4 22.3
Aduthurai 29.6 33.5 35.8 37.0 36.2 32.9 20.1 20.7 23.5 24.9 26.3 25.4
Coimbatore 31.3 32.2 31.3 29.9 29.1 30.2 21.7 21.7 21.8 20.6 18.8 18.1

Source: IMD (2010) and Dason et al. (1996)

under irrigated condition as reported by Sankaranarayanan et yield (673 kg/ha) in the black polyethylene mulch (25
al. (2007). Pulses like soybean, blackgram and greengram microns) observed as compared to non-mulched plot (436
were found promising in many situations for intercropping kg/ha) (Ravi and Christopher Lourduraj 1991). Location-
with cotton (Sankaranarayanan 2010). specific adoption of heat- and drought-tolerant varieties,
In situ soil moisture conservation techniques could reduce intercropping and in situ soil moisture conservation play
moisture stress by effectively conserving soil moisture. major role in management of climate uncertainties posed by
Preparatory tillage operation, viz ploughing and harrowing global warming. Sow as rainfed cotton, utilizing
gave additional cotton yield of 100 kg/ha as compared to supplemental irrigation strategies or modified row
only harrowing before sowing at Dharward. Contour bunding configurations (eg skip rows) to enhance crop access to soil
is the effective soil and water management system should moisture, offer significant insurance against losses in both
reduce run-off and soil erosion, while increasing infiltration yield and quality in those regions and years where rainfall is
of rainfall (Kampen and Krantz 1976). The other practices highly variable (Bange et al. 2005). Opening of furrow after
include graded, narrow or broad ridges or beds separated by every rows of cotton between 30 and 45 days after sowing
furrows for drainage, reduce run-off and soil erosion and and spreads of crop residue mulch were found to be promising
increasing infiltration of rainfall. Forming beds (120–180 at Maharastra (Giri et al. 2008).
cm wide) and furrows on a grade for in situ water harvesting
is found to be efficient in deep black soils with a rainfall of Adaptability of cotton species
700–850 mm (Venkateswarlu 1980). Ridges and furrow India is the unique country where all the 4 species of cotton
method of water harvesting has been recorded 42% increase are being commercially grown in some of the states. Studies
in cotton yield under rainfed condition besides holding higher on the effect of temperature in different genotypes (Reddy
moisture (Anonymous 1986). Significant increase in kapas et al. 1992) revealed that pima cotton (Gossypium
12
July 2010] CLIMATE CHANGE IMPACT ON COTTON 571

barbadense) (extra long staple) was found to be more rate is almost 1/3 of its photosynthesis. Photorespiration, in
sensitive to higher temperatures than the delta type of cotton real terms, is a loss of oxygen, CO2 and light utilized during
plants (G. hirsutum). They reflected this high temperature photosynthesis (ICAC 2007). High external input-based
sensitivity by producing no fruiting branches at 40/32°C, cotton cropping system has depleted soil organic matter/
fewer branches at 35/27°C and more branches at 30/22°C, carbon (SOM/SOC) stocks and fertility of soils and overuse
whereas the G. hirsutum plants produced the same number of N fertilizers lead to more emission of nitrous oxide.
of fruiting branches in all these temperatures. Pima cotton However, nitrogen fertilization indispensable component of
exhibited greater damage to their reproductive structures at current production practices, hence high emission by using
higher temperatures than the hirsutum cotton type. The study inorganic nitrogen fertilizer use be restricted (ICAC
suggests that high temperature by climate change may affect 2009).The mitigation strategies should aim to reduce
the extra long staple cotton production. quantum of inorganic inputs used in cotton production
Irregular and erratic distribution is expected by climate system. The integrated nutrient management system (INMS),
change; thus may result into wet spell and dry spell leads to nevertheless, remains the maintenance and possible
water logging and drought. While considering the improvement of soil fertility for sustained crop productivity
productivity of different species of cotton under rainfed on long-term basis (Roy and Ange 1991), increasing yield
condition, high rainfall year normally favours hirsutum over @ 22% (Govil and Kaore 1997) and aimed also to reduce
arboreum/herbaceum cotton and the reverse is true for a low inorganic (N fertilizer) input utilization. In cotton,
or scanty rainfall year. For maximum utilization of rainfall Azotobacter and Azospirillum were found useful in effecting
under both high and low rainfall situation by intercropping N economy. Studies revealed that Azotobacter inoculation
of arboreum, hirsutum and herbaceum is one of the options. along with 40 kg N/ha was similar to application of 60 kg N/
Species intercropping studies at Kovilpatti (TN) revealed that ha (a saving of 20 kg N/ha, Anon. 1985). Though the N-
planting of G. arboreum (25%) + G. herbaceum (25%) + G. fixing potential ranged from 40 to 60 kg N/ha/y, yet saving
hirsutum (50%) found to record higher yield and stability to an extent of 20–40 kg N/ha/y was observed under field
among the different proportions and sole cropping both under condition. Legumes rotation can fix atmospheric N to an
the high and low rainfall situations. Krishnasamy et al. (1995) extent of 135–488 kg/ha. It is estimated that cotton following
reported that arboreum genotypes registered higher seed a non-legume rotation crop required an application of 179
cotton yield (430 kg/ha) with low and erratic rainfall (268 kg N/ha, while following the grain- and GM-legume system
mm) in comparison to hirsutum cotton (262 kg/ha) at it required only 90 and 52 kg N/ha, respectively (Rochester
Kovilpatti (TN). Bhatade et al. (2008) found that Gossypium et al. 2001). It is evident that application of FYM, greengram
arboreum, viz J. Tapti and NA 398 were found to be the best mulching, Glyricidia green foliage loppings and sunhemp
performers compared to hirsutum hybrids/varieties (NHH as GM recorded 15–32% increase in yield over control and
44/NH 545). Monoculture of G. arboreum cotton, out-yielded there was considerable build up of soil available nutrients
monoculture of G. hirsutum cotton in low rainfall years (9) following these (Blaise et al. 2004). It is usually
out of 11 years except in years of heavy rainfall at Nagpur recommended that slow-release nitrogenous fertilizers be
(Venugopalan and Pundarikakshudu 2009). applied to cotton at the pre-flowering stage and that nitrogen
High temperature may result into high evapotranspiration, be made readily available at flowering when the demand is
less soil moisture and salinity in semi-arid condition. high (ICAC 2009).Irrigated conditions produce more
Gopalakrishnan (2010) reported that G. herbaceum cotton is greenhouse emissions than dryland farming. This might be
tolerant to salinity, drought and well adapted to marginal due to the comparatively lower use of nitrogen fertilizers
soils which are as bad as desert sands. Large-scale evaluation and lower methane emission in dryland farming (ICAC
of 92 cotton genotype comprising G. hirsutum as well as 2009).
G.herbaceum lines was carried out at Raichur, Karnataka by In drip-fertigation, where fertilizer is applied through an
providing protective irrigation. As a group, G.herbaceum efficient irrigation system, nutrient-use efficiency could be
genotypes performed better than G.hirsutum genotypes and as high as 90%. The amount of fertilizer lost through leaching
clear indication was evident about suitability of G.herbaceum could be as low as 10% in fertigation, whereas it is 50% in
genotypes in situations wherein only limited irrigation was the traditional one. In addition, fertilizer savings through
possible. G.herbaceum ‘RAHS-14’ exhibited higher level of fertigation could be to the tune of 25–50% (Haynes 1985).
tolerance to salinity stress and recorded highest seed cotton On medium deep clay soil at Parbhani, nitrogen application
yield.The review summarized that barbadense may be at 75kg/ha through drip recorded comparable yield to that of
sensitive then hirsutum and diploid cotton perform better 100 kg N/ha by soil application in a hybrid cotton NHH 44
under climate aberration posed by climate change. (Vaishnava et al. 1995). Fertilizer and water saving with high
efficiency of inputs could be achieved with less cost by
Mitigation strategies adopting poly tube drip system (system cost 70% less)
Cotton belongs to the C3 type, and its photorespiration (Sankaranarayanan 2005).
13
572 SANKARANARAYANAN ET AL. [Indian Journal of Agricultural Sciences 80 (7)

Majority of crop residues are burnt in cotton-based these resources between irrigated cotton production,
cropping system (eg cotton–wheat in northern zone) resulting other crops and environmental uses. These issues
in emission of greenhouse gases, in addition to loss of N, P, emphasize the need for continual improvement in
S and B. On the other hand, restoration of soil fertility is whole farm and crop water-use efficiencies
possible by incorporating the crop residues since the practice • Dissemination of in situ soil moisture conservation
itself conserves/sequesters carbon as residue having wider techniques to conserve soil moisture
C/N ratio possibly leaves more carbon in the soil. Study • Promoting of cotton-based intercropping systems to
revealed that incorporation of cotton and wheat residues reduce risk of climate uncertainties
improved the productivity of these crops at Sirsa, • Muli-tier intercropping systems of CICR to be tested
Sriganganagar and Ludhiana in the northern zone since and modified/refined to make sustainable cotton
improvements in the soil fertility might stabilize long-term production system
yields. At Coimbatore an integration of organics, viz FYM • Time of sowing for different regions to be tested and
@ 5 tonnes/ha (15 days before planting), cotton residues @ rescheduled
2.5 tonnes/ha (30 days before sowing) and sun hemp seeded • Promoting of diploid cotton in low and high erratic
@ 15 kg/ha simultaneously in interrows of cotton as green rainfall and saline environment
manure and buried at 45 days after planting gave significantly • Promoting of high density narrow row cotton
higher seed cotton yield and lower pest population over the production system
recommended dose of fertilizers (Praharaj et al. 2004) • Approaches to increase soil carbon, such as, organic
Increasing temperature could accelerate decomposition manures, residue management should be encouraged
of soil organic matter, releasing stored soil carbon into to reduce the impact of climate change
atmosphere (Knorr et al. 2005, Fang et al. 2005, and Smith • Weather forecast and crop insurance to protect
et al 2005). Low tillage practices are an example of win-win cultivators
technology that reduces soil temperature in tropic, soil • Regional impact on cotton will need to be assessed
erosion and the use of fossils fuels. Adopting of INMS, drip thoroughly.
fertigation, utilization of cotton stalks and conservation tillage • Coupling of pest and crop process modeling to estimate
could effectively utilize inputs and also act as mitigation climate-induced pest impacts on crops
strategies in cotton production system • Improved understanding of interactive effects of
climate change and management on carbon source-sink
Future thrust relations in cotton ecosystems
• Research to prolong the duration of photosynthesis in • Exploration of the role of integrated management as a
green leaves by keeping them green for a longer time, means for providing better management options for
or by increasing the photosynthetic rate of the plant cotton ecosystems
enhance the consumption of atmospheric carbon. • Development of biophysical-economic modeling of
• Developing of varieties capable of the lowest farm-level decision-making under climate change
greenhouse gas emissions maintain and build good
organic matter content in the soil REFERENCES
• Research into integrated effects of climate change
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yield and quality need further analysis. impacts, adaptation and mitigation. The Indian Journal of
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Anonymous.1985. Annual Report (1984–85). Central Institute for
biotechnology tools and traits will develop cultivars
Cotton Research, Nagpur.
with improved water-use efficiency and heat tolerance. Anonymous.1986. Research Findings. North – Western Zone, pp
The genetic resources, from areas where past climates 26–7. Regional Research Station, Paiyur. Tamil Nadu
mimicked the projected future climates could serve as Agricultural University, Coimbatore.
the starting genotypes for building the genes for Bange M P, Carberry P S, Marshall J, Milroy S P.2005. Row
tolerance, maturity and yield features configuration as a tool for managing rainfed cotton systems:
• Identify the varieties that fit into new cropping system review and simulation analysis. Australian Journal of
of cotton-based and seasons, development of varieties Experimental Agriculture 45: 6577.
with changed duration, high fertilizer and radiation- Bhatade S S, Ansingkar A S, Deshmukh I S, More S S and Kurhade
N G. 2008. Identification of suitable cotton species and
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