Presented at Short Course V on Exploration for Geothermal Resources,

organized by UNU-GTP, GDC and KenGen, at Lake Bogoria and Lake Naivasha, Kenya, Oct. 29 – Nov. 19, 2010.

GEOTHERMAL TRAINING PROGRAMME Kenya Electricity Generating Co., Ltd.

GEOTHERMAL WELL DRILLING

Paul K. Ngugi
Geothermal Development Company
P. O. Box 100746, Nairobi 00101
KENYA
[email protected]

ABSTRACT

The drilling process complex as it may be rotate about breaking the ground and
lifting the rock cuttings from the resulting hole. The ultimate geothermal drilling
objective is to access the resource for exploitation. However, during resource
development and exploitation, drilling is used to confirm existence of the resource,
obtain data for resource assessment, provide adequate steam fuel for the power
plant and resolve well production complications. Tri-cone tungsten carbide insert
bits are very often used in geothermal drilling. Mobile and conventional land rigs
are predominantly used in the geothermal drilling industry. The rigs are selected to
technically fit the job at the lowest cost possible. The wells are made useful by
casing them. Several casing string are used for each well. They are cemented to
bond them to formation. Large production casing of 13 3/8” casing is increasing
becoming common where large well outputs are encountered and directional
drilling is being employed to target major faults that transmit fluids.

1. OVERVIEW OF THE DRILLING PROCESS

Actual breaking of ground is achieved by use of a rock bit. The bit is rotated under weight. The bit
both crashes and gouges the rock as it rotates. The broken rock pieces arising from the drilling are
lifted from the bore by floating them in a circulating drilling fluid. This process continues until the
well is completed.

2. REASONS FOR DRILLING

The ultimate goal for drilling is to access the resource for exploitation. However, during the resource
development and exploitation drilling serves various purposes.

2.1 Exploration

The very first evaluation of a prospect is achieved through detailed surface reconnaissance. It is aimed
at defining the resource by its key system characteristic namely: existence of a heat source in the form
of hot magmatic body near earth surface, existence of hydrological system, characteristic of the
geological setting and areal extent of the prospect (Figure 1). However, while the surface
measurement and mapping and evaluation of the surface manifestations provide great insight as
regards the resource characteristics and potential, results of the reconnaissance remain inferences and

1
Ngugi 2 Well drilling

are inconclusive. The initial employment of drilling in geothermal prospecting is aimed at providing
proof of exploitable steam and data required for further refining of the conceptual model.

Early Pleistocene
2.2 Appraisal
volcanics

Rift Graben (50-70 km) RAINFALL

Striking steam with the
RAINFALL "Recent"
Geothermal Volcanic Pile Geothermal Well Aberdare
first well while is exciting
Mau
reservoir Ranges opens up doors for more
Ranges
questions. Having

Co
confirmed existence of the

ld w
Col

ater
resource, the next question
dw

perc
ater

is its technical, economic

olati
per

and financial viability.

on
cola

Further drilling (appraisal)

tion

is therefore carried out to

Dikes
Pliocene volcanics and
Mozambiquan formation metamorphics delineate the resource and
NOT TO SCALE establish production well
LITHOSPHERIC MANTLE
and reservoir fluids
FIGURE 1: Typical conceptual model of a characteristics.
geothermal system

2.3 Production and re-injection

At this stage of development, a decision to construct a plant is already made. The drilling is therefore
to provide sufficient steam to run the plant. Additional wells are drilled for reinjection purpose. One
reinjection well is required for every 4 to 5 production wells.

2.4 Make-up

After commissioning of the power plant, with time the reservoir surfers pressure decline which affects
well productivity. In addition, deposition may occur within the formation around the wells further
reducing wells productivity. With time, therefore further drilling is carried out to replenish the
reduced steam delivery.

2.5 Work-over

Two types of problem may arise during exploitation. Steam depletion in the shallow reservoir may
necessitate deepening of the initial wells or deposition of scales within the well bore may necessitate a
mechanical removal of the scales. These two cases require some form of drilling to accomplish.

3. BITS

3.1 Types of bits

3.1.1 Drag bits

Drag bits is the oldest rotary tool still in use (Figure 2). The cutting blades
are integrally made with the bit body. They are fixed to it and rotate as a
unit with the drill string. The bit is used primarily in soft and gummy
formations

FIGURE 2: Drag bit

Well drilling 3 Ngugi

3.1.2 Polycrystalline diamond compacts (PDC) bits

The PDC bits use diamonds inserts embedded on the bit

body (Figure 3). They operate by the diamonds embedding
into the formation and dragged across the face of the rock in
a ploughing action. The diamond bits drills according to the
shear failure mechanism. They are of higher cost but their
long life make them cost economic in certain circumstances.
The PDC bits are used in 5% of the drilling cases in the oil
industry. (Moore 1986). The bits are however hardly used
in geothermal drilling.

3.1.3 Roller cutting bit FIGURE 3: PDC bits

More than 95% of the oilfield footage is drilled today with

tri-cone roller bits (Figure 4). This will form the basis of
our discussions.

3.2 Description-working mechanism

Rotary bits drill the formation using primarily two

principles; 1) rock removal by exceeding its shear strength
and; 2) removal by exceeding the compressive strength
(Adams 1985). The broken rock chips are removed by
scraping or hydraulic cleaning. FIGURE 4: Tri-cone roller bits

Shear failure involves the use of the bit tooth shearing, or cutting, the rock into small pieces so it can
be removed from the area below the rock bit. The simple action of forcing the tooth into the formation
creates some shearing and results in cuttings development. In addition, if the tooth is dragged across
the rock after its insertion, the effectiveness of the shearing action will increase. Shear failure
mechanism requires that the formation exhibit low compressive strength that will allow the insertion
of the tooth. The mechanism is employed while drilling softer formations (Adams 1985).

As the compressive strength or abrasiveness of the formation increases, the shearing – twisting is
reduced. The rock with high compressive strengths generally prevents the insertion of the tooth that
would have initiated the shearing action. In addition, rocks with a high abrasiveness wear the bit tooth
if it is twisted or dragged across the formation face. These types of rocks generally require that a
compressive failure mechanism to be used.

Compressive failure of a rock segment requires that a load be placed on the rock that exceed the
compressive strength for that given rock type. The load must remain, or dwell on the surface long
enough for rock failure to occur. This is the basis for hard–rock drilling characteristics of high bit
weight and low rotary speeds.

3.3 Key design features of the tri-cone bits

Roller cones bits have three components groups; the rolling cones, the bearings and the bit body
(Figures 5, 6 and 7). The body is a forged and welded structure, initially having three pieces, called
the legs, with bearings pins on the lower end of each leg. Each leg also has a nozzle boss and a one
third circular arc-shaped piece at the top. After welding and turning, these three arc-shaped pieces
form the API thread pin connection.
Ngugi 4 Well drilling

Shirttail

Water
boss

FIGURE 5: FIGURE 6: FIGURE 7: Bit body

Bit cone Bit bearing (single leg) with cone and
bearing in place
3.3.1 Cones

Cones bearing axis are designed with an offset from the bit geometric
centre (Figure 8). Ordinarily one would imagine that the bits roll on
the hole bottom surface as the bit is turned. However, due to the
offset, the cones tend to drag across the surface of the formation
resulting in sliding, tearing or shearing, gouging and ripping action by
the teeth on the bottom which help remove chips faster and more
efficiently. For softer-formation, the offset is increased and therefore
increase the ripping action. This means faster drilling with softer
formations. As harder rocks are drilled, the degree of offset for
various bits decreases since compressive failure becomes the primary FIGURE 8: Cone offset
drilling mechanism instead of shearing. Too much offset would cause (Adams 1985)
the bit to wear quickly in hard formations.

3.3.2 Teeth

Two types of teeth exist namely the “mill steel tooth” bit and the tungsten carbide insert bits (TCI).
Under hard, abrasive rocks environment, the milled steel tooth bits are not recommended as they
would wear more rapidly. Tungsten carbide insert bits are more appropriate as they are made of more
wear-resistant materials.

The type of failure mechanism influences bit and

tooth design and bit selection. Soft formations
drilled with shearing actions are drilled most
effectively with long tooth, while harder
formations require more numerous, shorter teeth
(Figure 9). Insert bits use tungsten carbide
buttons pressed into the cone rather than milled,
steel teeth. FIGURE 9: Typical tungsten inserts profiles

3.3.3 Bearings

Roller bits bearings are manufactured in one of three configurations and usually use ball bearing
retainers; unsealed roller bearing, sealed roller bearing and sealed journal bearing

Unsealed bearing, initially grease filled, is exposed to drilling fluids. Failure rate is high due to
increase wear as a results cuttings etc. contacting with the bearing surfaces. Sealed and self
lubricating journal bearing are the premium design both for the steel tooth and TCI bits.
Well drilling 5 Ngugi

3.3.4 Gauge protections

The lower exterior section of the bit leg is the “shirttail”. This area is an important part of the bit
because it is the only part of the body section that contacts the formation and therefore is subject to
abrasive wear. The shirttail is often protected from wear by inserting tungsten carbide inserts (Figure
7 and 9) or applying sintered tungsten carbide. Wear in the shirttail area often indicates an under
gauge hole that will give future problems when running a new, full gauge bit

3.3.5 Water ways

An important part of the rock bit is the watercourse, without which the rest of the rock bit could not
function as intended. Watercourses are passageways for the circulating fluid (Figure 7), which
primarily brings cuttings to the surface and cleans the formation below the bit. The watercourse are
either designed to direct the force of the drilling fluid to the cuttings to clean them from adhering
materials and thus enhance drilling rate or directed at the hole bottom to quickly remove cuttings as
hole bottom as soon as they are cut to improve bit drilling performance.

3.4 Roller cone bits classification

The drilling industry has adopted the international Association of Drilling Contractors classification as
the standard in the industry (Appendix A). The System uses a three-digit code for classification which
appears as follows:
STEEL TOOTH BIT TCI BITS
A,B,C
where,
Soft Formation Soft Formation 4
1
A= a number between 1 Soft to Medium 5
to 8, known as the Medium
A 2 A
major class Formation Medium hard 6

Hard & Abrasive 7

B= a number between 1 3
Hard Formation
Very hard
to 4, known as the 8

subgroup
B
C= a number between 1
to 9, known as the
specialty features Softer Soft Hard Harder

When A is between 1and 3, the Relative Formation Hardness

code denotes a milled steel tooth
bit (Figure 10).
FIGURE 10: Bit Classification
3.5 Bit selection

Bit selection can be a very complex procedure if all the factors quoted by manufacturers were to be
evaluated. The following is a simple guide to bit selection:

• Determine the likely formation hardness and abrasiveness

• Determine the bit size. Note that though the classification chart may show existence of a bit in
a certain class, the size of bit you require may not be a common off self bit. Note also that the
selected bit must easily go through the previous casing string.
• Bit economics. There exists a formula for use to determine most economical bit in an area.
• Classification chart is a good starting point (Appendix A)
Ngugi 6 Well drilling

3.6 Failure pattern

Bits failure mainly arises from the key design features discussed above.

• The cones could dislodge and be left in the hole. Good drillers would notice this by increased
torque. In addition, the cones could also lock again generating high torque.
• The teeth could wear out or break rendering the bit performance poor
• The bearings could burn out resulting to very loose cones
• The bit shirttail could wear down resulting in under gauge hole

3.7 Bit records

Performance of various bits within a certain region is captured through proper bit records. Analysis of
the bit records (Appendix B) would give bits that give long life under the drilling conditions prevalent
in that region

4. DRILL STRING

For the bit to perform as noted

above, it requires the rotary
motion, water for cleaning the
bit and hole bottom and the
force (weight) to crash the
rocks. The drill string (Figure
11) serves to provide essential
requirement for the bit to
perform. The drill string is
therefore an essential part of
the rotary process. It is the
connection between the rig
and the bit.

4.1 Purpose

The drill string serves several

general purposes including
the following:

• Provide the fluid

conduits to the drill
bit
• Impart rotary motion
to the drill bit
• Provide and allow
weight (force) to be
set on the bit
• Lower and raise the
bit
FIGURE 11: Components of the drill string
Well drilling 7 Ngugi

4.2 Components and descriptions

4.2.1 Bit sub / NRV sub

Immediately above the bit is fitted a bit sub and may double as non-return valve (NRV) sub. The sub
is a piece of metal with a hole having female (box) thread on both sides which is about a 0.3 m (foot)
to 1 m (three feet) long. It is used to connect the bit and the first collar. In addition, it could have a
recess to accommodate a non-return valve. The non return valve ensures that fluid do not flow back
through the string to the rig floor. This especially is very important in geothermal because the fluids
could be dangerously hot for staff work at the rig floor.

4.2.2 Drill collar

Drill collars (Figure 12) are

fitted immediately above the bit
sub. They are stiff steel
components of about 10 m long
weighing 2 to 3.5 ton. The
most common sizes of collars
are 6” to 10” diameter. Their
functions are:

• Provide weight for the bit

• Provide strength needed to
run in compression
• Minimize bit stability
problems from vibrations,
wobbling, and jumping
• Minimize directional
control problems by
providing stiffness to the
bottom hole assembly
(BHA)

Drill collars are available in

sizes and shapes such as round,
square, triangular and spiral
grooved. The most common
are round (slick) and spiral
grooved.

4.2.3 Heavyweight

On problem faced by running

stiff collars in the hole is that as
the string rotates, the more
flexible drillpipes above if fitted
directly above the collar will
suffer bending stresses resulting
to pipe failure. The heavy FIGURE 12: FIGURE 13: Heavy FIGURE 14: Drill
weight drillpipe (Figure 13) Drill collar weight drill pipe pipe
having 2-3 times the weight of
drillpipe offer a safer transition and minimize drillpipe failure.
Ngugi 8 Well drilling

4.2.4 Drillpipes

The drillpipes (Figure 14) are the longest section

of the drillstring. They consist of a tube body
welded to two tools joints with male (pin) and
female (box) threads. The most common sizes are
3 ½, 4 ½ and 5” diameter drill pipes.

4.2.5 Kelly saver sub

In general the Kelly saver sub is fitted between the

Kelly and drillpipe. It is a sacrificial tool to save
the Kelly from wear arising from frequent
connections.

4.2.6 Kelly

Kelly (figure 15) is a very important component of

the drill string. It designed in a square or
hexagonal shape. It is fitted into a Kelly drive
bushing (Figure 16). The drive bushing has pins
that slot into the rotary table. As the rotary table
rotates, the drive bushing rotating with it imparting
the rotary motion to the string which is then
transmitted by the string to the bit. Note for top
drive the Kelly is not required.

4.3 Key Design consideration

• The string must withstand the pull (tension) of

its own weight. Well have been drilled to
about 5000m. The total string weight may go
to over 150 tons inclusive of drag.
• Besides it own weight, the design must have a FIGURE 15: Square and hexagonal Kellies
safety reserve margin of about 50 tons (over
pull) above the string weight which becomes
necessary to free the string if stuck in the hole
• The string must withstand the force of
pressure arising from the formation or drilling
fluid i.e. should not collapse due to external
pressure or burst due internal fluid pressure.

4.4 Common string failure

The most common downhole failure is fatigue

failure. As the pipe rotates in the hole it subjected
to cyclic stress in crooked hole. Over time part of
the string develops cracks which propagate to twist
offs. The weakest point in the strings is the drill
collar and drillpipe tool joints. Other failures are
tool joint washouts, belling and thread and tool FIGURE 16: Kelly fitted into a drive bushing
joint shoulder damage.
Well drilling 9 Ngugi

4.5 Drill string management

Most of the failures can be prevented or be avoided with proper care of the string. The care includes:

• Frequent string inspection. In Kenya, the string is inspected at least once every three wells drilled.
In some other countries inspection is carried out after drilling every well.
• Use of thread protectors will eliminate thread and shoulder damage
• Proper torquing will eliminate over torquing, belling, and washouts
• Proper use of the right lubricants with eliminate thread galling (abnormal wear)
• Proper storage and transportation will eliminate bending

5. DRILLING FLUIDS

5.1 Purpose of drilling fluids

Primarily, the drilling fluid function is to remove the cuttings from the bottom of the hole as fast as
they are created to facilitate further and efficient hole making process. In addition, the fluid transports
the cuttings to surface. The two functions constitute what is normally referred as hole cleaning. The
drilling fluid in real drilling situation is a complex subject with consideration ranging from the basic
hole cleaning, economics, availability, logistics, chemistry, safety, fluid dynamics and reservoir
management. As such the drilling fluids serve many functions.

The major functions include;

• Cleaning of the hole bottom,

• Carry cuttings to the surface
• Cool and lubricate the bit and drillstring
• Remove cuttings from muds at the surface
• Minimize formation damage
• Control formation pressure
• Maintain hole integrity
• Assist in well logging operations
• Minimize corrosion of drillstring and casing
• Minimize contamination problems
• Minimize torque, drag and pipe sticking
• Improve drilling rate
• Cooling of the formation – unique for geothermal

5.2 Types of drilling fluids

The drilling fluids vary widely. The following table gives a classification of drilling fluids
(Chilingarian, 1983):

I. Water based drilling fluid.

a. Fresh water muds with little or no treatment. This include spud mud, inhibited muds
and natural clays
b. Chemical treated muds without calcium compounds added. This includes phosphate
muds, organic treated muds (lignite, chrome-lignosulfonate etc.)
c. Calcium treated muds which include lime, calcium chloride and gypsum
d. Salt-water muds which include sea water muds, saturated salt water muds
e. Oil emulsion muds i.e. oil in water
Ngugi 10 Well drilling

f. Special muds
II. Oil based drilling muds
a. Oil based muds
b. Inverted emulsion muds – water in oil

III. Gaseous drilling fluids

a. Air or natural gas
b. Aerated muds
c. Foams

5.3 Key drilling fluid properties

The three basic properties of drilling fluids that are mostly important for successful completion of a
well are:

a) Density as related to hydrostatic pressure.

b) Viscosity which affects the efficiency of the cutting lifting capacity of the drilling fluid
c) Filtrate loss – the loss of water component of the drilling fluid into formation

5.4 KenGen drilling fluid practice

5.4.1 26” Surface hole

The first section of the well is commenced with spud mud consisting of bentonite – lime with marsh
funnel viscosity of 60-80 sec marsh funnel viscosity and is drilled to 60 m.

If return circulation is lost and cannot be regained with loss control materials (LCM), drilling
continues blind (without circulation to surface) with water and high viscosity gel sweeps at every
connection or more frequently depending on the hole problems.

5.4.2 17 ½” intermediate hole

This section of well is drilled to a depth of about 250 to 300m with a bentonite –lime mud. If loss of
circulation returns occurs, attempts are made to regain it using LCM. If the loss cannot be healed,
drilling continues blind with water and frequently mud slug of high viscosity mud. The section is
drilled with high pumping rates on the hole to clean the hole. In extreme circumstance of poor
cleaning stiff foam is used.

5.4.3 12 ¼” production hole

This section that is drilled to between 500 to 1200 m is drilled with mud and when mud circulation
cannot be sustained, aerated water with foam is used.

5.4.4 8 ½” main hole

This section that is drilled normally to 2200 m to 3000 m is entirely drilled with water and when the
first signs of lost circulation appear, partial or total, aerated water with foam is used. No mud is ever
introduced to this section for protection of the formation. However, in one of our field, Olkaria West,
we have used aerated mud for this section due to severe sloughing problems. The in-going fluid is
maintained at a maximum temperature of 40°C, which is the maximum recommended operating
temperature for the pumps. Control of temperature is also critical for extending the bit life.
Well drilling 11 Ngugi

6. DRILLING RIGS

6.1 Basic functions a) Bottom Supported

From a basic and simplistic

view, the rig can be seen as
that equipment that provides Barge Platform
the motive power to rotate the Jackup
bit, allow weight on the bit to
crash the rock beneath and
circulate the drilling fluid and Special Posted Platform Self- Tender
hence achieve the drilling Arctic Containe Supported
action. Achievement of these
basic rig functions requires
systems and processes where b) Floating Rigs
various individual pieces of
equipment serve only as part of
the function in the whole
process and system.
Operational requirements and Drillship Semi-submersible
economics dictate the
sophistication of drilling rigs. FIGURE 17: Classification of Marine rigs

6.2 Types of rigs

All rigs are categorized as either land or marine. Each of these categories, comprise various types of
drilling rigs.

6.2.1 Marine rigs

Drilling rigs used offshore (in water) are termed

marine rigs. They fall under two categories; those
supported on water bottom and floating vessels
(Figure 17). Figure 18 shows one type of marine
rig.

The marine rigs are not employed in drilling of

the geothermal wells.

6.2.2 Land rigs

The land rigs fall under two main categories; the FIGURE 18: Jack-up marine rig
cable tools and the rotary rigs. The cable tools
accomplish the drilling action by raising a special
drill bit and dropping it. The cable tools are the
predecessor of the modern rotary rigs and are
hardly used anymore.

The rotary rigs fall under three categories:

a) The standard derrick where the

mast/derrick was built on location and FIGURE 19: Mobile land rig
dismantled after the drilling process.
Ngugi 12 Well drilling

These were the very early rotary rigs

b) Portable rig mostly truck-mounted for low rig up
time (Figure 19).
c) Conventional rig where key components are so
large that they cannot be transported on a single
truck bed (Figure 20).

6.3 Rig equipment systems

The rig (Appendix C) has six distinct systems:

• Power system
• Hoisting System
• Circulating System
• Rotary system
• BOP System
• Auxiliary Rig equipments

6.3.1 Power system FIGURE 20: Typical

conventional rig
The power system consists of a prime mover, primarily diesel engines, and some means of
transmitting the power to the auxiliary equipment. Transmission may be in the form of mechanical
drives like chains, DC generators and motors or AC generators, SCR (Silicon control rectifiers), Dc
motors

6.3.2 Hoisting system

The hoisting system is one of the major

components of the rig. Its primary function
is to support, lift and lower rotating
drillstring while drilling is in progress. It
consists of:

i) Supporting structure: The support

structure includes the mast or
derrick, the substructure and the rig
floor
ii) The hoisting equipment: This
includes the drawworks,
crownblock, travelling block, hook,
links, elevators and the drilling
wire-line

6.3.3 Circulation system

The circulation system (Figure 21) is

another major component of the rig
affecting its overall success. Its main
purposes are stated under the drilling fluid
section above. It consists of pumps,
standpipe, rotary hose, swivel, Kelly,
drillstring, shale shakers, tanks and mud
pits.
FIGURE 21: Typical fluid circulation system
Well drilling 13 Ngugi

6.3.4 Rotary system

The rotary system is responsible for imparting a

rotating action to the drillstring and bit. The principle
components are the Kelly, rotary table and drive
bushing, swivel rotary hose and drillstring.

6.3.5 BOP system

The blowout preventer (BOP) are primarily used to

seal the well to prevent uncontrolled flow, or FIGURE 22: Two BOP stack
blowout, of formation fluids. Typically it consists of
annular BOP (Figure 22), drillpipe or casing ram BOP, blind ram BOP and accumulator system

6.3.6 Auxiliary rig equipment

The auxiliary rig equipments are those items of the equipment that added to the drawworks, rotary,
Kelly, swivel, blocks, drilling line, bits and prime movers, make it possible for the rig to function more
efficiently. The can be broadly be groups as:

• Drillstring handling tools; spinning wrenches, power tongs, hydraulic torque wrenches, power
slips, automatic drilling, Kelly spinner, automatic cathead
• Instrumentation; weight indicators, mud pumps pressure gauge, rotary tachometer, rotary
torque gauge indicator, pump stroke indicator, tong torque indicator, rate of penetration
recorder
• Air hoist
• Rig floor tools

6.4 Rig selection

Rig Selection comes as the last activity after the complete well design i.e. after setting the drilling
depth, casing sizes, weights and casing depths, the drilling fluid and hydraulic power requirements.
The key considerations are to select a rig that will be technically adequate for job and at minimum
cost. In addition, qualifications of the rig’s manpower and its performance track records, logistics of
servicing the rigs and rig-site requirements are also considered. Table 1 shows typical rig sizes.

TABLE 1: Typical Rig Sizes (Composite catalog, 1998-1999)

Drawworks Hoisting Typical Depth Rating Maximum Hoist Capacity (Hook Load)
Power rating 6 lines 8 lines 10 lines 12 lines 14 lines
hp kw ft m lb ton lb ton lb ton lb ton lb ton
3,000 to 914
550 410 236,000 107 302,800 137 364,500 165
8,500 to 2,591
7,000 to 2,134
750 559 314,200 143 403,100 183 485,300 220
12,000 to 3,658
10,000 to 3,048
1000 746 437,300 198 526,700 239 609,500 277
14,500 to 4,420
12,000 to 3,658
1500 1,119 708,100 321 819,300 372 922,900 419
18,000 to 5,486
13,000 to 3,962
2,000 1,864 919,200 417 1,064,100 483 1,198,600 544
25,000 to 7,620
16,000 to 4,877 to
3,000 2,237 1,484,360 673 1,671,960 756
30,000 9,144
Ngugi 14 Well drilling

7. WELL PLANNING & CASING DESIGN

7.1 Objective of well plan

The main objective of planning a well is to drill safely, minimize costs and drill usable well.

7.2 Classification of wells

Wells can be categorized as follows:

• Exploration/discovery wells No geological data or previous drilling records exist

• Appraisal wells Delineates the reservoir’s boundary; drilled after the
exploration wells
• Production wells Drill the known productive portions of the reservoir
• Work-over wells Re-entry of already drilled wells to deepen, clean etc.

Planning for the drilling of exploration wells takes more effort than appraisal wells and production
drilling. This is because the discovery wells are drilled in unknown area thus the unexpected can
happen.

7.3 Purpose of casing

The target resource is found for Kenya from around 500m to as deep as 3000m. The wells are cased
for the following reasons:

• Isolate fresh underground water to prevent contamination

• Maintain the hole integrity by preventing caving in to enable drilling further below
• Minimize lost circulation into shallow permeable zone
• Cover weak zones that are incompetent to control kick-imposed pressure (prevent blowouts)
• Provide a means for attaching and anchoring BOP and wellheads and thereby contain resultant
pressures.
• Provide safe conduit for the reservoir fluids to the surface
• To prevent cooling of the reservoir fluids by shallow cooler fluids
• Prevent well collapse

7.4 Categories of casing strings

Before the well is drilled to completion, several strings of casing are run and cemented in place. The
actual number used is depended on the drilling safety and operational problems anticipated or
encountered. The types of casing strings are:

• Surface casing: Mainly used to isolate the shallow loose formation to enable further
trouble free drilling below.
• Intermediate casing: This may be more than one string. They primarily isolate the shallow
potable water from contamination, provide anchorage for the wellhead
and seal off zones of loss of drilling fluid. They also protect the
shallow formation from high downhole pressure thus prevent blowouts.
• Production casing: This primarily act as the safe conduit for the reservoir fluid to surface,
protect shallow formation from deep reservoir pressure thus prevent
blowouts and isolate cooler shall water from degrading the reservoir
fluids
• Slotted liner: This is primarily run to prevent the reservoir wellbore from collapsing
and blocking the well flow path.
Well drilling 15 Ngugi

7.5 Selecting casing depths

The first design task in preparing the well plan is

selecting the depths to which the casing will be run
and cement. The considerations made are the
geological conditions such as formation pressures and
formation fracture gradient. Other considerations are
policy and government regulations. Wells have been
drilled and cased too shallow or too deep.

7.6 Hole geometry (well casing profile)

Having decided on the casing depth, the next design

aspect is to decide on the casing string sizes to be run
in the hole. Figure 23 shows the typical casing
profile within KenGen. The key consideration at this
point is well productivity versus costs. Small well
bore may choke the well thus rendering it
unproductive while on the other side large wellbore
cost much more. The drilling industry has developed
several commonly used geometries (Appendix D).
These programs are based on bit and casings
availability as well as the expected drilling
conditions. The most common casing geometry
employed in geothermal is:

• 20” Diameter casing for 26” diameter surface FIGURE 23: Typical well in Kenya
hole
• 13 3/8”diameter casing for 17 ½” diameter intermediate hole
• 9 5/8” casing for the 12 ¼” production hole
• 7” slotted liner for the 8 1/2” main hole

The considerations made are casing inner and outer diameter, coupling (collar) diameter and bit sizes.

Sufficient allowance is made to allow flow area between the casing and wellbore to reduce washouts
while provide sufficient velocity for drilling fluid to lift cuttings.

7.7 Casing design

The casing is used for protection during the entire life of the well and therefore it is designed to
withstand many severe operating conditions.

Common problems often considered for casing design when drilling are kicks, lost circulation, stuck
pipe, wear, hydrogen sulphide environment and salt. Just like the drilling string, the casing is designed
to with stand burst, collapse, tension forces and biaxial effects (combined effects).

In General the thicker the casing the more resistance it is to the above factors. However, the more the
well cost.
Ngugi 16 Well drilling

8. CEMENTING

8.1 Purpose

Cementing of casings is one of the critical

operations during the drilling of a well that
affects the producing life of a well. Casing
strings are usually cemented in the hole to:

 Bond the casing to the formation

 Protect deeper hot producing zones
from being cooled by cooler water
emanating shallow bearing zones
 Minimize the danger of blowouts
from deeper high pressure zones by
isolating weaker shallow zones
 To isolate shallow troublesome
formation to enable deeper drilling

8.2 Surface and subsurface casing

equipment

Figure 24 (Smith, 1976) shows the key

equipment used in casing cementing. Their
basic functions are summarized as follows:

8.2.1 Guide shoe

A casing shoe joint is a short pipe run on the

casing bottom. Inside of the pipe is packed
with drillable but hard material shaped in a
rounded nose provided with a hole which is
used to guide the casing into the hole through
crooked sections. The shoe is screwed on the
casing and is glued with a thread locking
compound to avoid inadvertent loosening
while being run in the hole.

8.2.2 Float collar

The float collar is placed one or two casing

joints above the guide shoe. The collar serves FIGURE 24: Typical primary cementing job
as a stop for the cement wiper plug such that
all the cement is not inadvertently pumped out of the casing and diluting the cement at the shoe a
situation that would result to a poor cementing job. It is fitted with a ball or spring-loaded
backpressure valve. The valve prevents well bore fluid entering the casing while allowing pumped
fluid through the casing to pass through.

8.2.3 Casing centralizers

The uniformity of the cement sheath around the pipe determines to a great extent the effectiveness of
the seal between the wellbore and the casing. Centralizers are placed on the exterior of the casing
string to centralize the casings within the wellbore in an effort to attain cement around the casing in
Well drilling 17 Ngugi

the whole string. There are several types of centralizers with the bow spring type being the most
common. The centralizers are normally hinged to aid in fitting them round the casing.

8.2.4 Cementing plugs

Drillable Plugs are used to separate cement and water/mud while displacing cement within the casing.

8.2.5 Cementing head

Cementing heads are containers for the cement plugs. The plugs are retained until when the cement
pumping is over and then released. They are also used as connections of the fluid hoses from the
pumps and the top of casing.

8.3 Primary cementing procedure

Primary cementing is the most important of all cement Jobs. It is performed immediately after the
casing is run into the hole. The objective is to deliver quality cement behind the casing that is the
annulus between the casing and the formation or previous casing strings. Two methods are normally
employed for the primary cement job namely the conventional and stub-in (stinger) method.

The conventional method could be single or multiple stage technique. In the single stage cementing
technique, cement slurry is mixed in the pumping truck and the cement slurry pumped inside the
casing string through the cementing head. After the entire slurry volume has been pumped, the cement
slurry within the casing is displaced to the float collar using water. The two are separated by use of
cementing plugs (top). The cement is prevented from flowing back by the ball valve fitted on the
casing float collar or casing float shoe or using a valve fitted to the cementing head.

After landing casing and before commencing pumping cement slurry, a drilling fluid is circulated in
the hole. The purpose of the drilling fluid is:

 To ensure the flow path is clear. Several factors can cause blockage of the fluid path way.
These are cuttings, sloughing/ collapsing formation, boulders or the casing could seat on the
hole bottom if not properly landed.
 To clean the well. If hole cleaning problems had been experienced previous to running the
casing, then a high viscous mud would be pumped to lift the cuttings from the hole bottom
 To cool the well bore. Cement setting is affected by high temperature. In severe situations
the cement can set instantly on contact with steam stopping any further cement flow leading to
failed cementing job. Cold water is normally circulated at least for 30 minutes before
commencing cementing.
 To scrap of mud wall cakes.

8.4 Factors that influence slurry design

There are many factors considered in primary cement job slurry design. The key ones include the well
depth, well bore temperature, pumping time, slurry density, strength of cement required to support the
pipe, lost circulation, filtrate loss and quality of mixing water.

The mixing water should be clean for the resulting slurry to develop the desired properties in particular
strength. Deep wells require fairly long time to carry out and complete the cementing jobs. This
means that the cement slurry must remain pumpable for the entire period during the cementing job.
Temperature and pressure accelerates the setting of cement slurry. Therefore it is very important to
take into consideration the effects of these parameters. Major losses of cement can result to very
Ngugi 18 Well drilling

expensive jobs both on lost cement and operation time. The density of the slurry is designed to
effectively control blowouts and to displace mud from the well bore.

8.5 Cementing additives

The desired properties for a specific cement slurry design are achieved by adding various chemicals
and materials (additives) that alter the ordinary Portland cement normal behaviour. The additives are
classified as follows:

i. Accelerators
ii. Lightweight materials
iii. Heavy weight materials
iv. Retarders
v. Lost circulation control materials
vi. Filtration- control agents
vii. Friction reducers and
viii. Specialty materials

Accelerators are used to shorten the cementing thickening time, light weight additives are added to the
slurry to reduce the slurry density while the heavy weight additives are added to increase the density.
The cement retarders are added to the cement to increase the slurry thickening time for long jobs while
friction reducers are added to the cement slurry to improve flow properties of the slurry. The lost
circulation control materials are added to the slurry to bridge minor formation fractures that would
take up cement while filtration control additives are added to reduce the water loss from the slurry to
the formation which would result to early thickening of the cement slurry.

8.6 Open-hole plug jobs

Cementing jobs are not limited to casing operations only. They are often times also used to plug
major drilling fluid loss zones. Major fluid circulation losses results to loss of data obtained from
cutting. They further results to poor hole cleaning and the rock cuttings repeatedly fall back into the
well bore as soon as the pumps are stopped. The falling cuttings at time result into stack drill string.
Cement slurry without additives is prepared and placed at the point where the losses are and the
cement is allowed to set thereby sealing out the formation fractures.

9. WELL OUTPUT OPTIMIZATION

The objective of drilling a well is to obtain the maximum output from the well. Where good
permeability have been encountered, it has been shown that the production casing size of 9 5/8”
diameter has inhibited well output in some cases. In such fields, it is becoming increasing more
common to use the 13 3/8” casing as the production casing.

It is now a common practice to drill directional wells which target faults that control fluid movement
with the objective of increasing well output.

Over 60% of the well cost is incurred drilling the upper section of the well to the production casing
(500 - 1500m). Drilling of forked or multi-legged well completions may become increasing common
as a way to optimize investment economics.
Well drilling 19 Ngugi

10. FISHING

Fishing takes upto 20% of drilling well. Fishing is the process of removal of objects or obstructions
that impedes further drilling. Each rig is equipped with some form of fishing tools. Fishing jobs
require high skill and specialized equipment. Most companies find it more economic to rely on
service companies to furnish the tools and specialized personnel when need arise.

11. MANAGEMENT OF DRILLING PROCESS

Drilling can be broken into the drilling operations that involve the actual drilling process and running
of casings, cementing process, specialized drilling fluids operations, e.g. air drilling services,
directional drilling services, well logging, drill pipe inspection services and sometimes rig moving
services. Various contracts are drawn to avail all these services depending on the well design and
anticipated drilling problems. A representative of the company is appointed to represent the client on
a 24 hr basis. Other specialized requirements like fishing are obtained as and when need arise.

REFERENCES

Adams, N.J, 1985: Drilling Engineering, A complete Well Planning Approach, Penn Well Publishing
Company, Tulsa, Olkahoma, USA, 960pp.

Chilingarian G.V. and Vorabutr, p., 1983: Drilling and Drilling fluids, Updated \textbook Edition,
Elsevier Science Publisher P. V., Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 801pp.

Composite catalog 1999: Continental Emsco General Catalog, Gulf Publishing Company Publication,
Houston Texas, USA, 1.

Moore, P.L., 1986: Drilling Practices Manual, Second Edition, Penn Well Publishing Company,
Tulsa, Olkahoma, USA, 586pp.

Smith K.D., 1976: Cementing, Second Printing, Millet the Printer .Inc. , Dallas, Texas, 184pp.
Ngugi 20 Well drilling

APPENDIX A: Bit classification chart

Well drilling 21 Ngugi

APPENDIX B: Bit record chart

Ngugi 22 Well drilling

APPENDIX C: Description of key rig parts

Well drilling 23 Ngugi

APPENDIX D: Typical bit-casing geometries